Study Notes

Introduction to Agriculture
Engineering
Introduction to Agriculture Engineering

• Agriculture Implements : Devices attached to, pulled behind, pushed, or

otherwise used with human, animal or mechanical power source to carry
out an agricultural operation.
• Agricultural Machinery : General term used to describe tractors,
combines, implements, machines and any other device more sophisticated
than hand tools which are animal or mechanically powered.
• Agricultural equipments : Referring to stationary mechanical devices such
as irrigation pump-set.
• Tillage: is the manipulation of the soil into a desired condition by
mechanical means; tools are employed to achieve some desired effect
(such as pulverization, cutting, or movement).
• Tilth: Tilth is a physical condition of soil, especially in relation to its suitability
for planting or growing a crop.

Tillage Implements:

• Primary Tillage:
➢ Agricultural implements used to open and lose the soil.
➢ A plough is the ideal example of primary tillage tools.
• Secondary tillage equipments:
➢ The agricultural tools used for soil pulverization, breaking clods, making sound
seedbeds, controlling the weeds and taking soil to a fine tilth.
➢ Moreover, the Cultivator, Harrow, Plank & Roller, and disc harrow tillage are some
examples of secondary tillage implements.

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Introduction to Agriculture Engineering

Primary Tillage Implements Secondary Tillage Implements

Plough (Mouldboard plough, Disc plough, Harrows (Disc Harrow, Spike tooth Harrow,
Chisel plough, Rotary Tiller, Subsoiler, Spring tooth Harrow, Acme Harrow, Patela
Wooden plough) Harrow, Triangular Harrow, Blade Harrow),
Cultivators (Tractor drawn and sweep), Planks
and Rollers

Types of Primary Tillage

• Depending upon the purpose or necessity, different types of tillage are carried out.
• They are deep ploughing, subsoiling and year-round tillage.

Deep Tillage

➢ Deep ploughing turns out large sized clods, which are baked by the hot sun when it is
done in summer.
➢ These clods crumble due to alternate heating and cooling and due to occasional summer
showers. This process of gradual disintegration of clods improves soil structure.
➢ It is advisable to go for deep ploughing only for long duration, deep rooted crops. Depth
of ploughing should be related to the amount of rainfall that it can wet and ranges from 20
to 30 cm.

Subsoiling

➢ Hard pans may be present in the soil which restrict root growth of crops. These may be
silt pans, iron or aluminium pans, clay pans or -man-made pans.
➢ Man-made pans are tillage pans induced by repeated tillage at the same depth.
➢ Root growth of crops is confined to the top few centimetres of soil where deep penetration
of roots is inhibited by hard pans.
➢ Subsoiling is breaking the hard pan without inversion and with less disturbance of top soil.
It is usually done at a depth of 40 to 60 cm and can go upto 100 cm.

Year-round Tillage

➢ Tillage operations carried out throughout the year are known as year-round tillage. In dry
farming regions, field preparation is initiated with the help of summer showers.
➢ Repeated tillage operations are carried out until sowing of the crop.
➢ Even after harvest of the crop, the field is repeatedly ploughed or harrowed to avoid weed
growth in the off season.
• CIAE: Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering (CIAE) at Bhopal
• CIPHET: Central Institute of Post Harvest Engineering and Technology
(CIPHET) at Ludhiana
• CFMTTI: Central Farm Machinery Training and Testing Institute, Budni

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Introduction to Agriculture Engineering

Seedbed Layout Sowing Implements Inter-cultivation

Implements Implements

➢ Country Plough ➢ Plough ➢ Wooden plough

➢ Ridge Plough ➢ Seed Drill (Ferti-cum-Seed ➢ Small blade harrow
➢ Bund Former Drill, Mechanical Seed Drill) ➢ Weeders (Rotary
weeders)

Classification of materials used for making agriculture implements

Material Description Common Uses

Ferrous Material

Cast Iron Iron containing 2.2 to 4.3% Parts subjected to abrasion, castings, mould
carbon. boards, etc.

Steel Malleable alloy of iron and Nuts, bolts (low carbon steel); shafts, gears,
carbon or iron, carbon, and axles (medium carbon steel); plough shares,
other elements. cutting tools (high carbon steel)

Non-Ferrous Material

Copper Soft, non-corrosive metal Milk coolers, refrigerator coils, generators,

with high electrical motors, fuel tubes, etc.
conductivity.

Aluminium Light, corrosion-resistant, Connecting rods, pistons, cylinder head, milk

ductile, and malleable metal. cans, cooling vats, etc.

Brass Alloy of copper and zinc. Fluid valves, piping, wires, welding rods,
radiators, etc.

Bronze Alloy mainly of copper and Bearings, bushings, pistons, springs, valves, etc.
tin.

Wood Common material for various Beams, cart wheels, tool handles, ploughs, hoes,
farm implements. pitman of mower, etc.

Plastics Organic material capable of Bearings, washers, bushings, handles etc.

being moulded by heat and
pressure.

Rubber Natural or artificial material Tires, tubes, belts, insulation of wires, bushings,
obtained from latex. etc.

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 Study Notes

Source of Farm Power and

Mechanization
Source of Farm Power and Mechanization

• Sardar Joginder Singh (1897-1946), then Agriculture Minister in the Punjab Government
(1926-37), introduced the steam tractors in India in 1914 for reclamation of wasteland and
eradication of ‘Kans’.

Sources of farm power and mechanization:

Agricultural operations are classified as:

• Tractive work (seed bed preparation, cultivation, harvesting and transportation)

• Stationary work (silage cutting, feed grinding, threshing, winnowing and lifting of irrigation
water)

The different forms of energy used for agriculture (farm power) in India are:

A) Mobile Power:

• Human Power
• Draught Animals (bullock, buffaloes, camels, ponies, mules and donkeys)
• Tractors
• Power tiller
• Self propelled machines (combines, transplanters, reapers, sprayers, others)

B) Stationary Power:
• Diesel Engines (For pump sets, thresher, sprayers, other stationary operations)
• Electric motors (For pump sets, thresher, and other stationary operations)
• Renewable energy (Biogas, Solar, Wind)

Source of Power Activity Maximum Power (hp)

Human Power • Operating small farm implements and • 0.1 (for men)
tools • 0.05 (for women)
• Stationary work (e.g., chaff cutting,
feed grinding, etc.)
• Field work (e.g., weeding,
broadcasting, etc.)
Animal Power • Bullocks • 1 (per pair)
• Buffaloes, camels, horses, donkeys, • 1/10th of its body weight
mules, elephants

Source of Description Advantages Disadvantages

Power

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Source of Farm Power and Mechanization

Mechanical Power from machines such Efficient and can Initial capital
Power as stationary IC engines, work continuously investment is high.
tractors, power tillers, and for longer periods. Requires technical
Not affected by knowledge and careful
self-propelled machines
seasons. handling.

Electrical Power from electrical Low maintenance Initial capital

Power motors in various and operating cost. investment may be
agricultural applications Clean and efficient high for electrical
source of energy. infrastructure.

Renewable Power from renewable Non-depleting and Higher upfront cost

Energy sources such as wind, solar, inexhaustible compared to
and biomass energy sources of energy. traditional energy
Negligible operating generators.
cost for power Intermittency and
plants. geographic limitations
for some sources.

Human Power:

➢ Human beings are used for operating small tools and implements, as well as stationary
work like threshing, winnowing, chaff cutting, and lifting irrigation water.
➢ On average, a person can develop nearly 0.1 horsepower (hp).

Animal Power:

➢ Animal power is the most significant source of power on farms worldwide, including India.
➢ Approximately 80 percent of the total draft power used in agriculture globally comes from
animals, despite the increasing adoption of agricultural tractors since 1930.
➢ The average force a bullock can exert is approximately one-tenth of its body weight.
However, for short periods, it can exert much more force.
➢ Generally, a medium-sized bullock can develop between 0.50 to 0.75 hp.

Mechanical Power:

➢ Mechanical power generated through tractors and oil engines is a crucial source of farm
power
➢ Tractors are versatile agricultural vehicles that provide mechanical power for various tasks
on the farm. They are equipped with powerful engines, often running on diesel fuel, that
drive the wheels or tracks to move the tractor across the fields.
➢ Tractors can be used for plowing, planting, harvesting, tilling, and other tasks, making
them essential tools for modern agriculture.

The efficiency of diesel engine varies between 32 and 38 per cent, whereas that
of the carburettor engine is in the range of 25 and 32 per cent.

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Source of Farm Power and Mechanization

To support the Ministry of New and Renewable energy, there are five institutions
consisting of three autonomous bodies i.e.

• National Institute of Solar Energy (NISE) in Gurugram (Haryana)

• National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE) in Chennai (Tamil Nadu)
• National Institute of Bio Energy (NIBE) in Kapurthala (Punjab)

And two public sector undertakings Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency
(IREDA) and Solar Energy Corporation of India (SECI) in New Delhi.

1. Wind energy : Electricity generation, water pumping

• As of 30th November, 2022, the total installed wind power capacity in India was 41.9 GW.
• The Muppandal Wind Farm is India's largest operational onshore wind farm. This project
is located in Kanyakumari district, Tamil Nadu.
• The project was developed by Tamil Nadu Energy Development Agency.
• Its installed capacity is 1,500 MW, which makes it the 3rd largest operational onshore
wind farm in the world.

2. Solar energy : Solar lighting, solar refrigeration, solar dryers, cooker, lantern,
solar still, photovoltaic system for water pumping

• Solar power in India is a fast developing industry as part of the renewable energy in India.
• The country's solar installed capacity was 62 GW as of 30th November, 2022.
• Bhadla Solar Park is the largest solar park in the world as of 2022 with a total capacity
of 2245 MW, and is spread over a total area of 5,700 hectares (14,000 acres) in Bhadla,
Phalodi tehsil, Jodhpur district, Rajasthan, India.

3. Biomass energy : Pyrolysis, gasifiers, biogas

• Biomass contains energy stored from the

sun. Plants absorb solar energy through
photosynthesis. When burnt, it releases
chemical energy in the form of heat.
• Biofuels (a part of biomass energy)
Biofuels can be produced from organic
matter, or biomass, such as corn or
sugar, vegetable oils or waste
feedstocks.
• Examples of biofuels include

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Source of Farm Power and Mechanization

1. Ethanol (often made from corn in the United States and sugarcane in Brazil)- by
fermentation. It is used in blended fuels with petrol, either at low levels in regular
vehicles (up to 10%) or at higher levels in cars that have been adapted to take both
ethanol and petrol, also called “flex-fuel” vehicles.
2. Biodiesel (from vegetable oils and liquid animal fats)- It is blended with diesel,
generally at low levels (up to 7%) and is obtained from oil bearing seeds producing
trees such as Jatropha, Pungam etc
3. Green diesel (derived from algae and other plant sources)
4. Biogas (methane derived from animal manure and other digested organic material by
the action of acetogenic and methanogenic bacteria). In addition to biogas, nutrient
rich “digested effluent” is also obtained. The predominant types of bioreactors for
generating biogas high rate reactors such as Upflow anaerobic slugde blanket, hybrid
reactors and various biogas plants like floating drum, Janatha, Deenbandhu .

Disadvantages:

• Less power compared to regular diesel or gasoline based fuels.

• Biodiesel is about ten percent less powerful.

Note:

• As biofuels emit less carbon dioxide (CO2) than conventional fuels they can be
blended with existing fuels as an effective way of reducing CO2 emissions in
the transport sector.
• The use of biofuels have grown over the past decade, driven largely by the
introduction of new energy policies in Europe, the USA and Brazil that call for
more renewable, lower-carbon fuels for transport.
• Today biofuels represent around 3% of road transport fuels in use around the
world.

Status of Farm Power in India:

Increasing farm power is strongly influenced by:

• Farm size and Cost of farm Labour

• Availability of suitable machines
• Pressing need of farmers and socio economic compulsions of local people to have custom
hiring services.

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Source of Farm Power and Mechanization

• The power availability per ha in year 2020-21 is 2.761 kW.

• Of this power availability per ha from tractor, power tiller, diesel engine, electric
motor, animal and human is 1.64kW (59.38%), 0.03kW (1.02%), 0.39kW
(14.028%), 0.54kW (19.57%), 0.084kW (3.025%) and 0.080kW (2.98%),
respectively.
• Average Command Area:
➢ One pair of draught animals: 2 ha
➢ Power Tiller(7.46 kw): 5 ha
➢ Tractor(26.1 kw): 15 ha
• Rate of depreciation of tractor/ power tillers is approximately about 10% per year.

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 Study Notes

Perishable Food Storage

Perishable Food Storage

• Perishable foods are those that have a limited shelf life and can spoil or decay relatively
quickly if not stored properly.
• Some examples of perishable foods include fruits and vegetables, fresh meat, dairy
products, seafood, and freshly cooked food.

Need for Storage:

1. Continuous Flow: Storage ensures a steady supply of food in the market by holding and
preserving products from the time of production until they are needed for consumption.
This helps meet consumer demand consistently, even when production is not continuous.
2. Quality Preservation: Proper storage protects the quality of perishable and semi-
perishable products, preventing deterioration and maintaining freshness. This ensures
that the food remains safe and appealing to consumers over an extended period.
3. Coping with Seasonal Demand: Certain farm products have a seasonal demand,
meaning their consumption varies throughout the year. Storage becomes necessary to
bridge the gap between production and demand, allowing for the availability of products
during off-seasons.
4. Price Stabilization: Storage helps stabilize prices by managing the supply of food. When
there is excess production, the surplus can be stored and released during periods of low
production, thereby balancing the demand and supply dynamics in the market.
5. Support for Marketing Functions: Storage is integral to the performance of other
marketing activities. It provides a reserve stock that can be accessed as needed,
facilitating efficient distribution, transportation, processing, and overall logistics.
6. Employment and Income Generation: The storage industry creates employment
opportunities, both in terms of managing storage facilities and handling the movement of
goods. Additionally, storage can lead to price advantages, allowing businesses to benefit
financially, which contributes to overall employment and income generation.

Method of Storage:

1. Refrigeration:
➢ Most perishable foods, such as fruits, vegetables, dairy products, and meats,
should be stored in a refrigerator at temperatures between 32°F (0°C) and 40°F
(4°C).
2. Cartons and Packaging:
➢ When shipping perishable goods, using insulated cartons or packaging with
cooling elements can help maintain the temperature and protect the products.
➢ Additionally, using data loggers like Thermochron can monitor temperature during
transportation and storage, ensuring that the conditions remain within the required
range.
3. Cold Storage:
➢ Cold storage facilities are crucial for preserving perishable commodities on a larger
scale.
➢ These facilities provide controlled environments with low temperatures and
humidity levels.

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Perishable Food Storage

➢ Cold storage helps prevent spoilage by inhibiting the growth of microorganisms

and slowing down chemical changes in food.
➢ It is particularly beneficial for products like milk, meat, eggs, vegetables, fruits, and
flowers.

Storage of Perishable Products (Fruits):

Fruit Storage Method Use Within

Apples Mellow: Uncovered in the -

refrigerator
-
Unripe or hard: Cool room
temperature (60°F to 70°F)

Apricots, If not ripe: Room temperature until 3 to 5 days

Nectarines, soft, then refrigerate
Peaches

Avocados, Ripen at room temperature, then 3 to 5 days

Bananas, Pears refrigerate

Berries and Covered in the refrigerator 2 to 3 days

Cherries

Cranberries Covered in the refrigerator 1 week

Grapes Covered in the refrigerator 3 to 5 days

Citrus Fruits Cool room temperature or 2 weeks

uncovered in the refrigerator

Pineapples Use as soon as possible; once cut, 2 to 3 days

tightly covered

Plums Refrigerate 3 to 5 days

Dried Fruits Tightly closed containers Up to 6 months

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Perishable Food Storage

Storage of Perishable Products (Vegetables):

Vegetable Method of Storage Time

Asparagus Refrigerator (crisper, bags, or 2-3 days

containers)

Broccoli and Brussels Refrigerator (crisper, bags, or 3-5 days

Sprouts containers)

Cabbage, Cauliflower, Refrigerator (crisper, bags, or Cabbage: 1-2 weeks,

Celery, Snap Beans containers) Cauliflower, Celery, Snap
Beans: 1 week

Carrots, Beets, Refrigerator (plastic bags or 2 weeks

Parsnips, Radishes, containers)
Turnips

Green Peas and Limas Refrigerator (in pods) 3-5 days

Lettuce and Other Refrigerator (crisper, bags, or 1 week

Salad Greens containers)

Onions Mature Onions: Room Mature Onions: Several

temperature, Green Onions: months, Green Onions: 3-5
Refrigerator (plastic bags) days

Peppers and Refrigerator (crisper, bags, or 1 week

Cucumbers containers)

Potatoes Dark, dry place with good Several months

ventilation

Rhubarb Refrigerator 3-5 days

Spinach, Kale, Refrigerator (crisper or bags) 3-6 days

Collards, Chard, Beet,
Turnip, Mustard
Greens

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Perishable Food Storage

Other Perishable Products:

Meat, Fish, Poultry:

➢ For longer storage, keep frozen at -18°C (0°F) or below in a deep freezer.
➢ Do not keep these foods at room temperature for more than an hour or two.
➢ If refrigeration is not available, cook them immediately to prevent spoilage.
➢ Organ meats and ground meats spoil faster due to higher contamination risks.

Eggs:

➢ Do not keep eggs at room temperature for more than two days.
➢ It is best to store eggs in a refrigerator.

Milk:

➢ Boiling milk destroys microorganisms and enzymes, allowing it to be kept at room

temperature for 6 to 12 hours.
➢ Giving it a second boil after 6 hours or so during hot weather can extend its shelf life.
➢ Milk stored in a refrigerator can last 3 to 4 days or longer.
➢ Covering milk with netting at room temperature allows for ventilation.

Vegetables:

➢ Leafy vegetables should be wrapped in a damp cloth or stored in a plastic bag in the
refrigerator to prevent wilting. They may last for a day or two.
➢ Other vegetables can be kept in a cool place with high humidity, such as a basket covered
with a damp cloth.
➢ Vegetables stored in a refrigerator should be placed in plastic bags to prevent drying by
evaporation.
➢ Note that vegetables continue to ripen even in the cold environment of a refrigerator.
➢ It is also mentioned that fresh peas and corn can lose their sweetness after a couple of
days in the refrigerator unless properly frozen.

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Study Notes
Food storage
 Food storage

Storage of perishable products

Perishable food includes fruits and vegetables, fresh meat, foods purchased from chill cabinets,
freshly cooked food stored to be used later. It is usually stored in a refrigerator. Some fresh fruits
and vegetables, however, will store quite well out of the refrigerator as long as they are stored in a
cool place.

1) Refrigeration:

Refrigeration can substantially reduce the rate at which food will deteriorate. Low temperatures slow
down the growth of microorganisms and the rate of chemical (including enzymatic) changes in food.
These are two of the main causes of food spoilage.

2) Cartons:

When sending perishable goods, small Thermochron data loggers can be put into strategically
chosen boxes clearly marked with Alert Tape. The Thermochrons are easy to return to shipper if
they are put in fobs tied to tags with return address. And they are not so expensive that it would be
a disaster to lose one.

3) Cold Storage:

Availability of proper cold storages are important for preserving perishable commodities like milk,
meat, eggs, vegetables, fruits, ornamental flowers and other floricultural goods. These cold storages
give perishable food items a longer shelf life by preventing them from rotting due to humidity, high
temperature and micro-organisms. This results in a substantial decrease in loss due to spoilage.

4) Warehouse:

Three public sector agencies are involved in building large-scale storage and warehousing
capacities in the country. These are as follows

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 Food storage

a. Food Corporation of India (FCI)

The FCI has the largest agricultural warehousing systems with over 468.25 Lac tonnes (May, 2021)
of storage capacity all over India. This includes owned as well as hired warehouses.

b. Central Warehousing Corporation (CWC)

The CWC was founded in 1957 to provide logistics support to the agricultural sector. Currently, it
operates around 422 warehouses as on 31.05.2021 with a total operational storage capacity of
146.80 lakh MT (revised approximately). Other than storage and handling, CWC also offers services
such as disinfestations, pest control, fumigation, clearing and forwarding, handling and
transportation, procurement and distribution.

c. State Warehousing Corporations (SWCs)

State Warehousing Corporations exist in 19 States to provide storage facilities and pest control
services for various agricultural commodities belonging to farmers of that State. These warehouses
work under different Warehousing Acts enacted by the respective State Governments. Central
Warehousing Corporation is 50% shareholder in the equity capital of the SWCs.

While the FCI uses its warehouses mainly for storing food grains, the storage capacities with CWC
and SWCs are used for the storage of food grains as well as other items.

Uses of Warehouses:

• Scientific storage of produce from the vagaries of weather, rodents, insects and pests. They
prevent quality and quantity losses.

• Meeting the financial needs of people who store the produce by providing value for the goods
stored.

• Regulating price levels by regulating the supply of goods in the markets. More goods from the
buffer are released when supplies are less and less is released when supplies are more in the
markets.

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 Food storage

• Offering market intelligence in the form of price, supply and demand information so that market
users may develop selling and buying strategies.

Grain is generally stored either in bags or in bulk. A combined system of bag-cum-bulk storage is
also practiced in some parts of the country. In villages the bulk storage system is more common than
the storage in bags which is considered to be a practicable method· of storing grain in the
government godowns as well as in trade.

There are mainly following three types of storage structures for storage of grains.

• Traditional storage structures

• Improved storage structures
• Modern storage structures (Farm Silos)

I. Traditional Storage Structures

In this type of storage structures the grain is generally stored in bulk. This type of storage structures
having generally capacities between 1 to 50 tonnes. The storage of grain is generally done in one
of the following storage structures in the different rural and urban regions of India in bulk as well as
in bag storage.

1. Morai type storage structures

- storage of paddy, maize and sorghum (jowar) in the rural areas of eastern and southern
regions of India
- capacity varies from 3.5 to 18 tonnes

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 Food storage

2. Bukhari type storage structures

Cylindrical in shape and are used for storage of sorghum, wheat, padd)" Bengal gram, maize etc.
Bukhari structures generally have capacities between 3.5 to 18 tonnes.

3. Kothar type storage structure

Store paddy, maize, sorghum, wheat etc. Their capacity varies between 9 to 35 tonnes.

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 Food storage

4. Mud Kothi (Mud bin) type storage structure

Storage of grains and other seeds. The capacity of such storage structures varies from 1 to 50
tonnes. These are made from mud mixed with dung and straw.

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 Food storage

5. Muda type storage structure

Storing grains in the rural areas of Bihar. The capacity of muda varies between 1 to 3 tonnes. It is
being made of "Narai" ropes. The shape of muda is cylindrical

6. Kanaj type storage structure

In rural areas of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. These structures are kept inside and made of burnt mud.

7. Kuthla type storage structure 8. Metal/ Steel bin type storage structure

Bins made of steel, Aluminium R.C.C are used for storage of grains inside and outside the house.
These bins are fire and moisture proof. The bins have long durability and produced on commercial
scale. The capacity ranges from 50 kg to 10 tonnes.

9. Bag type storage structure

Storage of 25 to 500 tonnes of grain.

II. Improved Storage Structures

In this type of storage structures there are some improvements made in traditional storage structures.
This type of storage structures having a higher storage capacity and long term storage of food grains
than traditional storage structures. Improved type of storage structures having capacities is generally
1.5 to 150 tonnes. The storage of grain is generally done in one of the following storage structures
in the different rural and urban regions of India in bulk, bag as well as bag and bulk storage.

Pusa bin

Pusa bin is like other traditional storage structures made of mud. To make the storage structure
moisture proof a plastic film is used in all the inner sides of the bin. On the top, an open space of
about 50 cm x 50 cm is left for loading of grains.

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 Food storage

Kuccha bricks sealed with mud

Inclined steel pipe for unloading grains

Fig. Pusa Bin

PAU bin

This is a galvanised metal iron structure. It has capacity ranges from 1.5 to 15 quintals. Designed
by Punjab agricultural university.

Hapur tekka

It is cylindrical rubberised cloth structure supported by bamboo poles on a metal tube base and
has a small hole in the bottom through which grain can be removed.

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 Food storage

For large scale storage

Brick and cement bin

These type of storage structures are very strong and effect of seasons on these is minimum. The
capacity of such bin is usually between 1.5 to 60 tonnes. A hole of about 60 cm diameter is provided
on the roof for the purpose of loading the material i.e. grains. The walls are cement plastered on both
the sides. Roof is made of R.C.C.

Bunker Storage

This type of storage structure is used for long term storage and a larger volume of grains storage.

The grain is stored on a plastic sheet which is spread over ground and top covered with plastic sheet

'CAP' Storage structures

The word 'CAP' is used for cover and plinth, plinth from the bottom and cover from the top. This type
of open storage is considered as transit storage and serves the purpose of storage of food grains in
bags for short period. storage capacity of around 150 tonnes. The stacks arc covered with
polyethylene covers and tied with ropes to prevent from blowing off with high velocity wind.

III. Modern Storage Structures

In India, for larger volume of food grains are to be stored in bulk is 'silo' and conventional godowns
(Shed) designed for bagged storage. The godowns side walls are of brick or stone masonry and

9
 Food storage

sloped roofing in asbestos or Corrugated Galvanized Iron (CGI) sheets over steel trusses.
Silos are constructed from steel or reinforced concrete. There are a cluster of adjoining silos in
any modern large/ capacity processing plant. The modern permanent storage system should be
selected for the safe keeping of stored grains and other products. The modern storage structures
should be selected on the basis of first on quality and then on cost considerations. There are
following types of modern storage structures.

Silo type of storage structures

Silos/bins are classified into two groups depending upon the relative dimensions of the container.
These are classified as,

(a) shallow bins (b) deep bins.

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 Food storage

a) Shallow bins

Squat silos comes under shallow bins. A squat silo has a wall height to diameter ratio 0.5 or even
less. Squat silo can compete with sheds for low-cost quality storage.

• Squat silos as large as having 48 metres diameter, 10.5 metres high walls and 25 metres high
at roof apex are being built.

Fig. Squat silo

b) Deep bins

Vertical Silos comes under this type of storage structures. There

are two types of vertical silos

a) Flat bottom vertical silo

b) Hopper bottom vertical silo

Flat bottom vertical silos are also common. These may be fabricated by metal sheets, galvanized
metal or reinforced. In hopper bottom concrete. The hopper bottom is more expensive than flat
bottom bin. Hopper slope angles of 60° - 70° are necessary to achieve reliable mass flow.

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 Food storage

Fig. Hopper bottom vertical silo

Shed (Warehouses or modern godowns)

Generally, a horizontal is used to provide low- cost, large volume storage. For storing grains and
other products a very large volume sheds have also been constructed by Central Warehousing
Corporation.

- Sheds are usually made of steel or corrugated sheet construction with flat concrete floors.
- Generally a godown has a capacity of 5000 tonnes and consists of 3 compartments, each
having a span of not less than 21·7 m with a clear height of 5·4 m.
- A typical bulk warehouse would be 15 m Wide, 60 m long and 6 m high at the edges. A
building of this size would have a storage capacity of 2,840 tonnes. The same size building
for bag storage has only 1440 tonnes storage capacity. Larger sheds can have 50,000-
60,000 tonnes capacity

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 Food storage

1. Sealed doors 2. Floor 3. Rat proof slab 4. Air proof roof

Fig. Modern Godowns (Shed)

Farm Silos

Farm silos is a farm structure used to store and protect the animal fodder so that it is preserved in

an ideal condition for farm animals. Animal fodder is cut and packed in the air tight silo to allow a

partial fermentation to occur. The storage fodder is known as silage. There are two types of farm

silos

i. Tower silos
ii. Horizontal silos.

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 Food storage

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 Study Notes
Watershed Management