Study Notes

Cropping system
Cropping system

Cropping pattern and Cropping system

Cropping pattern - the yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crops or of crops and fallow
on a given area.

Cropping system - The cropping patterns used on a farm and their interaction with farm
resources, other farm enterprises, and available technology which determine their makeup.

• It changes when place and environment are changed.

• Cropping system is location specific.

Directorate of Cropping System Research is located at - Modipuram, Meerut, U.P

Types of cropping system

Cropping
System

Monocropping Multiple Cropping

Mixed Sequential Relay

cropping Intercropping Cropping
cropping

Mono cropping

• Monocropping is the agricultural practice of

growing a single crop year after year on the
same land.
• Cropping intensity of monocropping is also
100%.

Disadvantages:
o it is difficult to maintain cover on the
soil

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Cropping system

o it encourages pests, diseases and weeds

o it can reduce the soil fertility and damage the soil structure.

Multiple cropping

• It is the practice of producing two or more crops on the same plot of land rather than simply
one, throughout the growing season.

Multiple
Cropping

Mixed Sequential Relay

Intercropping
Cropping Cropping Cropping

Intercropping

• Intercropping is the cultivation of two or more

crops at the same time on the same field in
definite rows.
• The most common goal of intercropping is to
produce a greater yield on a given piece of land
by making use of resources that would otherwise
not be utilized by a single crop.

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Cropping system

Inter Cropping

Companion Parallel Multi-storeyed Synergistic

Cropping Cropping Cropping Cropping

1. Companion cropping
• a crop sown with another crop to gain some advantage in yield or crop
protection from pests.

2. Parallel cropping
• Parallel cropping is a cropping system by which two crops are grown together,
in the same land in parallel rows.
• Both crops grown do not compete for nutrients and therefore have no effect on
each other.
• They can express their maximum yield potential.
E.g.:- Maize + Greengram/ Urdbean
3. Multi-storeyed crop
• Multi-layer farming is cultivation of compatible plants of different heights on
the same piece of land at the same time.
• It generally includes a combination of vegetables and fruit crops.
• It is mostly practiced in orchards and plantation crops for maximum use of solar
energy even under normal planting density.
E.g.: - Garlic + Spinach + Bottle gourd + papaya
4. Synergistic cropping
• This type of cropping yield of both the crops are higher than their pure crops on
per unit area.
E.g. - Sugarcane and potato

Mixed cropping

• Growing of two or more crops simultaneously on the same piece of land, without any
definite row arrangement.
• This system of cropping is practiced in areas where climatic hazards such as flood,
drought, frost etc are frequent and common. The farmers always fear that their crops
will fail.
• Mixed cropping is also practiced with a view to achieve multiple requirements of food
and fibre.

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Cropping system

Sequential cropping

• Growing two or more crops in sequence on the same field in a farming year.
• The succeeding crop is planted after the preceding crop has been harvested.
E.g. – Rice – Wheat; Maize-mustard; Rice-sugarcane-ratoon-wheat

Relay cropping

• Relay cropping is a system in which a second crop is planted into an existing crop when
it has flowered (reproductive stage) but before harvesting.
• There is thus a minimum temporal overlap of two or more crops. The relay crop should
be fairly tolerant to shade and trampling.
• Examples of relay crops are cassava, cotton, sweet potato and sesbania with corn;
chickpea, lentil and wheat with upland rice.

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 Study Notes
Dryland Agriculture
Dryland Agriculture

Dryland Agriculture
• Dryland Agriculture refers to agriculture which is solely dependent on rainwater and does
not receive any additional water at any stage of the crop through irrigation.
• Based on the amount of rainfall received, dryland agriculture can be grouped into three
categories:

1. Dry Farming:

• Cultivation of crops in areas where annual rainfall is less than 750 mm per annum.
• Crop failure due to prolonged dry spells during crop period is very common.
• Dry farming is practiced in arid regions with the help of moisture conservation practices.
• Alternate land use system is suggested in this region.

2. Dryland Farming:

• Cultivation of crops in areas receiving annual rainfall more than 750 mm but less than
1150 mm.
• The soil moisture conservation measure is the key for dry land farming practice in semiarid
regions.
• Drainage facility may be required especially in black soils.

3. Rainfed Farming:

• Cultivation of crops in regions receiving more than 1,150 mm annual rainfall.

• This farming is practiced in humid regions.

Comparative Study of Dry faming, Dryland farming and Rainfed farming

Particulars Dry farming Dryland farming Rainfed farming

Rainfall/ annum (mm) <750 750-1150 >1150
Moisture availability Acute shortage Shortage Enough
Crop growing season <75 days 75-120 days >120 days
Growing region Arid Semi-arid Humid
Cropping systems Single crop/ Inter Single crop/ Intercropping Intercropping/
cropping multi cropping
Dry spells Most common Less frequent No occurrence
Crop failure More frequent Less frequent Rare
Constraints Wind erosion Wind/Water erosion Water erosion
Measures required Moisture conservation Moisture conservation Proper drainage
practices practices and drainage for required

vertisols

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Dryland Agriculture

Problems of crop production in dryland areas

Dry farming crops are characterized by very low and highly variable and uncertain yields. Crop
failures are quite common. These are mainly due to the following causes.

1. Inadequate and uneven distribution of rainfall

• In general, the rainfall is low and highly variable which results in uncertain crop yields.
• Besides its uncertainty, the distribution of rainfall during the crop period is uneven.
2. Late onset and early cessation of rains
• Due to late onset of monsoon, the sowing of crop are delayed resulting in poor yields.
• Sometimes the rain may cease very early in the season exposing the crop to drought
during flowering and maturity stages which reduces the crop yields considerably.
3. Prolonged Dry spells during the crop period
• The intervening dry spells when prolonged during crop period reduces crop growth and
yield and when unduly prolonged crops fail.
4. Low moisture retention capacity
• The crops raised on red soils, and coarse textured soil suffer due to lack of moisture
whenever prolonged dry spells occur due to their low moisture holding capacity.
5. Low Fertility of Soils
• Soil fertility has to be increased, but there is limited scope for extensive use of chemical
fertilizers due to lack of adequate soil moisture.
6. Socio- economic constraints
• Particularly because of the predominance of small and marginal farmers. 54% of the
holdings is less than one hectare.
7. Technological and developmental constraints

8. Limited infrastructure development and unproper/ untimely availability of

credits and agricultural inputs.

Drought
Drought is a situation when the actual seasonal
rainfall is deficient by more than twice the
mean deviation.
Classification of Drought
1. Meteorological drought
According to IMD, it is a situation when the
rainfall deficiency is 25% or more of the
LTA (long term average) of a meteorological
sub-station.
• Moderate drought: 26-50% rainfall
deficiency

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Dryland Agriculture

• Severe drought: >50 rainfall % deficiency

2. Hydrological drought:
• It occurs when there is depletion of surface water and consequent drying of reservoirs,
tanks, ponds etc.
• Occurs when meteorological drought prolongs.
3. Agricultural drought:
• Resulted from an imbalance between available soil moisture & ET of a crop
• Insufficient soil moisture in root zone does not support crop growth & development
• It is also known as Soil drought.
4. Economical drought
• Results when there is sufficient water but could not be store due to lack of infrastructural
facilities or poor economic investments.
5. Atmospheric drought
• Occurs due to low atmospheric humidity accompanied by hot, dry winds even under
adequate soil moisture.
6. Physiological drought
• It occurs when crops are unable to absorb water from the soil even when it is available due
to osmotic stress e.g. in Saline soil.

Moisture Conservation in Dryland

1. Mulching
• Mulches are more effective under the condition of more frequent rain, drought and
during early plant growth.
• Vertical mulch is developed for Heavy soils (e.g., used in coffee garden)
2. In-site moisture conservation measures
• Broad Beds and Furrows (BBF)
o Effective in black soils.
o Width of beds-120-180 cm.
• Compartmental Bunds
o In this, the area is converted into small square/rectangular blocks.
o Suited for an area having a slope less than 1%.
• Dead Furrow
o Dead furrows are formed between two rows of the crop before the start of heavy
rains.
• Opening Ridge and Furrows
o During the rainy season, crops like sorghum, maize, pearl millets are grown in the
furrow, and legumes like soybean, green gram, black gram, and pigeon pea are
grown on the ridge

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Dryland Agriculture

• Bedding system
o Crops which needs more water is grown in furrows and which needs less water on
raised bed like legumes and oilseeds.
3. Anti-transpiration
These are of four types-
i. Stomata closing type
• e.g., PMA (phenyl mercuric acetate; a fungicide) and atrazine (an herbicide) at low
concentration. These might reduce photosynthesis which limits their use.
ii. Film forming type
• These are plastic and waxy materials which form a thin layer of plant leaves. eg,
mobileaf, hexadecanol and silicon oil.
iii. Reflection type
• These are white materials which form coating on leaves and increases leaf reflectance
(albedo). These reduce leaf temperature and vapor pressure gradient.
• e.g., 5% kaolin and diatomaceous earth product (celite)
• Reduce shoot growth and increase root growth and also induce stomata
iv. Growth retardants
• Reduce shoot growth and increase root growth and also induce stomata closure i.e. CCC
(Cycocel).

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 Study Notes
Organic Farming
Organic Farming

Organic Farming
• FAO suggested that “Organic agriculture is a unique production management system
which promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological
cycles and soil biological activity, and this is accomplished by using on-farm agronomic,
biological and mechanical methods in exclusion of all synthetic off-farm inputs.”

Four Principles of Organic farming:

1. Health
• This principle points out that the health of individuals and communities cannot be
separated from the health of ecosystem – healthy soils produce healthy crops that
foster the health of animals and people.
• Organic agriculture is intended to produce high quality, nutritious food that
contributes to preventive health care and well-being.
• In view of this, it should avoid the use of fertilizers, pesticides, animal drugs and
food additives that may have adverse health effects.
2. Ecology
• It is based on ecological systems and cycles, work with them, emulate them and
help sustain them.
• Organic farming, pastoral and wild harvest systems should fit the cycles and
ecological balances in nature.
• Organic agriculture should attain ecological balance through the design of farming
systems, establishment of habitats and maintenance of genetic and agricultural
diversity.
• Those who produce, process, trade, or consume organic products should protect
and benefit the common environment including landscapes, climate, habitats,
biodiversity, air and water.
3. Fairness
• It is build on relationship that ensures fairness with regard to common environment
and life opportunities.
• This principle emphasizes that those involved in organic agriculture should conduct
human relationships in a manner that ensures fairness at all levels and to all parties
- farmers, workers, processors, distributors, traders and consumers.
• This principle insists that animals should be provided with the conditions and
opportunities of life that accord with their physiology, natural behavior and well-
being.
• Natural and environmental resources that are used for production and
consumption should be managed in a way that is socially and ecologically just and
should be held in trust for future generations.
4. Care
• It involves managed in a precautionary and responsible manner to protect the
health and well being of current and future generations and the environment.

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Organic Farming

Advantages of organic farming

• It helps to maintain environment health by reducing the level of pollution.

• It reduces human and animal health hazards by reducing the level of residues in the
product.
• It helps in keeping agricultural production at a sustainable level.
• It reduces the cost of agricultural production and also improves the soil health.
• It ensures optimum utilization of natural resources for short-term benefit and helps in
conserving them for future generation.
• It improves the soil physical properties such as granulation, good tilth, good aeration,
easy root penetration and improves water-holding capacity and reduces erosion.
• It improves the soil’s chemical properties such as supply and retention of soil nutrients,
reduces nutrient loss into water bodies and environment and promotes favorable
chemical reactions.

Organic farming v/s conventional farming

Component Organic Farming Conventional Farming

Land exhaustion Use of natural resources Dependence on synthetic
to improve chemicals
soil health. for primary nutrients.
Fertilizers Only fertilizers obtained Synthetic chemicals used
through
plant based or biological
sources are used

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Organic Farming

Nutrient quality Healthy and nutritive Significant loss of nutrient

production quality in produce.
Impact on soil Healthy soil with sustainable Ignorant about soil health
production potential
Impact on the Harmony with ecology Toxic effect on ecology.
environment
Health safety Production system is healthy Detrimental to health, even
for every component of for primary consumer.
ecology.
Farming methods Mix farming Focused on crop production .
Lifestyle change for Towards sustainability Short-sighted approach
farmers

Components of Organic farming

Nutrient Management

• For nutrient management organic farmers mostly relies on the natural breakdown of
available organic matter, using various techniques i.e. green manuring; vermi-
composting and composting.
• It uses a variety of methods to improve soil fertility, including crop rotation, cover
cropping, reduced tillage, application of compost, certain processed fertilizers such as
de-oiled cakes ; bone meal; biofertilizers and various mineral powders such as rock
phosphate and green sand, a naturally occurring form of potash.
• Organic farmers may also use the see weeds, fish manures and some permitted
fertilizers like basic slag and rock phosphate.
• Special composts like biodynamic compost, cowpat pit compost, biodynamic
preparations such as BD-500 and BD-501, special formulations like Panchgavya,
Dashgavya, Biosol etc are also useful and ensure optimum productivity.
• In phosphorous-deficient and acidic soils, some quantity of mineral grade rock
phosphate and lime can also be added either by direct application to the field or
through addition to compost.

Pest and disease management

• pest management in organic farming requires three basic areas which includes;
prevention, monitoring and timely intervention with need based use of botanical and
microbial pesticides (bio-pesticides)
• Natural enemies of pests are encouraged.

Weed management

• Mechanical weed control, especially in row crops.

• No herbicides are used. Cultural, biological and physical methods are resorted to.
• Botanical herbicides, mycoherbicides and bioagents are employed to control weeds.

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Organic Farming

Organic Certification and marketing

At present in India two types of certification system exists namely

1. Third Party certification National Program for Organic Production (NPOP) system which is
governed by APEDA, Ministry of Commerce which is mainly focused for export purpose and

2. Participatory Guarantee System (PGS)-INDIA certification system.

The program is implemented mainly through National Centre for Organic and Natural Farming,
Ghaziabad and its five Regional Centers.

Some Related Institutions/ Organizations

• IFOAM – The International Federation of Organic

Agriculture Movements (IFOAM - Organics International) is
the worldwide umbrella organization for the organic
agriculture movement.
o It was found in 1972.
o It is a membership base organization working to bring true sustainability to
agriculture across the globe.

• Codex Alimentarius – Established by the United

Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
and the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1963.

o The Codex Alimentarius is a collection of

internationally recognized standards, codes of
practice, guidelines, and other
recommendations relating to foods, food production, and food safety.

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Organic Farming

• National Centre for Organic and Natural Farming - National Centre for Organic
Farming & Natural Farming, Ghaziabad is a nodal organization for promotion of organic
farming under INM Division, Department of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare, Ministry of
Agriculture & Farmers Welfare, Government of India under Soil Health Management
component of National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA).
o NCOF came into force in 2004, for implementing National Project on Organic
Farming (NPOF) along with its Regional Centers.

• National Project on Organic Farming - National Project on Organic Farming (NPOF)

is a continuing central sector scheme since 10th Five Year Plan.
o Planning Commission approved the scheme as PILOT project for the remaining
two and half years of 10th plan period with effect from 01.10.2004. The scheme is
continuing in the 12th Plan.

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 Study Notes
Precision Farming
Precision farming

Precision Farming
• Precision Farming is generally defined as an information and technology based farm
management system to identify, analyze and manage variability within fields for optimum
profitability, sustainability and protection of the land resource.
• It is also known as Site specific farming, smart farming, GPS (Global Positioning
System) based farming, Variable rate technology (VRT) and site-specific
agriculture.
• The goal is not to obtain the same yield everywhere, but rather to manage and distribute
inputs on a site specific basis to maximize long term cost/benefit.

Technologies involved in Precision Farming:

Global
Positioning
System (GPS)

Geographical Yield
Information Monitoring &
System Mapping

Precision
Farming
Grid soil
sampling &
Crop Scouting variable rate
fertilizer
application

Remote
sensing

• Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers:

o Global Positioning System satellites broadcast signals that allow GPS receivers to
compute their location.
o Having precise location information at any time allows soil and crop measurements
to be mapped.
o GPS receivers, either carried to the field or mounted on implements allow users to
return to specific locations to sample or treat those areas.

• Yield monitoring and mapping:

o When linked with a GPS receiver, yield monitors can provide data necessary for
yield maps.

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Precision farming

o Yield measurements are essential for making sound management decisions.

• Grid soil sampling and variable-rate fertilizer (VRT) application:

o Grid soil sampling uses the same principles of soil sampling but increases the
intensity of sampling. For example, a 20-acre sampling area would have 10
samples using a 2-acre grid sampling system compared to one sample in the
traditional recommendations.
o Soil samples collected in a systematic grid also have location information that
allows the data to be mapped.
o The goal of grid soil sampling is to generate a map of nutrient requirement, called
an application map.
o The application map is loaded into a computer mounted on a variable-rate fertilizer
spreader.
o The computer uses the application map and a GPS receiver to direct a product-
delivery controller that changes the amount and/or kind of fertilizer product,
according to the application map.

• Remote sensing:
o Remote sensing is collection of data from a distance.
o Remotely-sensed data provide a tool for evaluating crop health.
o Plant stress related to moisture, nutrients, compaction, crop diseases and other plant
health concerns are often easily detected in overhead images.

• Crop scouting:
o In-season observations of crop conditions may include: Weed patches (weed type and
intensity); Insect or fungal infestation (species and intensity); Crop tissue nutrient
status; Flooded and eroded areas using a GPS receiver on an all-terrain vehicle or in
a backpack, a location can be associated with observations, making it easier to return
to the same location for treatment.

• Geographic information systems (GIS):

o Geographic information systems (GIS) are computer hardware and software that
use feature attributes and location data to produce maps.
o An important function of an agricultural GIS is to store layers of information, such as
yields, soil survey maps, remotely sensed data, crop scouting reports and soil nutrient
levels.
o In addition to data storage and display, the GIS can be used to evaluate present
and alternative management by combining and manipulating data layers to produce
an analysis of management scenarios.

Advantages of Precision farming

1. Reduction in cost of cultivation

o By application of production inputs based on site specific needs of the field.

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Precision farming

oSite specific application prevents the excessive and indiscriminate use of inputs
which ultimately reduces cost of cultivation.
2. Increase in input use efficiency
o By application of variable rate of inputs considering the field variability, input use
efficiency can be increased.
3. Reduction in pollution Precision farming reduce pollution by
o Reduction in application of nutrients, especially nitrogen fertilizer, thus reducing
nitrate in underground water and nitrous oxide to the atmosphere.
o Reduction in chemical doses through variable rate application technology.
o Reduction in application of irrigation water, thus reducing leaching of nutrients
along with deep percolation.
o Reduced erosion, runoff and sedimentation of water bodies.