RESEARCH ARTICLE

The Design Help Desk: A collaborative

approach to design education for scientists
and engineers
Timothy O’Mahony ID1,2*, Jason Petz3, Jonathan Cook3, Karen Cheng3*,
Marco Rolandi ID1,4*
1 Institute for Connecting Neuroscience with Teaching and Learning (iCNtl), Seattle, WA, United States of
America, 2 LIFE (Learning in Informal and Formal Environments) Center, College of Education, University of
Washington, Seattle, WA, United States of America, 3 Division of Design, School of Art + Art History +
Design, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States of America, 4 Department of Electrical and
a1111111111 Computer Engineering, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, United States of America
a1111111111
* [email protected] (TO); [email protected] (KC); [email protected] (MR)
a1111111111
a1111111111
a1111111111
Abstract
Visual design, learning sciences, and nanotechnology may be strange bedfellows; yet, as
this paper highlights, peer interaction between a designer and a scientist is an effective
OPEN ACCESS method for helping scientists acquire visual design skills. We describe our findings from
Citation: O’Mahony T, Petz J, Cook J, Cheng K, observing twelve sessions at the Design Help Desk, a tutoring center at the University of
Rolandi M (2019) The Design Help Desk: A
Washington. At each session, a scientist (who is expert in his own domain but a novice in
collaborative approach to design education for
scientists and engineers. PLoS ONE 14(5): design) consulted a designer (who is expert in design but a novice in science) in order to
e0212501. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal. receive advice and guidance on how to improve a scientific visualization. At the Design Help
pone.0212501 Desk, this pairing consistently produced a momentary disequilibrium in the scientist’s
Editor: Kristopher V. Waynant, University of Idaho, thought process: a disequilibrium that led to agency (where the scientist gained ownership
UNITED STATES of his/her own learning) and conceptual change in the scientist’s understanding of visual
Received: June 22, 2018 design. Scientists who visited the Design Help Desk were satisfied with their experience,
Accepted: February 4, 2019 and their published work demonstrated an improved ability to visually communicate
research findings—a skill critical to the advancement of science. To our knowledge, the
Published: May 1, 2019
Design Help Desk is a unique effort to educate scientists in visual design; we are not aware
Copyright: © 2019 O’Mahony et al. This is an open
of any other design-advice/tutoring centers at public or private universities in the United
access article distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License, which States or abroad.
permits unrestricted use, distribution, and
reproduction in any medium, provided the original
author and source are credited.

Data Availability Statement: All relevant data are

within the paper and its Supporting Information
files. Introduction
Funding: This work was supported by the National
Graduate students in science and engineering typically experience in-depth, rigorous training
Science Foundation. The funder had no role in on how to conduct cutting-edge research. However, they receive far less education on how to
study design, data collection and analysis, decision effectively communicate this research—especially in the area of scientific visualization. Even
to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. though graduate students are expected to produce high-quality figures for scientific papers[1–
Competing interests: The authors have declared 3], posters and presentations, their studies rarely include coursework in visual design or visual-
that no competing interests exist. ization techniques. Instead, students learn in an ad-hoc fashion from peers and advisors,

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 Design Help Desk for scientists and engineers

acquiring visual skills without a clear framework[4]. This lack of knowledge in visual design is
unfortunate, because visualization can be a powerful tool for scientific discovery, as well as a
compelling vehicle for sharing information[5]. By creating visual representations, scientists
can explore speculative concepts, deconstruct complex relationships, and discover patterns
and key features in their data. In addition, by externalizing their thinking in visualizations that
can be shared with others, scientists facilitate communication with other scientists and the
general public. There are numerous examples of scientific visualizations that have functioned
as powerful and inspiring public revelations—ranging from Galileo’s drawings of the Earth’s
moon,[6] to Watson and Crick’s double-helix model of the DNA molecule [7].
To address the gap in visual learning, a number of guides to designing effective visuals have
been written for scientists and engineers.[8, 9] Many of these guides offer valuable frameworks
for thinking about visual communication design and include useful comparisons of effective
and ineffective scientific graphics. However, as many educators have discovered[10], simply
creating the solution in a body of material and having it available will not necessarily cause the
learner (in this case the scientist) to understand the content and the application of the pro-
cesses prescribed therein.[11] Even though these texts are intended to be accessible to non-
designers, they can be overwhelming to novices, who may have difficulty determining which
lessons apply to their own work. In design, there are few black-and-white rules and rubrics
that can be applied in a straightforward manner; most design decisions involve the subjective
consideration of competing attributes.
At the University of Washington, we sought to make design knowledge more accessible to
scientists and engineers by creating a visual design tutoring center called the Design Help
Desk. At the Design Help Desk, science and engineering graduate students can consult with a
design graduate student or senior design undergraduate to receive visual advice and guidance
on their figures, presentations, posters—any scientific visualization or graphic.
In operating the Design Help Desk, we became interested in understanding what kind of
learning was taking place between scientists and designers. Were scientists gaining skills and
knowledge, or were they simply following the specific directions of the design consultant?
If design-science consultations are indeed effective in helping scientists and engineers
acquire visual design skills, such a model would be relatively simple to replicate at universities
world-wide. Unlike efforts to incorporate visual design coursework into the curriculum of a
STEM degree program, peer-tutoring sessions can be organized with modest effort and fund-
ing. Furthermore, peer tutoring is time-efficient (in comparison to enrolling in a semester-
long visual design course) and provides scientists with targeted visual instruction on a critical
issue at hand.

Materials and methods

Subjects
The Internal Review Board (IRB) of the University of Washington granted permission for this
study. We observed twelve subjects who voluntarily came to the Design Help Desk for advice
on how to improve a visual figure that they had previously created in the course of their
research. Participants learned about the Design Help Desk from a number of sources includ-
ing: (i) advertisements placed on notice boards targeting University of Washington graduate
students in science and engineering (see Supporting Information); (ii) classroom announce-
ments by faculty and staff teaching in science and engineering; and (iii) word of mouth across
campus as students discovered the availability of a tutoring center offering free help in design-
ing visual figures.

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 Design Help Desk for scientists and engineers

Subjects included both graduate students and post-doctoral researchers studying science
and engineering at the University of Washington (specific disciplines included the physical sci-
ences, theoretical sciences, and nanoscience). There were an equal number of females to
males, with ages ranging from mid-twenties through mid-fifties. The participants came from
diverse backgrounds reflecting the general population of the University of Washington.
Subjects scheduled their 30-minute Design Help Desk appointment online. When subjects
arrived at the Design Help Desk, they were reminded that their interaction could be part of a
research study and were asked if they wanted to participate. Subjects were informed of their
rights and told that if they preferred not to take part in the study that it would have no impact
on whether or not the design consultant would help them (in fact, the designer never knew if a
participant was in the study or not). When the subject agreed to be part of the study, they
signed the research consent form. As it happened, all participants opted to be part of the study.
We sought and received Internal Review Board permission for this study. All necessary pre-
cautions were taken to preserve participant anonymity. Express written permission was sought
and granted when pictorial images and verbal utterances of participants were used in associ-
ated publications and reports. Individuals in this manuscript have given written informed con-
sent to publish their case details (as outlined in the PLOS consent form).

Data collection
We collected a mix of written and audio/video material. First, we asked each participant to
complete a written demographic survey. Then, we recorded all sessions of the Design Help
Desk with two video cameras. The camera setup (as shown in Fig 1) was always the same. One
video camera captured the frontal expressions, body language and gestures of both participants
as they sat at the same desk facing forward directly into the camera. The designer was always
seated on the right, and scientist was always seated on the left. The second video camera was
placed over the desk, suspended from the ceiling. This second camera captured what happened
on the desktop, including the hand positions of both participants with respect to the desk and
any paperwork on the desk. Both cameras were turned on before the session began and were
not turned off until after the scientist left the room.

Fig 1. Camera setup at the design help desk. At the Design Help Desk the scientist was always seated on the left and the designer on the right.The image on the left shows
the “Face-On View” which captures the frontal expressions, gestures and body language of both participants. The image on the right shows the “Overhead Desk View”
which captures the gestures of both participants on the desktop, including interactions with the graphic printouts on the desk.
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 Design Help Desk for scientists and engineers

After each DHD session, the scientist received an email inviting them to complete a satisfac-
tion survey regarding their experience. This survey (Appendix B) also collected general demo-
graphic information, including academic background and previous experience/education in
visual design.
To gauge the overall impact of the Design Help Desk, we contacted participants after their
session to ask if they had made changes to their graphics following the consultation. We also
asked if their graphic was subsequently published (for example, in paper, in a poster presenta-
tion, thesis, etc.) If we were unable to reach the participant, we conducted a literature and
online search to determine if the graphic brought to the DHD had been published in a paper
or other venue.

Data analysis
We analyzed our video data using Interaction Analysis, as described by Jordan and Hender-
son.[12] Interaction analysis is an interdisciplinary method that uses empirical evidence to
examine the interactions between human beings with each other, and with objects in their
environment. Specifically, at the Design Help Desk, we examined both verbal and nonverbal
interactions (as captured using the two-camera setup described above) to identify how issues
relating to the scientist’s graphics unfolded and were resolved at the Design Help Desk.
First, each videotaped Design Help Desk session was transcribed (our transcription conven-
tion is detailed in Appendix C). Following the work of Goodwin [13] transcriptions included
annotations for nonverbal communication such as changes in body position, gaze, and gesture.
Next, the videotapes for each session were played in front of a four-member working
group. Each member of the group had been trained in interaction analysis methods and tech-
niques. As the videos played, members marked categorical items of interest (e.g., conflict,
agreement, collaboration, etc.) and halted playback for discussion of each marked incident.
The individual stopping the video referenced specific verbal and/or non-verbal behavior to
convince others of a particular claim or assertion about the apparent mental state or intention
as evidenced in the interaction of the participants. Disagreement is common in this process,
and in this case, was resolved through discussion and consensus.
Based on the collaborative viewing and discussion process described above, the working
group identified a series of four phases that occur in a consistent sequence during Design Help
Desk sessions (see Fig 2 Cognitive Interaction Coding). Each phase includes two categories of
activities/ interactions.
Following the efforts of the four-person working group, two members of the group then
used the transcripts and accompanying video recordings to independently identify and code
the agreed-upon stages and interactions in each of the twelve Design Help Desk sessions. Iden-
tification and selection of these interactional episodes correlated at � .80, and interrater reli-
ability among researchers was 0.95. Interrater Reliability was computed using Cronbach’s A,
which may be thought of as the average correlation among the research team.[14] Again, dis-
agreements were resolved through discussion and consensus.
As shown in the last column of Fig 2, we also measured the number and length of turn-taking
utterances by each participant during each Design Help Desk session. We defined an utterance as
any stretch of talk by one person, before and after which there is silence by that person. Using
this definition, an utterance does not need to be grammatically correct. A participant who says
“Well, I umm. . .” has spoken an utterance that is just as valid as a participant who says. . . “Well,
I am not convinced.” As noted by Wooffitt, all aspects of interaction—even fillers (such as umm,
huh, ah. h. . . etc.), repeated phrases and idiosyncratic words (e.g., like, we..ll. . . etc.)—are valid
utterances that may be significant in illuminating a speaker’s mental state[15]

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 Design Help Desk for scientists and engineers

Fig 2. Cognitive interaction coding. Analysis of twelve Design Help Desk sessions identifies specific phases in the interactions between the designer and scientist. Two
main activities occur during each phase. The last column shows the average number of utterances during each of these phases. Blue denotes utterances from the scientist,
while black is used for the designer. The first and last phases are dominated by the scientist. The second and third phases have more utterances from the designer. Phases
vary in length; Disequilibrium is relatively short, while the longest phase is Knowledge Establishing.
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In order to process the large quantity of discourse generated by twelve half-hour sessions,
we used the visualization tool “Monologger” created by Tad Hirsch and Jonathan Cook at the
University of Washington[16] to carry out moment-to-moment video analyses of the interac-
tion between the scientist and the designer. Monologger captures and visualizes content logs
of conversations as bar charts, therefore ‘making visible’ key aspects of participant interaction,
such as the number of utterances, overall speaking time, turn-taking, and over-talk. These
aspects of conversation have proved valuable in understanding how participants verbally (and
non-verbally) exchange ideas in conversation under specific communication situations[17].

Results
Our video analysis shows that the Design Help Desk created a learning opportunity for scien-
tists, with disequilibrium appearing to be the catalyst. According to Graesser[18], complex

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 Design Help Desk for scientists and engineers

learning occurs when there is a discrepancy between an immediate situation and a person’s
prior knowledge, skills and strategies—in this case, the scientist’s uncertainty regarding how to
modify a visual to overcome deficits. In this scenario, the scientist experiences a gap in his/her
knowledge—an impasse that causes confusion and frustration—what Piaget refers to as cogni-
tive disequilibrium.[19] Piaget’s theories have been verified in many research studies using
behavioral and empirical testing in learning settings as diverse as neuroscience laboratories,
[20] classrooms,[21] and workplaces.[22]
Disequilibrium appears to be key. It is related to categories of information (Piaget’s
schema), which reside in a person’s executive function region (prefrontal cortex) and are cen-
tral to consolidating learning through complex neural networks.[23] These networks become
activated when an individual is prompted to re-evaluate prior knowledge and possibly assimi-
late it with new learning in the process of solving problems or creating new products.[24] This
entails a transfer function[25, 26] that further promotes network activation with resulting neu-
roplasticity[27] to construct long-term memory[28] and deep understanding.[29, 30] Willis
asserts that without these kinds of opportunities for strengthening, any memories learned by
traditional methods (e.g., rote) are simply pruned away from disuse. Central to the learning
that appears to be emergent in this interactive space is the notion of metacognition[31] that
leads to agency[32] and personal fulfillment.[33]
To better understand the concept of disequilibrium, we review the phases of the Design
Help Desk, as shown in Fig 2, above. In Phase One—Introduction—the designer (as the more
experienced participant) begins the Design Help Desk session (See Appendix C, Consultant
Script) by laying the groundwork for a proactive collaboration. However, the scientist domi-
nates the conversation with roughly seven times more utterances than the designer (115 vs.
17), since it is his/her graphic that needs to be explained in context. We call this activity
Explaining, since the scientist is describing and clarifying his graphic to the designer. During
this time, the designer’s responses are generally reinforcing statements that demonstrate empa-
thy—often simply listening and, when appropriate, repeating back to the scientist what was
just stated—a feature of pedagogy that establishes safety, agency, and collaboration.[34] For
example:
Designer: So (0.2) before we begin (0.1) do you wanna just kinda give me an overview of what
they’re (0.2) they’re [the figures] saying? ((laughs))
Scientist: Sure
Designer: What they’re about?
Scientist: Sure (0.1) uhm (0.2) so (0.2) the (0.1) these are both locations on Mars (0.1) which is
what I study ((laughs))
Designer: OK (0.2) good ((nodding))
Scientist: Uhm (0.2) and (hhh) so the reason that I’m doing the study that I’m (0.3) these fig-
ures are for (0.2) is because (0.2) uh (0.2) my advisor actually found (0.2) um (0.2) quartz at
these locations (0.3) which is rare on Mars (0.3) so, (0.2) quartz is all over the Earth (0.2)
but it’s not on Mars anywhere except this location
Designer: Huh
Scientist: We’re trying to figure out why (Hhh)
The Introduction phase generally ends when the designer asks if they can make changes to
the work in question—when he or she Asks Permission to modify elements of the visual under

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 Design Help Desk for scientists and engineers

discussion. For example, the designer may ask the scientist, “Do you mind if I mark it up?”
(referring to the paper copy of the visual graphic they are jointly examining).
In Phase Two—Knowledge Establishing—both participants ease deeper into understanding
the specifics of the graphic positioned on the desk between them—the object of joint visual
attention. The designer asks Incisive Probing questions to try and Make Visible what the scien-
tist is trying to present. For example, in this excerpt, the designer needs to understand the
intention of the scientist in his rendition of double lines to show tectonic activity after earth-
quake events:
Scientist: There are two significant earthquake events that could potentially affect Puget
Sound (0.4) one of them was (0.2) uh an earthquake on the (0.3) what’s called the Seattle
fault? and that was about (0.3) um (0.1) 1100 years ago =
Designer: = Is that indicated by these two lines?
Scientist: That is indicated by this (0.2) this gray line here =
Designer: = Yeah? that gray line?
By digging deeper with questions, the designer is encouraging the scientist to explain his
reasons for creating the existing graphic—and setting the groundwork for possibly considering
a new visual design concept. At the same time, the designer is also monitoring the potential for
the scientist to become protective and/or reactive. The designer is skilled in interpreting reac-
tive states and is prepared to advance or relax the approach (depending on perceived resis-
tance) so that the session can proceed productively.
During this Knowledge Establishing phase, the scientist typically takes a ‘follower’ role, and
the ratio of utterances reflects this, with the Designer speaking roughly twice as much as the
Scientist (260 vs. 93). For example, in the following excerpt, the designer has the dominant
speaking role:
Designer: I would say that (0.2) uhm (0.2) yeah (hhh) I (0.1) I (0.2) the- these definitely get
lost
Scientist: Mmhmm
Designer: I mean I saw them up here in the blue, (0.2) and then green (0.2) I mean it also is
the print-out (0.2) like you mentioned
Scientist: Mmhmm
Designer: Um (0.3) I think calling out stuff is fine (0.2) I mean, = (0.3) what I’m seeing the
most (0.3) and (0.2) and where you’re gonna see the most is the contrast
Scientist: Mmhmm
Designer: And so right now the contrast that I (0.3) it’s all these lakes
Scientist: Mmhmm
Designer: And that’s sort of (Hhh) giving me a really strong indication of land mass
Scientist: Mmhmm
Designer: But not necessar- (0.2) then I lose everything else
Scientist: Mmhmm

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 Design Help Desk for scientists and engineers

Phase Three—Conceptual Change—is dominated by two elements that are a critical turning
point in the overall reaction of the scientist to the new information and to the realization that
change was needed. The first is the moment of Disequilibrium—the Piagetian learning concept
[35] that we discussed previously as a requirement for conceptual change.
[36] The second is a Shift in Thinking—a moment of acceptance[37] when the scientist
jumps back into the fray by generating new ideas[38] and contributing elements that advance
the project with the designer.
In all twelve sessions, the scientist demonstrated a visible and audible ‘Moment of Disequi-
librium’ when they realized that the graphic might need a substantial alteration of a kind that
they had not imagined before—perhaps even a major rethinking and/or restructuring of the
design. As shown in Fig 3, the signatures of Disequilibrium in dialogue, hand position, and
facial expressions were readily detectable and pronounced.[39]
During the ‘Moment of Disequilibrium’ (and this was confirmed in every Design Help
Desk session) the scientist expressed less words—typically, monosyllabic utterances—or lapsed
into extended silence. As noted by Sacks et al, when silences occur at normal turn-taking junc-
tures, this is usually a sign that the dyadic interaction has faltered.[40]
Our interpretation of Disequilibrium is further reinforced by the body language and ges-
tures of scientists. Physically, the scientists withdrew their body and hands from the shared
desk and paper. As noted by Graesser in his study of learner postures, the position of the body
often changes when a learner experiences the confusion and frustration associated with cogni-
tive disequilibrium. Crossed arms are also suggestive of a subject’s defensive stance. Pease
describes this posture as a “barrier signal”—an unconscious attempt to block out a threat or
undesirable circumstance.[41] Similarly, a subject with clasped (or fidgety) hands—as
occurred during disequilibrium—indicates discomfort, nervous tension, and/or fear. Similar
learning signatures (accompanied by these kinds of moments of disquiet) were evident in a
classic study involving incumbent engineers at an aerospace workplace when two methodolo-
gies were compared for active engagement, deep understanding and near and far transfer.[42]
We can also examine the dialogue that occurs during the moment of Disequilibrium:
Designer: Okay. So we’ve got (2.0) just look at (2.0) I’ll do a draw. . .I’ll leave this as like the
original (Hhhh) um.. two ((inaudible)) things here
Scientist: Mmhmm
Designer: okay (Hhhh) um (2.0) ’cause what we would normally say (2.7) is like (2.0) you
know (2.0) if this is sort of (Hhhh) I would say these floating numbers are sort of the issue
that I see (Hhhh)
Scientist: Yeah I was trying to bring them outside of the box.. but for me it’s still (hh) like.. I
feel like each one should probably still be labeled
Designer: Yeah (2.3) um (2.3) and even.. you know (Hhh) you’re giving it sort of an x and y
Scientist: Mmhmm
As evidenced in this excerpt, the moment of Disequilibrium appears when the designer
states: “. . .these floating numbers are sort of the issue.” The scientist first reacts with what
could be construed as a defense, by saying “I was trying. . .” but trails off in his effort to argue
this point.
As seen in Fig 4A, the body language and gestures at the ‘Moment of Disequilibrium’ are in
direct contrast to the beginning (and indeed the end when generating new ideas and

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 Design Help Desk for scientists and engineers

Fig 3. A closer look at the ‘moment of disequilibrium’. Two instances of disequilibrium characterized by (a) who is speaking, (b) hand position, and (c) body
language. In (a) designer and scientist utterances/turn-taking are shown in a bar chart. In (b) hand positions are mapped, with higher numbers indicating closer
proximity to the desk and graphic. Both (a) and (b) show the scientist withdrawing verbally and physically during disequilibrium. In (c) both scientists exhibit the
discomfort of disequilibrium (clasped hands and crossed arms are known signals of stress).
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contributing solutions) of a typical session, when the scientist was close to the desk and used
hand gestures to Explain his or her thinking as part of the Introduction phase.
Similarly, the scientist’s behavior during the ‘Moment of Disequilibrium’ also contrasts the
Knowledge Establishing phase. In this phase, when the designer asked Incisive Probing ques-
tions (shown in Fig 4B), the scientists leaned in, placing their hands on the desk and touching
the graphic. Often, after the designer asked a question, he or she would pull away from the

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 Design Help Desk for scientists and engineers

Fig 4. Mapping the interaction between designer and scientist through hand position. We plot the hand position of both the designer (left) and the scientist
(right) as captured with an overhead camera at the Design Help Desk. Higher numbers indicate closer proximity to the visual (the graphic). Video stills
illustrate the specific phases of a Design Help Desk session as described in Fig 1.
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table in an open posture (hands in view, uncrossed limbs, clear eye contact) in order to “make
space” for the scientist’s explanations. According to Pease, the designer’s body language invites
the scientist to enter the designer’s space.
Given the silence from the scientist during Disequilibrium, the designer dominates the
utterances during the Conceptual Change phase (184 vs. 11). The designer, who is aware of the
scientist’s discomfort, tries to quickly shore-up the apparent ‘reactive’ response and makes
attempts to invite the scientist into a more ‘generative’ space where they will be able to accept
the situation, and offer meaningful solutions that can be articulated for consideration. For
example:
Designer: Um (0.2) well it’s a good start. You’re starting to establish a series by carrying these
symbols over (0.2) and then the next thing would be to bring these symbols over to the mol-
ecules as well (.2) so like,(0.3) maybe next to the A (0.2) there’s like a little white triangle or
whatever symbol corresponds to this molecule (0.3) so (0.2) that’s just another way to tie
this into the series (Hhhh) um (0.3) For (0.2) for this one (0.2),you said it’s maybe not so
important that you can’t really read this data? Like the (0.3) the more important thing you
get out of it is that they’re all kind of r- in the same range (0.2) or like that they’re all in on
top of each other? And then (0.2) and then this is the most important part that they be able
to read?
Scientist: Yeah (0.2) this is the most important part =
Designer: = ’Cause that’s coming through pretty nicely =
Scientist: = Yeah =
Designer: = Like you can distinguish the lines (0.2)
Scientist: Mmhmm

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 Design Help Desk for scientists and engineers

In learning sciences pedagogical parlance, this is akin to adjusting the internal cognitive
state of a learner by moving him/her out of the amygdala (reactive) brain by accessing the ‘gen-
erative’ executive function brain of the prefrontal cortex for deep engagement in a learning
space.[43, 44]
After the ‘Moment of Disequilbrium,’ the scientist (who through nonverbal and verbal
behaviors had withdrawn figuratively and literally from the joint attentional space on the desk,
as seen in Fig 4C) re-emerges and re-engages with the designer. We see this re-engagement as
evidence of a Shift in Thinking—the end of the Conceptual Change phase. The scientist tenta-
tively begins to return to the desk and papers, seeking to understand the designer’s input by
evaluating, consolidating, and synthesizing information and suggestions.[45] For example:
Scientist: So If I’m (0.2) if I’m trying to group (0.2) group this guy (0.1) this guy(0.2) this guy
(0.2) and let’s say, (0.2) like (0.2) these guys (0.2) all into one big (0.2) you know (0.3)
they’re all kind of (0.2) I mean they’re,(0.2) they’re different minerals (0.2) like (0.2) they
say different stuff next to ’em (0.2) but they’re all supposed to indicate more water (0.2) if I
did (0.3) like (0.2) different shades of blue (0.3) for all of these (0.3) instead of yellow and
red and brown and ?
Designer: Mmhmm ((nodding))
Scientist: Like (0.2) s-things like that (0.3) do you think that would (0.2) is-is that what you
were kind of talking about?
Designer: Yeah
Similarly, when the scientist Shifts in Thinking, their hands come back to the graphic (as
seen in Fig 4D) indicating an acceptance for the designer’s suggestions and a desire to seek a
way forward. The designer again pulls back from the desk in order to give space to the scientist
to generate new ideas. The scientist, newly engaged, points out specific parts of the graphic
while alternative representations are proposed. The body language of the scientist confirms an
active engagement (as seen in Fig 4E) leading into the final stage, Agency. We define Agency in
a way that captures Scardamalia and Bereiter’s definition of ‘Adaptive Expertise’[46] in their
groundbreaking work Surpassing Ourselves[47] thinking about it broadly as when a learner
takes ownership for his/her own learning.
Towards the end of the session there is a renewed joint endeavor as both scientist and
designer strive to finalize the project. The physical proximity of both parties, as shown in Fig
3F—something that has not occurred in the previous three phases—indicates a direct collabo-
rative interaction between the two participants and is borne out by the discourse analysis (Fig
2).
As the allotted (~30 minute) Design Help Desk time winds down, the scientist begins Tak-
ing Charge and articulates a mutual Agreement that makes sense given the practical consider-
ations for the graphic and their personal capacity for change. When the scientist determines
the new direction and Takes Charge, their utterances once again surpass the designer (195 vs.
107). For example:
Scientist: Cool (0.2) So (0.2) so yeah (0.3) so on this one just kind of (0.2) essentially just take
out all color out of text (Hhhh) is what you’re saying on this one (0.2) like (0.2) just (0.3)
ch-,er (hhh) change it (0.3) I mean (0.2) not all color (0.2) but (0.3) group these (0.2) in
terms of blues (0.3) and (hhh) other ones in terms of black?
Designer: Mmhmm =
Scientist: = but (0.2) but too many colors happening on here?

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 Design Help Desk for scientists and engineers

Designer: yeah (0.2) too many colors happening (0.2) uh (0.3)

Scientist: yep
In addition to this interaction analysis, our results include the post-session satisfaction sur-
vey, which was completed by eight of the twelve participating scientists (~67%). This comple-
tion rate fits within norms, given the range described by Chapman and Jones in their study of
response rates for online end-of-course evaluations.[48]
In the survey, the eight participating scientists chose either “agree” or “strongly agree” for
the following three statements: 1) Overall the help desk consulting session was helpful to me;
2) The help desk consultant was knowledgeable and analytical; 3) The help desk consultant
provided helpful direction and feedback. For the fourth statement (The help desk consultant
established rapport with me) one scientist selected a neutral response (“neither agree nor dis-
agree”) while the other seven selected either “agree” or “strongly agree.”
When asked what aspects of the session contributed most to their learning, two scientists
noted that “getting an outsider’s perspective” was particularly helpful. One scientist also appre-
ciated getting “straight forward, to the point and very helpful advice”—while another said it
helped to get “clear and precise ways to change my figure—i.e., changing colors, aligning
labels, etc.”
One scientist summed up her experience by noting, “I really liked how the consultant first
tried to understand our project and then gave us helpful advice on how to organize the layout
of the poster.”
When asked if anything detracted from their experience at the Design Help Desk, two sci-
entists made small suggestions. One person felt that the cameras were distracting (in this case,
the operator had an unusual difficulty with the overhead camera and caused a delay). Another
scientist thought a visual designer who knew more science might be a better consultant. How-
ever, two others noted that a key advantage to the Design Help Desk was “getting a non-scien-
tific perspective of my work.”
In our later follow-up with participants, we were able to determine the trajectory of all
graphics after the Design Help Session. Eight of the twelve participants published their Design
Help Desk graphic in an academic paper. Two of remaining participants had brought poster
designs to the Design Help Desk; one poster was presented at a scientific conference and the
other was shown in a public presentation at the end of a capstone course. One participant pub-
lished her graphic in her graduate thesis. The final participant encountered a difficulty with
her research that resulted in a significant change to her study; for this reason, her graphic was
placed on “indefinite hold.”
Of the eleven graphics that were published, six demonstrated clear improvements to the
visual design—for example, simplification of overly complex illustrations, or reorganization
into simpler compositions (reading top-to-bottom or left-to-right) Fig 5 (below) is typical of
this kind of transformation.
Of the remaining five graphics, three exhibited minor changes after the DHD session (for
example, small changes in color or better subtle repositioning of elements). The last two graph-
ics were essentially unchanged, because those DHD sessions focused on reproduction and
technical/software issues that did not involve changes to visual design.
Notably, during our follow-up effort, several scientists expressed appreciation for the
Design Help Desk service. One scientist noted, “I found the Design Help Desk to be very help-
ful because it shifted the way I was looking . . . I think as students we tend to try to emulate fig-
ures we have seen in publication, whether or not they were particularly effective. Having
someone outside my field, with expertise in visual communication and design, helped me
learn to ‘see’ a figure I’m working on and ask what the goal of the figure is, and ask whether it

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 Design Help Desk for scientists and engineers

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 Design Help Desk for scientists and engineers

Fig 5. An improved figure before and after consultation at the design help desk. Lower image from “Intracellular Delivery and Trafficking
Dynamics of a Lymphoma-Targeting Antibody–Polymer Conjugate”[49].
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0212501.g005

can be understood, in a general sense, by anyone.” Another said, “It was especially nice to be
able to discuss [my graphic] with a non-colleague [because] my peer-set at the time was mostly
like-minded people pursuing similar fields. My external school/research friends would agree
with whatever I said about my work, so it was extremely helpful to have an individual dedi-
cated to hearing me out and providing useful feedback.”
Two of the scientists shared their published work with us prior to our scheduled follow-up
simply to express thanks and gratitude for the service. One of the scientists was satisfied
enough to list the Design Help Desk in the acknowledgments of his papers.[50, 51] In our fol-
low-up, he wrote, “I can see that the final graphics were significantly improved compared to
those that I brought in—the text was decluttered and made into a uniform style; the schematic
drawings were made clearer by depicting what was happening below the surface; and the titles
[are now] more descriptive and illuminating. . .much better figures through the help of your
team.”

Discussion
We see from post-session surveys and subsequent follow-up contact that scientists who came
to the Design Help Desk were satisfied with their experience. We also see that scientists specifi-
cally used the service to improve graphics that were targeted for publication and distribution
to the scientific community and general public. By examining the graphics before-and-after
their visit to the DHD, we see that design consultations have the potential to greatly improve
the quality of scientific visuals. While not all graphics were improved to the same degree, even
small revisions have potential to enhance scientific communication and understanding.
Furthermore, in this study, we offer direct evidence from participant discourse and nonver-
bal communication to verify that peer interaction at the Design Help Desk helps scientists to
learn visual design and, consequently, should help improve their scientific communications.
Specifically, at the Design Help Desk, scientists experienced conceptual change through a
collaborative process that promotes learner engagement and agency. In response to the design-
er’s Incisive Probing, the scientist re-evaluates the visual design choices that s/he made previ-
ously. We hear the scientist second-guess choices they made when creating their original
graphic, and see them experience Disequilibrium, as evidenced by extended silences, monosyl-
labic utterances, and physical withdrawal from the shared space.
Through our twelve cases, we see that the Design Help Desk intervention had a meaningful
impact on scientists, with Disequilibrium appearing to be the catalyst. A design-based interac-
tion between a visual designer and a scientist highlights and ‘makes visible’ a Disequilibrium
that (in a pedagogic world) galvanizes learning. The learning is characterized by Conceptual
Change [52] during an intentional process where the scientist’s prior knowledge is first ‘made
visible’ and then unsettled.
What factors made the Design Help Desk successful? First, the unique nature of the partici-
pants had a meaningful impact—two experts who were also intelligent novices. Because the
designer is not familiar with the scientist’s work, the scientist is forced to explain his visualiza-
tion. Many researchers have shown that controlled verbalization can facilitate learning.[53] As
described by Ahlum-Heath and diVesta the quality and timing of verbalization events (rather
than the mere activity of verbalizing) contribute to the outcome in either a positive or negative
way. Intentional focus on the process of Explanation at the Design Help Desk (e.g., the

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 Design Help Desk for scientists and engineers

designer’s Incisive Probing) compels the scientist to confront “blind spots”[54] that might have
been hidden in his understanding of the visual design problem.
Second, sessions at the Design Help Desk were short episodes (approximately 30 minutes),
which dealt with a constrained problem—a single scientific graphic. Research confirms that
sharing focus on an object of ‘joint visual attention’ helps individuals communicate during an
interactive session and fosters the social engagement that significantly predicts learning in
areas related to the content of the common space.[55, 56] Additionally, a 30-minute interval is
often referenced by productivity experts as an ideal length for a work session[57]; the time
pressure enhances attention and focus on the largest opportunity or problem area.[58]
Finally, the Design Help Desk represented a “safe space” where scientists could find their
voice,[59] generate new ideas,[60] and come away with unique, adaptive solutions.[61] There
were no external rewards or punishments at the Design Help Desk. Scientists were drawn to
the service by an intrinsic[62] desire to improve their visualizations. Similarly, the design con-
sultants agreed to work at the Design Help Desk due to their interest in teaching others[63]
about design. The self-selected nature of both participants likely smoothed the way toward a
positive outcome,[64] where designers were willing to grapple with a complex, technical sub-
ject, and scientists were able to change course and reinvest in a new approach. In ordinary life
situations, disequilibrium may result in social withdrawal in a protective stance,[65] but at the
Design Help Desk, the designer was able to engage with the scientist, help them “let go” of pre-
conceptions, and spur learner agency.[66]

Conclusion
This study examined what happened during interactions between a designer and scientist at
the Design Help Desk, a free tutoring service offering visual advice in a one-on-one setting to
scientists and engineers who sought to improve their visuals and data visualizations in publica-
tions, posters and presentations. Twelve consultation sessions were analyzed. All sessions
involved a single scientist or engineer (a graduate student or post-doctoral researcher studying
science or engineering at the University of Washington), and a designer (a senior undergradu-
ate or a graduate student studying design at the University of Washington). The purpose of
this research was to understand what kind of learning was taking place between scientists and
designers at the Design Help Desk, and to determine if design-science consultations are a via-
ble means of helping scientists and engineers acquire visual design skills.
At the Design Help Desk we observed active learning during all sessions/interactions
between a scientist and a designer. During all twelve sessions, scientists overcome misconcep-
tions and a fixed mindset[67] by negotiating a moment of Disequilibrium that facilitated
Agency and understanding. The sessions satisfied the scientists and improved their visuals.
The success of the Design Help Desk intervention supports the notion that an interaction
between STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Math) and the Arts (by pairing design
and scientific thinkers in STEAM programs) promotes not only better science,[68, 69] but
indeed, better learning.[70–72]
The idea of bringing designers and scientists together has, in the past, proven to be success-
ful in education. In 2007–2010, the National Science Foundation sponsored a series of “Pictur-
ing to Learn” workshops that connected science students and faculty from Harvard, MIT,
Duke University and Roxbury Community College with design students and faculty from the
School of Visual Arts in New York City.[73] As noted by scientist and organizer Felice Frankel,
“When science and design students collaborate, their drive to understand one another’s ideas
pushes them to create new ways of seeing science.”[74]

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 Design Help Desk for scientists and engineers

We hope that findings from our research that examined interactions between designers and
scientists within a learning sciences framework will enable the development of more cross-dis-
ciplinary peer tutoring centers in design modeled after the Design Help Desk. Such design/sci-
ence centers would be relatively simple to setup and replicate, given that there are ~2,500
degree programs in or related to graphic/visual design in the United States[75] and tutoring
only requires a relatively small (two-person) desk/discussion space (typically available at uni-
versity libraries or other common study areas). Students from design programs are often eager
to share their knowledge with others—as volunteers, or for academic credit, or for a modest
hourly wage. Additional Design Help Desks could help nurture better-quality visualizations
and graphics in science and encourage cross-fertilization of ideas and future collaboration
between the scientific, learning sciences, and visualization communities.

Appendix A
Design Help Desk Participant Survey
Thank you for participating in the Design Help Desk research project. The following questions
will help us know a little more about you and your program, and how we can better help others
like you to make better diagrams and graphics for their poster, paper and other academic
presentations.
Q1.
Please enter the identifying code that you received in your email for this survey.
Your name will not be associated with your answers.
Q2.
My bachelor’s degree is in:
(e.g. Chemistry with a minor in Biology)
Q3.
Home department:
Q4.
Current status in graduate program:
passed qualifying exam at UW
passed general exam at UW
passed final exam at UW
not in a graduate program; already have Ph.D.
Other:
Q5.
How many years have you been enrolled in a science or engineering graduate (post bache-
lors) program? Include years spent at UW and elsewhere, if applicable.
Enter a number (without commas).
Q6.
Rate how well the statement applies to your research:
My work contributes to nanotechnology research.
Strongly disagree
Disagree
Neutral
Agree
Strongly agree
Q7.
I have prepared graphics for: (check all that apply)
unpublished work: e.g. group meetings, advisor meetings

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 Design Help Desk for scientists and engineers

conference posters
conference presentations and/or public talks
papers for peer-review
Other:
Q8.
Do you have any formal training on how to make scientific graphics?
Check all that apply.
Single session lecture or seminar
Multi-session workshop
Quarter/semester long design course
No formal training
Other:
Q9.
When you create graphics, who are your sources for feedback? Select all that apply.
Advisor/faculty
Colleagues in your research group
Peers outside of your research group
Friends
Other:
Q10.
What has been the most useful influence on how you make scientific graphics?
Peer feedback
Advisor feedback
Formal training
Other:
Q11.
What types of software do you use in creating your scientific figures and graphs? Rate your
proficiency in using each of these tools:
Microsoft Powerpoint: Power User
Microsoft Powerpoint: Good User
Microsoft Powerpoint: Average User
Microsoft Powerpoint: Weak User
Microsoft Powerpoint: Have Never Used
Microsoft Excel: Power User
Microsoft Excel: Good User
Microsoft Excel: Average User
Microsoft Excel: Weak User
Microsoft Excel: Have Never Used
Adobe Photoshop (or similar): Power User
Adobe Photoshop (or similar): Good User
Adobe Photoshop (or similar): Average User
Adobe Photoshop (or similar): Weak User
Adobe Photoshop (or similar): Have Never Used
Adobe Illustrator (or similar)
Adobe Illustrator (or similar): Power User
Adobe Illustrator (or similar): Good User
Adobe Illustrator (or similar): Average User
Adobe Illustrator (or similar): Weak User
Adobe Illustrator (or similar): Have Never Used

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 Design Help Desk for scientists and engineers

Publication quality graphing software (e.g. Origin, gnuplot, Matlab, Igor Pro, etc.): Power
User
Publication quality graphing software (e.g. Origin, gnuplot, Matlab, Igor Pro, etc.): Good
User
Publication quality graphing software (e.g. Origin, gnuplot, Matlab, Igor Pro, etc.): Average
User
Publication quality graphing software (e.g. Origin, gnuplot, Matlab, Igor Pro, etc.): Weak
User
Publication quality graphing software (e.g. Origin, gnuplot, Matlab, Igor Pro, etc.): Have
Never Used
Other: Power User
Other: Good User
Other: Average User
Other: Weak User
Other: Have Never Used
Q12.
If you indicated so above, which publication quality plotting software do you use? Any
other programs?
Q13.
Rate the importance of the following questions:
How important is the design of graphics in science?: Extremely Important
How important is the design of graphics in science?: Very Important
How important is the design of graphics in science?: Neutral
How important is the design of graphics in science?: Kind of Important
How important is the design of graphics in science?: Not important
How important is it to teach science students to make graphics?: Extremely Important
How important is it to teach science students to make graphics?: Very Important
How important is it to teach science students to make graphics?: Neutral
How important is it to teach science students to make graphics?: Kind of Important
How important is it to teach science students to make graphics?: Not important
Q14.
Number of sessions you have used the Help Desk before this session:
Enter an integer (without commas).
Q15.
Please rate your experience at the Design Help Desk:
Overall, the help desk consulting session was helpful to me: Strongly disagree
Overall, the help desk consulting session was helpful to me: Disagree
Overall, the help desk consulting session was helpful to me: Neither agree nor disagree
Overall, the help desk consulting session was helpful to me: Agree
Overall, the help desk consulting session was helpful to me: Strongly agree
The help desk consultant was knowledgeable and analytical: Strongly disagree
The help desk consultant was knowledgeable and analytical: Disagree
The help desk consultant was knowledgeable and analytical: Neither agree nor disagree
The help desk consultant was knowledgeable and analytical: Agree
The help desk consultant was knowledgeable and analytical: Strongly agree
The help desk consultant established rapport with me: Strongly disagree
The help desk consultant established rapport with me: Disagree
The help desk consultant established rapport with me: Neither agree nor disagree
The help desk consultant established rapport with me: Agree

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 Design Help Desk for scientists and engineers

The help desk consultant established rapport with me: Strongly agree
The help desk consultant provided helpful direction and feedback: Strongly disagree
The help desk consultant provided helpful direction and feedback: Disagree
The help desk consultant provided helpful direction and feedback: Neither agree nor
disagree
The help desk consultant provided helpful direction and feedback: Agree
The help desk consultant provided helpful direction and feedback: Strongly agree
Q16.
What aspects of the help session contributed most to your learning?
Q17.
What aspects of the help session detracted from your learning?
That’s it! Thanks again for your participation and feedback.
Questions or Comments?
Contact Timothy OMahony at [email protected]

Appendix B
Transcription Conventions
(?) talk too obscure to transcribe.
Hhhhh audible out-breath
.hhh in-breath
= overlapping talk
(.) silence, less than half a second
(..) silence, less than one second
(2.8) silence measured in 10ths of a second
:::: lengthening of a sound
Becau- cut off, interruption of a sound
he says. Emphasis
= no silence at all between sounds
LOUD sounds
? rising intonation
(left hand on neck) body conduct
[notes, comments]

Appendix C
Design Help Desk Consultant Script
The Design Help Desk research seeks to investigate and understand how scientists learn about
visual communication (graphics and diagrams for research papers and presentations) at the
tutoring center. As part of this team of researchers, consultants with a Visual Design and Com-
munications background work with non-visual design scientists in order to understand this
creative space. The following script is suggested in order to facilitate a productive face-to-face
meeting with each scientist concerning their design graphic, and to insure a positive, collabo-
rative and pleasant experience for all concerned. We have divided the script into two formal
sections to distinguish the process from the product.
PROCESS. The process involves the physical location, the interaction and the tone of the
discussion with the prospective candidate. Here are a number of suggestions that might make
this experience pleasant and productive for the consultant and the candidate.
Greeting

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 Design Help Desk for scientists and engineers

• Consultant to meet the candidate in the foyer at CNT to escort him/her into the Help Desk
studio
• Friendly greeting and welcoming attitude—create a safe learning environment
• Words that put the candidate at ease and secure in the knowledge that this is a place where
learning takes place

PRODUCT. The product refers to the candidate’s graphic or diagram. Being mindful and
respectful of the difficulties that some people might experience in showing an “outsider” their
work, we offer the following suggestions.
Listening
• Begin with an overview–ask what the area of work is and what this particular graphic(s) rep-
resent in his/her own words
• Rules of operation–is it ok to mark up your graphics
Know Your Audience
• Is this graphic for a paper, a ppt or presentation
• How critical is the timeline
• Who are the stakeholders—co-authors, lab, etc.
• Be cognizant of the candidate’s level of engagement, fears or skills
Offering Suggestions
• Careful choice of words and timing help allay any fears of looking ridiculous or stupid
• Direct approach which presumes to improve the work might help
• Offer choices
• Praise what is working in the work and offer solid suggestions for what isn’t
Wrap Up
• It’s important to be courteous and helpful in the letting go
• Important not to discuss the work with people outside the researcher group

Supporting information
S1 Fig.
(EPS)
S1 File.
(PDF)
S1 Video. Depicting a typical interaction between designer and scientist at the design help
desk. At the moment of disequilibrium, designer (always on the right side of frame) dominates
interaction, scientist withdraws verbally and with body language
(MOV)

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 Design Help Desk for scientists and engineers

S2 Video. Video depicting a typical interaction between designer and scientist at the design
help desk. At the moment of disequilibrium, designer (always on the right side of frame) dom-
inates interaction, scientist withdraws verbally and with body language
(MOV)

Acknowledgments
We thank Yeechi Chen, Marilyn Ostergren, and Tess Brandon for their efforts transcribing the
Help Desk video recordings, and for their work in the research group analyzing the Help Desk
video recordings. We are especially grateful to Yeechi Chen for her assistance scheduling and
managing clients/scientists at the Design Help Desk; we also thank the scientists who came to
the service and participated in the study. We thank Tad Hirsch for his work with Jonathan
Cook developing the Monologger tool used to analyze turn-taking during the Design Help Ses-
sions. Finally, we want to recognize both Fanny Luor and Jason Petz for their design work on
the scientific figures in this paper. This work was funded by the National Science Foundation
Division of Research on Learning Award # 1008568.

Author Contributions
Conceptualization: Timothy O’Mahony, Karen Cheng, Marco Rolandi.
Data curation: Timothy O’Mahony, Jonathan Cook, Marco Rolandi.
Formal analysis: Timothy O’Mahony.
Investigation: Timothy O’Mahony, Jason Petz, Jonathan Cook.
Methodology: Timothy O’Mahony.
Project administration: Marco Rolandi.
Supervision: Marco Rolandi.
Visualization: Jason Petz, Jonathan Cook, Karen Cheng.
Writing – original draft: Timothy O’Mahony, Marco Rolandi.
Writing – review & editing: Timothy O’Mahony, Karen Cheng, Marco Rolandi.

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