VECTOR AND RODENT CONTROL

What is a Vector?
Any animal that has potential to transmit disease.
Examples include: Rats, Mice, Mosquitoes, Houseflies and Cockroaches etc
Insect Vectors
Arthropods
Characteristics of the Phylum Arthropoda
The segmented bodies are arranged into regions, called tagmata (e.g., head, thorax, abdomen).
The paired appendages (e.g., legs, antennae) are jointed.
They posses a chitinous exoskeletion that must be shed during growth.
They have bilateral symmetry.
The nervous system is dorsal (belly) and the circulatory system is open and ventral (back).
Disease Transmission
Pathogens are vectored two ways:
Mechanically
Biologically
1. Mechanical transmission
The pathogen is externally acquired from one source and is deposited in other locations where it may or
may not infect a new host.
For example
Fecal contamination of drinking water or food by houseflies ‐ enteric diseases.
Human carriers of a pathogen who handle food for human consumption.
The infectivity of a mechanically transmitted pathogen declines sharply (24h) with time. (Pathogen‐
exposure)
Vector elimination will only reduce the incidence of a mechanically transmitted disease because the
disease will take other routes.
For example
Housefly eradication reduces (not eliminates) enteric disease incidence.
2. Biological Transmission
This type of transmission occurs when a disease pathogen multiples and/or physiologically changes
within the mosquito before being inoculated into a host.
The natural route for the pathogen to take from host to host is via an insect.
Biological transmission is also known as cyclical transmission
One developmental cycle in the vector and another infection cycle in the host.
After the former cycle the vector is usually infective for life.
In the case of viruses, for a short period during the latter cycle the host is infectious.
In the case of parasites, the host remains infectious after the latter cycle.
Types of Biological Transmission
There are three types of cyclic transmission:
Propagative transmission
Multiplication without biological change (viruses and bacteria)
Cyclopropagative transmission
Multiplication with biological change (protozoa)
Cyclodevelopmental transmission
No multiplication with biological change (filarial worms)
Disease Control Theory
Transmission is a matter of probability.
The epidemiology of malaria for example, is a quantitative relationship between humans,
Plasmodium and Anopheles, each with their own ecology.
Strategies in Vector Disease Control
1) Break human host‐Anopheles vector contact to prevent transmission.
Using personnel protection ‐ repellents, bednets, coils, etc.
2) Reduce or eradicate the Anopheles vector.
Reduction to a critical level will be break the pathogen cycle.
Vector control using insecticides and other method
3) Human chemotherapy to eliminate the source of mosquito infection.
Mass distribution of antimalarial drugs

Mosquito Overview and their Life Cycle

Family: Culcidae
Genera: Aedes, Anopheles, Culex
There are many mosquito species, Mosquitoes primarily feed on nectar, Males never bite or take blood,
and females take blood only for reproduction. To reproduce, female mosquitoes must:
Mate with the male, take blood, a source of protein for eggs, Find a suitable place for the eggs to hatch
Mosquito Climate
Mosquitoes need a crucial abiotic factor: water
Besides that, a mild, humid, wet environment is conducive for mosquito activity
Examples of good mosquito breeding grounds includes rainforests and floodplains
Mosquitoes can be found anywhere except for permanently frozen areas.
In temperate climates, mosquitoes become inactive with the onset of winter and hibernate.
They function best at 27 degrees Celsius, become lethargic at 15 degrees Celsius, and function poorly
below 10 degrees Celsius
Mosquito Body Parts
The mosquito has three basic body parts.
The head is the main part, containing sensors, eyes, and antennae.
The palpus is their mouth, and females have the proboscis for biting.
The thorax connects wings and flight muscles
The abdomen contains the digestive and excretory systems for the mosquito
Life cycle

Egg stage
Female mosquitoes lay hundreds of eggs at once.
The female will lay her eggs (40-400) on the surface of standing (not moving) water
The eggs will usually clump together on the water in ‘rafts’
Larvae Stage
After a week or so, the eggs will hatch.
Larvae live right under the water surface.
They breathe through tubes that stick above the surface.
The larvae eat organic matter floating in the water, and if necessary, each other
Pupae stage
The larvae molt four times, growing progressively larger after each shedding.
They become pupae, which are light enough to float on water.
Pupae breath through two little tubes called siphons, located on their backs.
Pupae do not eat; in less then two days they will become mosquitoes
Mosquito Importance
Mosquitoes are vectors for disease and are nuisances for many people.
However, they feed on nectar, the sugary juice produced by flowers.
These insects also pollinate flowers
Mosquito larvae serve as food for fish, young birds, and insects like dragonflies
Adulthood: The Hunt for Prey
Adult mosquitoes primarily just feed on nectar, living for several weeks
The female, when deciding to mate, will seek out prey to bite
First, she will detect carbon dioxide, heat, and body odors
Smelly humans are far more likely to attract mosquitoes because of chemicals in sweat and natural
odors.
The Bite
After she senses you, the mosquito will latch onto your skin.
She will administer an anti-coagulant, a chemical that stops blood from clotting.
She will continue to drink your blood until her abdomen is full

Cycle of life
After the bite, the female will have gained proteins previously unavailable in nectar and fruit juice
The proteins will help in the development of the eggs
Eventually, the eggs will hatch and the mosquito life cycle will start all over again.

Mosquitoes are notorious for transmitting a variety of diseases. Here's a list of the most common
ones:

1. Malaria

 Caused by: Plasmodium parasites

 Transmitted by: Anopheles mosquitoes
 Common in tropical and subtropical regions.

2. Dengue Fever

 Caused by: Dengue virus

 Transmitted by: Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus mosquitoes
 Symptoms include high fever, severe headache, joint and muscle pain, and rash.

3. Zika Virus Disease

 Caused by: Zika virus

 Transmitted by: Aedes mosquitoes
 Known for its link to birth defects like microcephaly in newborns.
4. Chikungunya

 Caused by: Chikungunya virus

 Transmitted by: Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus mosquitoes
 Symptoms include fever and severe joint pain.

5. Yellow Fever

 Caused by: Yellow fever virus

 Transmitted by: Aedes and Haemagogus mosquitoes
 Affects the liver and can cause jaundice.

6. West Nile Virus

 Caused by: West Nile virus

 Transmitted by: Culex mosquitoes
 Can cause neurological complications in severe cases.

7. Japanese Encephalitis

 Caused by: Japanese encephalitis virus

 Transmitted by: Culex mosquitoes
 Found primarily in Asia, it affects the brain.

8. Filariasis (Lymphatic Filariasis)

 Caused by: Wuchereria bancrofti and other filarial worms

 Transmitted by: Culex, Anopheles, and Aedes mosquitoes
 Leads to swelling of body parts (elephantiasis).

9. Rift Valley Fever

 Caused by: Rift Valley fever virus

 Transmitted by: Various mosquitoes (Aedes, Culex, etc.)
 Affects both humans and livestock, causing fever and bleeding disorders.

10. La Crosse Encephalitis

 Caused by: La Crosse virus

 Transmitted by: Aedes triseriatus (tree hole mosquito)
 Found in the United States, mainly affects children.

Would you like details on any of these diseases?

Malaria
Malaria is a major public health problem in warm climates especially in developing countries.
It is a leading cause of disease and death among children under fiv e years, pregnant women and non-
immune travellers/immigrants
What is malaria ?

Species Major features

P. falciparum § The most important species as it is responsible for 50% of all malaria
cases worldwide and nearly all morbidity and mortality from severe
Malaria
§ Found in the tropics & sub-tropics
P. vivax § The malaria parasite with the widest geographical distribution
§ Seen in tropical and sub-tropical areas but rare in Africa
§ Estimated to cause 43% of all malaria cases in the world

P. ovale § This species is relatively rarely encountered

§ Primarily seen in tropical Africa, especially, the west coast, but has
been reported in South America and Asia

P malariae
. § Responsible for only 7% of malaria cases
§ Occurs mainly in sub-tropical climates

The burden of malaria

The “direct” burden of malaria – morbidity and mortality
Every year, there are about 500 million clinical attacks of malaria. Of these, 2-3 million are severe and
about 1 million people die (about 3000 deaths every day).
Malaria in pregnancy accounts for about 25% of cases of severe maternal anaemia and 10-20% of low
birthweight. Low birthweight due to malaria accounts for about 5-10% of neonatal and infants deaths.
The “indirect” burden of malaria
Human development: Impaired intellectual development, developmental abnormalities (especially
following cerebral malaria), lost school attendance and productivity at work
Economics: Malaria retards economic development in the developing world. The cost of a single bout of
malaria is equivalent to over 10 working days in Africa. The cost of treatment is between $US0.08 and
$US5.30, depending on the type of drugs prescribed as required by the local pattern of drug resistance.
How is malaria transmitted?
Malaria parasites are transmitted from one person to another by the bite of a female anopheles
mosquito.
The female mosquito bites during dusk and dawn and needs a blood meal to feed her eggs.
Male mosquitoes do not transmit malaria as they feed on plant juices and not blood.
There are about 380 species of anopheles mosquito but only about 60 are able to transmit malaria.
Like all mosquitoes, anopheles breed in water - hence accumulation of water favours the spread of the
disease.
How does infection develop ?
Plasmodium infects the human and insect host alternatively and several phases of the parasite life cycle
are described.
During feeding, saliva from the mosquito is injected into the human blood stream. If the mosquito is
carrying malaria, the saliva contains primitive stages of malaria parasites called sporozoites.
Infection Phases
Hepatic, tissue or pre-erythrocytic phase: Sporozoites invade and develop in liver cells. The infected
hepatocyte ruptures to release merozoites.
Erythrocytic phase: Merozoites then invade red blood cells. The red cells lyse and this causes bouts of
fever and the other symptoms of the disease. This cycle repeats as merozoites invade other red cells.
Sexual phase: Sexual forms of the parasites develop and are ingested when another female anopheles
mosquito feeds. These develop into sporozoites in the gut of the insect host and travel to its salivary
glands. Then the cycle starts again…
The Malaria Parasite Life Cycle
 LICE (ANOPLURA)

At the end of this chapter the reader will be able to

• Identify different species of lice
• Discuss the different types of diseases transmitted by lice
• Describe the control methods of lice

Class Insecta
Order Anoplura
Family Pediculidae ‐ the lice.
Identification
Lice are grayish in colour, are characteristically dorso‐ventrally flattened and both sexes feed on blood
through mouthparts designed for piercing and sucking.
They are apterous (wingless).
There are two species parasitizing humans

Pediculus humanus (head & body lice)

Phthirus pubis (crab louse)

There are two forms of Pediculus humanus

 Pediculus humanus humanus (sometimes known as Pediculus humanus corporis) ‐ the body louse.
 Pediculus humanus capitis ‐ the head louse.

Public health Importance

The body louse is the vector for the spirochete
Borrelia recurrentis (relapsing fever),
Rickettsia prowazeki (typhus) & Rochalimaea quintana (Trench fever).
Crushed lice or lice faeces coming into contact with broken skin leads to transmission of these diseases.

Pediculosis
 The presence of body, head or pubic lice on a person is some times reffered as pediculosis.
 The skin of people who habitually harbour large number of body lice may become pigmented and tough,
a condition known as vagabond’s disease or sometimes as morbus errorum.
 Because lice feed several times aday, saliva is repeatedly injected in to people harboring lice, and toxic
effects may lead to weariness, irritability or a pessimistic mood: the person feels lousy.
Control of louse

Insecticides (permethrin), Personal hygiene, laundering of garments.

In current times, in situations where there is overcrowding (e.g. due to poverty, during political & civil
unrest, during mass migration & in refugee situations) laundering of garments and personal hygiene may
not be easy or a major priority. Often in these situations, basic needs such as food, water & shelter are
the priority.
Insecticides
Medications that kill head lice are called pediculicides.
All pediculicides except malathion are applied to the scalp and hair and left on for 10 minutes, then
rinsed off. Pediculicides kill nymphs and adult lice, but do not destroy nits. For this reason, they may
need to be reapplied 7‐10 days after the first application to kill newly emerged nymphs.
 BED BUGS (HEMIPTERA)
Introduction
Bedbugs are temporary ectoparasites of human.
They are common in places with poor housing conditions.
Bedbugs have a dorsoventrally flattened body.
They are oval in shape with no wing Shinny reddish to brown in color (after blood meal they become
dark brown) 4 ‐ 7 mm long.
They have 3 pairs of well developed legs, which enable them to crawl rapidly. Both sexes suck blood
including the nymphs
Bed Bugs Life cycle
Pass through incomplete metamorphosis
Lay 2‐3 eggs per days
Hatch in 8‐11 days at room temperature ( 20oc)
There are five nymphal stages
Adult Behavior
Feed mainly at night (they are nocturnal feeder).
While the host is sleeping .
During the ten minute or so feeding period they take 2‐ 5 times their body weight blood from their host.
Once fed, bugs return to the cracks behind wall paper, furniture and crevices in which they hide.
Bed begs are heavily reliant on passive dispersal from one home to another.
They can with stand starvation for months, particularly the later nymphal instars attached by the
exhaled CO2
Named "bed bugs" because they thrive where people sleep.
They are attracted to warmth and carbon dioxide from human breath and are often active just before
dawn though they may feed at other times.
They can live up to 18 months without feeding.
Bed Bugs Have Thin, Flat Bodies
Where do they come from?
Bed bugs are found all over the world: 5‐star hotels, hospitals, dorms, etc. They are spread unknowingly
by travelers ‐‐ not because people are unclean or live in certain environments.
Types of Bed Bugs
Several species feed on humans including:
1. Common bed bugs
2. Tropical Bed Bugs,
3. Bat Bugs,
4. Poultry Bugs
Public Health Importance
Biting nuisance ‐Intense itching
‐Sleepless night
No evidence that bed bugs are vectors of any diseases under natural condition
Salivary proteins cause “sensitivity” to repeated bites by large numbers of bed bugs
Control
Difficult to control bed bugs, because they tend to hides deep in to their harborages.
Proper house maintenance
Detaching houses
Furniture cleanliness –pouring boiled mater, oven , infested goods
Eradicating cracks & crevices in walls. Exposing articles to sun light
Application of insecticide like Carbonyl, Propoxur, Deltamethrin, Bendiocarb
Heat treatments – steam or hot water ; Whole structure” fumigation will eliminate bugs present within
treated areas.
 Tsetse Fly (Glossina)
Found in Sub‐Saharan Africa, and only common to Africa.
Found in vegetation by rivers and lakes, in gallery‐forests and in vast stretches of wooded savannah.
Mostly tropical areas.
Many regions where tsetse flies are found, but the Sleeping Sickness is not.
It can bite through clothing, and the bite is very painful.
The fly becomes infected with the disease by biting animals or humans who are already infected with
the disease.
The fly is attracted to dust and bright and dark colors.
When bitten, a red sore will be produced on the skin. The sore is known as a chancre.
Sleeping Sickness: A deadly disease spread by the tsetse fly

Symptoms
The symptoms begin within 1 to 4 weeks.
Fever
Personality changes
Disturbance of sleep patterns
Troubles with walking and talking
Aching muscles and joints
Slurred speech, Seizures, Rashes, Swelling around the eyes and hand, Headaches, Fatigue, Prolonged,
sleep
Death shortly happens a few months after the invasion of the central nervous system.
World Wide Consequences
Major cause of mortality.
Biggest health risk in Africa. Famine is spreading because farmers and cattle are dying from the disease.
It costs the US $250.00 to treat one person over a one‐month period in hospital.
The treatment is a drain on the health services, and the resources of families who stay in the hospital.
Occurs in areas where health systems are weak or non‐ existent. Displacement of populations, war and
poverty are important factors leading to increased transmission
It is expensive to treat cows infected with nagana.

PREVENTION AND CONTROL

Reduction of tsetse fly numbers plays a significant role, especially against the rhodesiense form of the
disease.
In the past, this has involved extensive clearance of bush to destroy tsetse fly breeding and resting sites,
and widespread application of insecticides
Control Measures: - Clearing forest and bushy habitat of tsetse clear 10 - 12 meters on both sides of
forest crossing roads.
Close highway of tsetse infested areas. Trapping adults, killing pupa use nets or / odor attracted traps,
use animals as bait / visual targets to trap, Inspection of people and treating cases. Genetic control:
sterile males by radiation.
Insecticide application / with care (Arial spraying, Ground spraying, Fumigation, DDT, and BHC),
Use of repellents: Oils, lotions or creams applied to exposed body parts or applied lightly on clothing.
Management
Insect sweep nets or biconcial, ox-odor-baited traps are the most effective way to survey for these
insects, even though such techniques aren't species specific.
Strict vegetation management includes clearing dense brush along waterways and around
contaminated areas (preferably up to a mile away if possible).
Aircraft pesticidal applications that give a small droplet size (approximately 250 microns or less) can be
effective in areas where it is not practical to eliminate or reduce thick brush for at least a quarter of a
mile.
Contingency considerations
The only time human trypanosomiasis is a contingency consideration is when operations are necessary
in the tsetse fly infested areas.
If this is the situation, troop staging, and as much of the support operations as possible, should be kept
outside of the known fly breeding areas.
Aircraft spray operations should be applied to brushy areas surrounding containment areas and strict
brush control should be practiced within the containment area itself and within a mile of a large
containment
Strict use of individual protective measures such as the repellent jacket and proper uniform wear must
be strictly enforced. To date the only cost effective success has been with large scale use of ox-odor-
baited traps.
 Cockroaches

Introduction: Basics

Order: Blattaria
4000 species worldwide
18 species have become serious domestic pests
The most important medically are:
– Blattella germanica (German cockroach)
– Blatta orientalis (Oriental cockroach)
– Periplanta americana (American cockroach)
– Supella longipalpa (Brown‐banded cockroach)
Can be introduced into the establishment through boxes, bags, and workers’ personal items.

Biology
Like warmth (climate plays a role)
– Cold Climates
– Warm Climates
Nocturnal
Omnivorous
Live for 5‐10 weeks without water
Live many months without food
– Not a limiting factor
– Nymphs often die 7‐10 days
Life Cycle
Hemimetabolous
Eggs are laid encased in a capsule called an ootheca
– Typically 18‐40
– Deposited or cemented to surfaces
– 4‐90 ootheca
Nymphs
– Hatch after 1‐3 months
– Wingless
– Number of nymphal stages and length varies with species.
Adults
– 2 year lifespan or more
Life Cycle of a Cockroach
“Medical” Importance
(1) Get into our food supplies
(2) Odor (Some stink!)
(3) They feed on humans
(4) Allergies
(5)Transmit pathogens?
Synanthropic species
American Cockroach (Periplaneta Americana)
• Originally from Africa.
• Like damp environments.
• Sewers, around pipes, ships.
• Basement or first floor in buildings.
• Nymphal stage 10‐14 months long.
German Cockroach ( Blattella germanica)
• Most common species in WY.
• Originally from Africa.
• Smaller than American.
• Basement and first floors in buildings.
• Carries egg capsule.
• Nymphal stage 2‐3 months long.
Oriental Cockroach (Blatta orientalis)
• Shiny black, common in WY.
• Found in sewers, likes basement.
• More tolerant of cooler temps.
• Males have short wings, females are long.
• Nymphal stage 12‐15 months long.
Brown‐Banded Cockroach (Supella longipalpa)
• Originally from Cuba.
• 2 broad bands across dorsum.
• All rooms in house.
• Likes high places versus low.
• Big problem in the Southern U.S.
• Glue eggs to things.
• Often ships in with Furniture.
Control
• Be clean! – Environmental sanitation
• Insecticidal spraying
– E.g. malathion, carbamates
• Pyrethroids
– E.g. permethrin
• Boric Acid Powder (borax)
– Contact insecticide and stomach poison.
• Organophosphates and Carbamate Insecticides
– 1‐2% added to baits of food
• Insect Growth Regulators (IGRs)
– E.g fenoxycarb, hydrophen, methoprene.
• Pheromones and sticky traps
 House Flies

Basic Info on Houseflies

• House flies are the commonest and most familiar of all insects which live close to man.
• They occur in abundance all the year round.
• The majority of house‐frequenting flies are non‐biting.
• The most important of these are: Musca domestica, M. vicina.
• Houseflies should be regarded as sign of insanitation, and their number is an index of
insanitation
Basic Characteristics
• The common housefly (M. domestica) is mouse‐grey in colour.
• The body is divided into head, thorax and abdomen.
• HEAD: The head bears a pair of antennae, a pair of large compound eyes and a retractile
proboscis, which is adapted for sucking liquid foods.
• THORAX: The thorax is marked with 2 to 4 dark longitudinal stripes, which is characteristic of the
genus, musca.
• The thorax bears a pair of wing and three pairs of legs. Each leg is provided with a pair of pads
which enable the fly to walk on highly polished surfaces.
• The legs and the body are covered with numerous short and stiff hairs, called the tenent hairs
which secrete a sticky substance.
• ABDOMEN: The abdomen is segmented and shows light band dark markings.
Life Cycle of Housefly
• The housefly undergoes a complete metamorphosis with four stages in life cycle: egg, larva
(maggot), pupa and adult.
• EGG: The female lays from about 120 to 150 eggs at one sitting in moist decaying organic matter
such as human and animal excreta, manure heaps, garbage and vegetable refuse.
• The eggs hatch in 8 to 24 hours.
• LARVA: They eat voraciously and moult twice in the course of development. The larvae resent
light; they bury themselves under manure heaps. The period lasts 2‐7 days.
• PUPA: Are dark brown and barrel shaped and measures quarter of an inch. Last 3‐6 days.
• ADULT: The complete cycle from egg to adult may take 5‐6 days in warmer regions, but at times
may take 8‐20 days. Its being estimated that a mated pair of flies could produce in a warm season no
less than a trillion eggs.
• They don’t live longer than 15 days.
Habits of Houseflies
• The habits of housefly make it eminently suited for the spread of disease.
• BREEDING HABITS: The most important breeding places of flies are (a) fresh horse manure (b)
human excreta (C) manure of other animals (d) garbage (e) decaying fruits and vegetables (f) rubbish
dumps containing organic matter and
(g) ground where liquid waste are spilled.
• FEEDING HABITS: The housefly does not bite. It is attracted to food by its sense of smell. It
cannot eat solid foods; it vomits on solid food to make a solution of it and sucks in a liquid state. Adult
flies delight in sputum, faeces, discharges from wounds and open sores.
• RESTLESSNESS; They are restless insects and moves back and forth between food and filth. This
helps in the spread of infection mechanically.
• VOMIT DROP: The fly vomits frequently. The ‘vomit drop’ is often a culture of disease agents.
• DEFECATION: The housefly has a habit of defecating constantly all the day. Thus deposit
countless bacteria on exposed food.
• RESTING HABITS: Flies have a tendency to rest on vertical surfaces and hanging objects. They fly
towards light.
• DISPERSAL: Normally houseflies remain close to their breeding places, but disperse frequently up to 6
– 8km.
TRANSMISSION OF DISEASE
• Mechanical; via their feet and hairy legs.
• Vomit drop; a rich bacterial culture.
• Defecation; contains microorganisms, cysts and ova of intenstinal parasites.
DISEASES TRANSMITTED
• Typhoid and paratyphoid fevers
• Diarrhea and dysenteries
• Cholera and gastroenteritis
• Amoebiasis
• Helminthic infestations
• Poliomyelitis….
Housefly Control
Control at Egg Stage
• The common breeding ground for flies include: garbage, compost or on animal matter. The best
possible way to control the laying of eggs is to practice proper sanitation methods in potential breeding
grounds.
• Cover and remove garbage frequently.
• Getting rid of animal matter.
• Through proper management of compost piles. In order to prevent metamorphosis.
Methods of control at Larvae Stage
• The larvae grow and feed on garbage and animal waste. If proper sanitation is practiced in the
first place then the fly would not have the chance to grow into a larvae as breeding grounds would have
been eliminated.
• However in the event that larvae develop one can use chemicals such as insecticides to kill
them.
• Or one can poison the garbage to ensure death as this is the feeding stage.
Methods of controlling the housefly at Pupa at stage include:
• At this stage the pupae does not feed so in order to get rid of the pupae one has to it physically;
dispose of the garbage or the breeding site where the fly is metamorphosing.
• The pupae however has to breathe, so one can use chemical that is sprayed in the surrounding
area (sprayed in the air around the breeding site).
Methods of controlling the housefly at Adult stage include:
• The house flies are killed by using chemicals such as insecticides (chemical).
• Fly traps or electrical swatters (mechanical).
• By using poisoned foods.
• Proper sanitation is also practiced.
• As well using exclusion methods which includes physical infrastructures such as screens.
SUMMATION
• Both Mosquitoes and House Flies carry pathogens which have the potential to cause diseases. In
order to prevent the spread of these diseases various methods are used to kill the insects to prevent
multiplication. This involves using methods such as practicing proper hygiene, draining stagnant water
and using insecticides etc. along the four stages eggs, pupa, larva and adult. Therefore if the
multiplication of the insect can be prevented by killing them at early stages then this would reduce the
spreading of the pathogens and so thus the amount of diseases caused.
 Black Fly
There are more than 1300 known species of black flies (or "buffalo gnats," as they are sometimes called)
in the family Simulidae. Their range extends throughout the temperate and tropical regions of the
world.
Identification
• The black fly is 1‐5mm in length.
• They are misnamed because most of them are gray and others are light tan to yellow in color.
• Adults are typically robust with a characteristic arched or humped prothorax.
Feeding
• Both sexes feed on the nectar of flowers.
• Only the females require a blood meal for ovarian development.
• Black flies attack man and a wide variety of domestic and wild animals and birds; others feed
only on cold‐blooded animals.
• Many important pest species belong to the genus Simulium.
Reproduction
• Females deposit 150‐500 creamy‐white eggs that darken until they are almost black just prior to
hatching.
• The eggs are usually are deposited in masses on some convenient object in or near the edge of
flowing water.
• The water can be slow‐moving, but most species prefer rapidly flowing water.
• Breeding may occur in marshy areas
• The time required for hatching varies with the species and may be 3‐5 days or as long as 30 days
at low temperatures.
• Larvae most often are found just beneath the surface of rapidly flowing water.
• Duration of larval development, like the egg stage, varies with species and temperature; it may
range from 10‐14 days to 7‐10 weeks.
Control of Black flies
• Use of repellants
• Usually lasting up to 2 hours, can be gained by use of repellents such as diethyltoluamide
(DEET), dimethylphthalate (DIMP) and butyryl‐ tetrahydro quinoline.
• Insecticidal fogging or spraying of vegetation though to harbour resting adult blackflies
• Fogging for black flies provides temporary relief since only those flies that contact the fog are
killed
• Application of insecticides to their breeding places to kill the larvae.
• Larviciding – sometimes difficult because to the moving water they lay eggs in.
• Treatment of breeding areas in rivers, streams, etc. is effective when the application timing is
correct.
• Large scale efforts are needed such as by a government agency skilled in coping with black flies.
• It is necessary to treat large areas where larvae occur by helicopter or airplane.
• Also, crews spraying streams and other bodies of water, and fog machines and mist blowers to
kill adults, is helpful.
• There are many insecticides such as a bacterium called Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner var.
israelensis, this is nontoxic to nontarget beneficial organisms such as fish, birds, etc. Other insecticides
are permethrin, chlorpyrifos , and hypermethrin.
Public Health Importance
1. Nuisance
• In both tropical and non tropical areas of the world black flies can cause a very serious biting
problem, since there bites can be painful.
• Although the severity of the reaction to bites is different in different individuals, localized
swelling and inflammation frequently occurs, accompanied by in tense irritation lasting for several days
or even weeks.
2. Onchocerciasis (River Blindness)
• Onchocerciasis / river blindness is the disease transmitted by the female black fly. causes
itching, depigmentation, Repeated infection affects the eyes that lead to blindness.
• Onchocerciasis is the world’s second leading infectious cause of blindness.
• Rarely life threatening, the disease causes chronic suffering and severe disability Onchocerciasis
(River Blindness)
• In Africa, it constitutes a serious obstacle to socioeconomic development. It is often called river
blindness because of its most extreme manifestation and because the black flies that transmit the
disease abound in riverside areas, where they breed in fast‐flowing waters.
• 18 million are infected
• 300,000 are blind from the disease
• Caused by parasitic worm transmitted by bite from black fly -Onchocerca volculus worm
• Worm can live for 15 years in the human body
Clinical Symptoms of River Blindness
• Severe itching initially in one section of body then spreading to whole body and eyes
• Skin nodules *Lymphadenitis *Lichenified skin * Loss of skin
• pigmentation *Excessive skin pigmentation * Photophobia *
• Corneal inflammation * Iris inflammation *Retinal inflammation *
• Choroid inflammation *Optic nerve inflammation *Eosinophilia
• Urticarial (hives‐like) rash * Swelling of limbs (oedema) *Spotty skin
*Bleeding patches
• From *Tough and wrinkled skin *Enlarged groin lymph nodes *Fluid swellings of testes
(hydrocoele *Elephantiasis of scrotum) *Itchy red eyes *Excessive tear formation
• *Cataracts *Blurred vision *Loss of vision *Nodules under skin *Skin rash *Itchy skin
How Is It Treated/Prevented?
• A single annual dose of a drug manufactured and donated by Merck called Mectizan
 Sandflies
• Phlebotomus spp.in the Old World Lutzomyia spp. (New World )
Morphology
• Adults ‐ small (less than 5 mm long), slender with piercing mouthparts and long antennae; wing
veins are parallel to each other
Life cycle
Life cycle (stages)
Eggs are laid in dark humid animal burrows, cracks or crevices, or under dead leaves
• There are 4 larval instars, the larval stage lasting a total of 4‐6 weeks
• The pupa requires 10 days for development
LC requires 40‐50 days
Only adult females suck blood
Adult life span 2‐3 weeks, 30‐50 eggs/female.
Habits
• Only female sandflies are blood sucker and they are nocturnal feeders.
They are poor flier and fly in a characteristic hopping, 30‐1000 m, not over 200 m.
• Prevalent during warm seasons.
• Larvae survive through the winter.
Sandflies and Diseases
• Transmit Leishmania spp. of humans and dogs,
• Viruses: sandfly fever
Control
• 1. Elimination of breeding grounds
• 2. Application of insecticides
• 3. Personal protection
Leishmaniasis
Leishmaniasis is a zoonosis. transmitted among mammalian hosts by female sand flies.
Species Pathogenic in Humans
Leishmania donovani (complex) (VL)
Leishmania tropica (CL)
Leishmania major (CL)
Leishmania aethiopica (CL)
Leishmania mexicana (Complex) (CL)
Leishmania brazilliensis (complex) (MCL)
Life cycle
Disease
Cutaneous Leishmaniasis
Cutaneous forms of the disease normally produce skin ulcers on the exposed parts of the body such as
the face, arms and legs. The disease can produce a large number of lesions
Leishmania tropica
• Causes ulceration of the skin called Cutaneous Leshmaniasis
• Dry or urban C.L.
• Dry sore that may persist for several months before healing, then person is immune
• Some people “vaccinate” their children against Leshmaniasis.
• Rarely can cause infections of the viscera
Mucocutaneous Leishmaniasis
Leishmania braziliensis & L . maxicana
Mucocutaneous forms of leishmaniasis , lesions can lead to partial or total destruction of the mucosa
membranes of the nose, mouth and throat cavities and surrounding tissues.
Nasal stuffiness, runny nose , bleeding of nose, rectum &vagina
Ulcer & erosion of mouth, nose, rectum, lips, gums, vaginal
Visceral Leishmaniasis
Visceral disease (Kala-azar)
Most severe form of disease, the disease typically starts with irregular bouts of fever, chills, and general
anemia
Since leishmaniasis is primarily a disease of the reticulo-endothelial system, replacement of infected
cells produces hyperplasia and consequent enlargement of the visceral organs associated with the
system (e.g., spleen and liver).
Dogs can act as reservoirs of Leishmania parasites.
Symptoms of infection
Diagnosis
Diagnosing Leishmaniasis can be difficult Sometimes the Lab tests are negative even if a person has
Leishmaniasis.
1. Clinical Diagnosis: signs & symptoms
Patient history (travel, vectors)
2. Laboratory Diagnosis :
 SIPHONAPTERA (FLEAS)
• Hind legs are adapted for jumping
• Adults are exclusively blood suckers (most are mobile, but some are attached)
• The “attached” species are like the ticks, they put their mouthparts in host and stays there for a
while.
• Unfed adults live a long time, but they can’t really leave the area where they are so they just
hang out waiting for a blood meal, and they are very active when looking.
• Somewhat host specific (not as host specific as lice), and it varies with species
Fleas ‐ Distinguishing Features
Wingless
Sucking mouthparts Antennae retractible Jumping legs
Life Cycle
• Holometabolous
• Egg  Larvae  Pupa  Adult
– 18 days to 20 months
• Eggs (3‐18 at one time in several batches)
• Larvae need high humidity
– 9‐15 days optimal (up to 200 days)
• Pupa
– 7 days to 1 year
• Adult
– Live up to 4 years.
Public Health Importance
(1) Irritation and Discomfort
(2) Dipylidium caninum (double‐paired dog tapeworm)
(3) Tunga Penetrans
(4) Annoyance from bites
(5) Vectors of Disease
 Murine Typhus
 Bubonic Plague
(6) Primary pest of an animal that has a home.
Tunga Penetrans
Jiggers
• Tunga penetrans is sometimes referred to as the Chigoe or Jigger or sand‐flea.
• Tunga penetrans does not transmit any disease to people but is a nuisance because females
burrow in to the skin.
Flea Control
Sanitation – environmental clean up is important to destroying harborage for eggs, larvae, pupae and
adults
Chemical Insecticides – apply to cats and dogs, spray rodent infested environments; flea collars often
not very effective (incomplete coverage); topical application of insecticides absorbed through the skin
Insect Growth Regulators (IGRs) – topical application on animals; fumigation of affected rooms, etc.;
ovicidal as well as insecticidal
 Rodent Control

What are Rodents?

• The word rodent comes from the Latin Rodere, meaning "to gnaw".
• All rodents are characterised by their teeth. The incisors (front teeth) are reduced to a single pair
above and below.
• The gnawing habit of rodents wears these to a chisel shaped cutting edge, and they continue growing
from open roots throughout the life of the animal
Rodents are commensal?
They have adapted to live with man.
Three species:
Roof rat
Norway rat
House mouse
Why Control Commensal Rodents?
• Damage to buildings. Mice and rats will damage wood and electrical wiring, which can be a fire hazard.
• Destruction of insulation. Many livestock and poultry facilities show serious deterioration within five
years. Associated with this damage are costs for re‐insulation, increased energy costs and poorer feed
conversions by animals.
• Feed consumed. A colony of 100 rats will consume over 1 tonne of feed in 1 year.
Why Control Commensal Rodents?
• Feed contamination. A rat can contaminate 10 times the amount of feed it eats with its droppings,
urine and hair. A rat produces 25,000 droppings per year, a mouse 17,000.
• Serve as reservoirs or vectors of numerous diseases. Rodents are recognized as carriers of
approximately 45 diseases, including salmonellosis, pasteurellosis, leptospirosis, swine dysentery,
trichinosis, toxoplasmosis and rabies. Mice and rats can carry disease‐causing organisms on their feet,
increasing the spread of disease.
Characteristics of Rodents
• Mice and rats have tremendous breeding potential. Under ideal situations, a pair of rats and their
offspring can produce 20,000,000 young in 3 years.
• Mice reproduce even faster. One female mouse can give birth to five to 10 litters per year, yielding five
to six young per litter. The gestation period is a mere 19–21 days.
• These babies are sexually mature in 6–10 weeks. The average female mouse lives to be 9 months.
• One female rat is capable of producing another 22 breeding females in 1 year (based on a 50:50
male/female ratio of offspring), which mature in 3 months after parturition.
• Rats are extremely apprehensive about new objects and will avoid them for several days. Leaving a
trap out for about 5 days is necessary to ensure acceptance. (Neophobia).
• Mice quickly accept new objects. This becomes very important when designing baiting or trapping
programs.
• Rats and mice have poor eyesight but excellent senses of smell, taste, touch and hearing.
• They do not like open areas and prefer contact with walls and other objects. They do not range far
from the nest.
• The maximum range for rats is 45 m (148 ft), for mice 9 m (30 ft).
House mouse (Mus musculus)
Body. Small, pear‐shaped and slender 2 to 31/2 inches (5 to 9 cm) long
Average weight is 5/8 to 1 ounce (18 to 28 g)
Tail. 3 to 4 inches (7 to 10 cm) long
Semi‐naked
Longer than the head and body combined
Color. Generally grayish‐brown on top.
Light cream underside
Eyes. Small and protruding
Can recognize objects up to 10 feet away Ears. Relatively large
Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus)
Body. Heavy and thick, 7 to 10 inches (18 to 25 cm) long
Average weight 10 to 17 ounces (284 to 482 g)
Blunt nose; Acute sense of smell
Tail. Shorter than head and body ‐ 6 to 81/2 inches (15 to 22 cm) lo Dark on top with a lighter
underside
Color. Grayish‐brown, but also pure gray to black or a blackish‐ or reddish‐brown.
Gray to yellow‐white underside
Eyes. Small
Primarily see light, shadow and movement
Ears. Small
Do not cover the eyes if bent forward
Other Names: brown rat, gray rat, common rat, house rat, wharf rat, sewer rat, barn rat, water rat
Roof rat (Rattus rattus)
Body. Slender; 6 1/2 to 8 inches (17 to 20 cm) long
Average weight 6 to 12 ounces (170 to 340 g)
Nose pointed; acute sense of smell.
Tail. Longer than head and body; 7 1/2 to 10 inches (19 to 25 cm) long Hairless; Uniform color from top
to underside
Color. Black to brownish‐gray
Underside varies from gray to white
Eyes. Large and prominent
Poor eyesight
Ears. Large
Cover the eyes if bent forward
Roof Rat
Is it a rat or a mouse problem?
• Since rats and mice require different control strategies, there is need to determine whether the
problem is rats or mice;
• The simplest way to differentiate between the types of infestation is by examining the droppings:
• Mouse droppings are black and rice‐kernel size;
• Whereas rat droppings are black and bean‐sized.
Eating Habits of Mice and Rats
• Rats and mice are omnivorous. But given a choice, they prefer cereal grains.
• Rats eat meat when available. However, when food supplies are scarce, they will eat almost anything,
including plaster and even soap or animal carcasses.
• Rats and mice eat every day and prefer a water supply. Rats usually drink every day, but mice can
survive several days without water.
Signs of Rodent Infestation
• Sounds. Gnawing, climbing noises in walls, squeaks.
• Droppings. Found along walls, behind objects and near food supplies.
• Burrows. Rat burrows are indicated by fresh diggings along foundations, through floorboards into wall
spaces.
• Runs. Look for dust‐free areas along walls and behind storage material.
Signs of Rodent Infestation
• Gnawing marks. Look for wood chips around boards, bins and crates. Fresh gnawing marks will be pale
in colour.
• Rodent odours. Persistent musky odours are a positive sign of infestation.
• Visual sighting. Daylight sighting of mice is common. Rats are seen in daylight only if populations are
high. *Quietly enter your barn at night, wait in silence for five minutes and listen for the sound of rodent
activity. Look around with a powerful flashlight; rat eyes will reflect the light.
• Smudge marks. These may be found on pipes or rafters where dirt and oil from their fur leave a greasy
film.
It is a generally accepted rule of thumb that there are approximately 25 mice or rats for every one that is
seen!!!!
Rodent Control
• Rodent‐Proofing Farm Buildings
• Eliminating Hiding Places and Nesting Sites
• Remove Food and Water (proper storage)
• Control of Existing Population
Control of Existing Population
• Snap Traps – for small populations
• Glue Boards
• Predators – Cats ……not snakes
• Sound and Ultrasound Devices
• Edible Baits – liquid baits, contact dust and rodenticidal gels
• Gassing
• Rodenticides (Toxic Baits) ‐ chemicals that kill rodents.
An ideal rodenticide would have the following features:
• Toxic in small amounts
• Palatable to all pest species
• Slow acting
Toxic only to the pest species
• No difference in susceptibility with age, sex or strain
• No development of immunity or physiological tolerance
• Minimal hazard to man and domestic animals
Readily biodegradable
• Easily formulated
• Humane