Design and Construction of

Water Works
(COTM 4142)
 Chapter 1
Introduction to Dam Engineering

1.1. Introduction
1.2. Classification of Dams
1.3. Merit and Demerit of a Dam
1.4. Selection of Dam Site
1.5. Dam Foundation Treatment
1.6. River Diversion During Construction
 1.1. Introduction
What is a Dam?
It is a hydraulic structure constructed across the
river/stream that used to impound water. A dam
and a reservoir are complements of each other.

Upstream Reservoir

Dam

Downstream
 1.1. Introduction
Why do we need dams?
Distribution of population and water resources
 1.1. Introduction
Why do we need dams?
 1.1. Introduction
Why do we need dams?
Purpose of a Dam (impounded water)

– Irrigation
– Hydropower generation
– Flood prevention
– Water supply
– Inland navigation (transportation)
– Recreation (boating, skiing, camping, picnic
areas, and boat launch facilities)
– Mine tailing (to remove storing byproducts of
mining operations)
– Other purposes (facilitates the infiltration,
development of the overall socio-
economic …)
 1.1. Introduction
Why do we need dams?

Purpose of a Dam (impounded water)

 1.2. Classification of Dams

Dam can be classified based on:

» The function
» Hydraulic design
» Material used for construction
» Structural behaviour
1.2. Classification of Dams
Detention
 1.2. Classification of Dams
A. Classification based on the function

• Storage – it is constructed to create a

reservoir to store water during periods
when there is huge flow in the river (in
excess of demand) for utilisation later
during periods of low flow (demand
exceeds flow in the river). Water stored in
the reservoir is used for irrigation, power
generation, water supply etc.

• Diversion – it is constructed to divert part

of or nearly all the water from a river into
a conduit or a channel.
 1.2. Classification of Dams
A. Classification based on the function

• Detention – it is primarily constructed to

temporarily detain all or part of the flood
water in a river and to gradually release
the stored water later at controlled rates
so that the entire region on the
downstream side of the dam is protected
from possible damage due to floods. It may
also be used as a storage dam.

• Coffer dams: it is an enclosure

constructed around the construction site to
exclude water so that the construction can
be done in dry
 1.2. Classification of Dams
B. Based on Hydraulic Design
 1.2. Classification of Dams
B. Based on Hydraulic Design

•Non-overflow Dam
Section – it constructed
such that water is not
allowed to overflow over
the crest.
 1.2. Classification of Dams
B. Based on Hydraulic Design
Overflow Dam Section– it
constructed with a crest to permit
overflow of surplus water that
cannot be retained in the reservoir.
Generally dams are not designed as
overflow dams for its entire length.
Diversion weirs of small height may
be designed to permit overflow over
its entire length.
 1.2. Classification of Dams
B. Based on Hydraulic Design

• In most cases, dams are so designed

that part of its length is designed as
an overflow dam (this part is called
the spillway) while the rest of its
length is designed as a non-overflow
dam.
• In some cases, these two sections
are not combined like Embankment
dam.
 1.2. Classification of Dams
C. Based on Material of Construction
• Rigid Dam – it is constructed with rigid material
such as stone, masonry, concrete, steel or timber.
• Non-rigid Dam (Embankment Dams) – It is
constructed with non-rigid material such as earth,
rock etc.
– Earthen dam – gravel, sand, silt, clay etc
– Rock-fill dam – rock material supporting a water
tight material
– Rock-fill composite dam – Rock-fill on the d/s
side and earth-fill on the u/s side
– Earthen dams are provided with a stone masonry or
concrete overflow (spillway) section. Such dams are
called composite dams.
– In some cases, part of the length of the dam is
constructed as earth dam and the rest (excluding the
spillway) as a masonry dam. Such dams are called
masonry earthen dams.
 1.2. Classification of Dams
D. Based on Structural Behavior
 1.2. Classification of Dams
D. Based on Structural Behavior
Gravity Dam
It is a masonry or concrete dam which resists the
forces acting on it by its own weight. Its cross-
section is approximately triangular in shape.
 1.2. Classification of Dams
D. Based on Structural Behavior
Arch Dam
• It is a curved masonry or concrete dam, convex upstream,
which resists the forces acting on it by arch action.
• This shape helps to transmit the major part of the water
load to the abutments

• Arch shape gives

strength,
• Uses less material
(cheaper)
• Narrow valley sites
• Needs strong
abutments
 1.2. Classification of Dams
D. Based on Structural Behavior
Buttress Dam
It consists of water retaining sloping membrane or deck
on the u/s which is supported by a series of buttresses.
The buttresses are arranged in the form that equally
spaced triangular masonry or reinforced concrete walls
or counter-forts.
• Face (deck) is held up by a series
of supports (buttresses)
• It has a flat or curved face
• It is a gravity dam reinforced by
structural supports
• The support transmits a force
from a roof or wall to another
supporting structure
• This type of structure can be
considered even if the foundation
rocks are little weaker.
 1.2. Classification of Dams
D. Based on Structural Behavior
Embankment Dam
• It is a non-rigid dam which resists the forces acting
on it by its shear strength and to some extent also by
its own weight (gravity). Its structural behaviour is in
many ways different from that of a gravity dam.

• It is constructed where the foundation or the underlying

material or rocks are weak to support the masonry dam
or where the suitable competent rocks are at greater
depth.
• mainly built with clay, sand and gravel, hence they are
also known as earthfill dam or rockfill dam.
 1.2. Classification of Dams
Classification of dam types with respect to
size/height of the dam
– Low dam / Small dam
– Medium dams
– High dam / Large dams
• International Commission on Large Dams, (ICOLD)
assumes a dam as big when its height is larger than
15m.
• If the height of the dam is between 10m and 15m and
matches the following criteria, then ICOLD accepts
the dam as large:
– If the crest length is greater than 500m
– If the reservoir capacity is larger than 1 million m3
– If the flood discharge is more than 2000 m3 /s
– If there are some difficulties in the construction of foundation
 1.2. Classification of Dams
World's Highest Dams
Name Location Structural Height Type of Dam
Rogun Tajikistan 335m
Nurek Tajikistan 300m Earth fill
Xiaowan China 292m Arch
Grande Switzerland 285m Gravity
Dixence
Inguri Georgia 272m Arch

African’s largest Dams

Name Location Structural Height Type of Dam
GERD Ethiopia 155m Gravity, RCC
Katse Lesotho 185m Arch
Aswan Egypt 110m Embankment
Cahora Mozambique 171m
Bassa
Gibe III Ethiopia 243m
 1.2. Classification of Dams
Classification of dam according to its
purpose/use
– Water supply dam
– Irrigation dams
– Power dams
– Flood control dams
– Multipurpose dams
 1.3. Merit and Demerit of Dams
Advantages:
• Irrigation (Agriculture)
• Water Supply (Domestic & Others)
• Generation of Hydro-electric Power
– electricity produced by water does not pollute
the atmosphere.
• Sediment Control
• Drought Mitigation
– Aswan dam (Egypt) used to irrigate about
4000 km2 of dessert areas
• Regulate the water flow i.e. Flood Control
• Navigation
• The lake that forms behind the dam can be used
for water sports and leisure / pleasure activities.
Often large dams become tourist attractions
 1.3. Merit and Demerit of Dams
Disadvantages:
• Expensive to build
• Flooded large areas resulting a natural
environment deterioration.
• Displacement of people and lose of farm lands.
• Alter population movement
• Large dams can cause serious geological
damage. For example, the building of the Hoover
Dam in the USA triggered a number of earth
quakes and has depressed the earths surface at
its location.
• Can cause a conflict between neighbouring
countries since dams block the progress of a
river flow .
• Alters the natural water table level. For example,
the building of the Aswan Dam in Egypt has
altered the level of the water table.
 1.4. Dams: Choice and Selection

The following are the main factors that to be

examined at the stage of dam type selection:

– Topography and geological conditions of

the proposed dam site,
– Availability of suitable materials for the
dam,
– The feasibility of spillway construction, and
– The need to be able to cope with conditions
of extreme flood and/or earthquake.
– Others (height, cost, communication etc…)
 1.4. Dams: Choice and Selection
Topographically:
– Most suitable place must be chosen for construction.
Ideally it must be a narrow gorge or a small valley with
enough catchment area available behind so that
calculated amount of water can be easily stored in the
reservoir created upstream.
Location of spillway:
– All dam should have an adequate spillway for the
passing of flood flows. If the river gorge is narrow, then
there may not be sufficient spillway width available and
a suitable location around the periphery of the reservoir
has to be found to locate a spillway
Construction:
– The site should be near to the materials which will be
used for construction. The non-availability will make the
cost of project is high.
 1.4. Dams: Choice and Selection
Technically:
– The site must be sound as possible: strong, impermeable
and stable. Strong rocks make the job of designer easy.
Impermeable sites ensure better storage inventories. Site
must be stable with respect to seismic shocks slope
failures around the dam.

Possibility of river diversion during construction:

– The way, river can be diverted at a particular site for
making way for construction of the dam may affect the
design of the dam and also the construction schedule

Sedimentation possibilities:
– The average quantity of sediment carried by the river
has to be known, as precisely as possible, which would
give an idea of the rate at which a proposed reservoir
way get filled up.
 1.4. Dams: Choice and Selection
Human welfare:
– Site selection should be done in such a way that it must
cause minimum damage to public in case of destruction
or failure.
Ecologically:
– The creation of water due to dam must not create
ecological disorder. Fish culture is the first sector that
suffers the major shock due to dam construction. It
indirectly affects the other population. The dam should
become an acceptable element of the ecological set up
of the area.
Geology of the Site Lithology:
– Surface and subsurface studies must be carried out.
These studies reveal the type, the composition and
texture of the rocks at the proposed dam site.
 1.4. Dams: Choice and Selection
Engineering Aspect (site investigation)
a. Strength parameter: it consists of three types
investigation – laboratory, in-situ static and dynamic.
– The compressive and shearing strength of the rocks
are estimated by laboratory test. These tests are
complimented with in-situ studies using static and
dynamic studies.
 Static study: with this test settlements and
strains are recorded with different loadings
which is used to estimate the bearing strength,
modulus of elasticity and Poisson's ratio.
 The dynamic method involve creating seismic
waves artificially at selected locations and
recording the velocity of the shock waves
through the rocks of the sites. The shock wave
velocity relates to the density, rigidity, porosity
and permeability of the rocks at the site.
 1.4. Dams: Choice and Selection
Engineering aspect: (site investigation)

b. Porosity and permeability:

Dam is a water impounding structure. So water
must not find easy avenues to escape other than
provided in design such as spillways. So porosity
and permeability of the rocks are tested both in
laboratory and in-situ. Artificial treatment is
given to the critical zones such as grouting to
make the rocks water tight.
c. Material availability:
If the cost of transportation of construction
material is excessively high, then an alternate
design with locally available materials have to
be considered.
 1.4. Dams: Choice and Selection
Engineering aspect: (site investigation)

Seismicity : it is very important to analyse the behaviour

of the dam under earthquake vibrations thereby
making it possible for the designer to check if a
particular section of the dam is suitable or not.

Hydrology – the study of hydrology also very important

and it comprises:
» Determination of a river flow (discharge)
» Sediment deposition
» Reservoir capacity & operation
» Reservoir losses
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): short & long
term impact, noise & dust hazards, effect on micro
climate
 1.4. Dams: Choice and Selection
Selection of Dam Type

Based on Topography:

– A narrow U-shaped valley, i.e. a narrow stream

flowing between high rocky walls, would
suggest a concrete overflow dam.
– A low plain, would be suggested an earth-fill
dam with separate spillways.
– A narrow V-shaped valley indicates the choice
of an Arch dam
– Solid rock foundations such as granite have
strong bearing power and almost every kind of
dam can be built on such foundations
 1.4. Dams: Choice and Selection
Selection:

Based on Geology (foundation condition):

– Gravel foundations are suitable for earthen

and rockfill dams.
– Silt and fine sand foundations suggest
construction of earth dams or very low
gravity dams.
– Clay foundations are likely to cause
enormous settlement of the dam.
Constructions of gravity dams or rock-fill
dams are not suitable on such foundations.
Earthen dams after special treatments can be
built.
 1.4. Dams: Choice and Selection
Selection:
Availability of Materials
– The dam requires a large quantity of materials for its
construction
– It is another important factor in selecting the type of dam. In
order to achieve economy in dam construction, the materials
required must be available locally or at short distances from
the construction site
– sufficient quantity should be available at near the dam site to
reduce the cost
Spillway Size and Location
– The capacity of the spillway will depend on the magnitude of
the floods to be by-passed. The spillway is therefore much
more important on rivers and streams with large flood
potential.
Earthquake Zone
– If dam is situated in an earthquake zone, its design must
include earthquake forces. The type of structure best suited to
resist earthquake shocks without danger are earthen dams
and concrete gravity dams.
1.4. Dams: Choice and Selection
 1.4. Dams: Choice and Selection
Stages in dam site appraisal and project development (P. Novak,
2001)
 1.5. Dam Foundation Treatment
Foundation Treatment in Dams:
If it is economically feasible, all material under the base
of a proposed dam which could cause excessive
settlement and leakage should be removed. If this
cannot be done, the dam design should be modified to
take account of such material. Sometimes it may be
necessary to remove material to considerable depths in
isolated areas of the foundation. This is known as
dental work. The general overall removal of material is
termed stripping, whereas the removal of loose masses
of rocks on the abutments is termed scaling.

The foundation treatment in dam consists of three

parts:
– grouting,
– drainage, and
– excavation of cut-off and backfilling with concrete.
1.5. Dam Foundation Treatment
Foundation Treatment in Dams:
Grouting as
applied to civil and
geotechnical
construction,
involves the
injection under
pressure of a liquid
or suspension into
the voids of a soil
or rock mass or
into voids between
the soil or rock
mass and an
existing structure.
 1.5. Dam Foundation Treatment
Foundation Treatment in Dams:
Drainage
– Drainage of the foundation is provided for
through holes drilled.
– The main purpose of the drainage holes drilled
from into the rock foundation from the
foundation and the drainage gallery was to
reduce uplift and drainage galleries in the
dam and from the foundation percolation of
water near the downstream toe of the tunnels
in the abutments.
– to prevent plugging of drainage holes during
grouting operations, the drilling of drainage
holes should be delayed until all grouting is
completed.
1.6. River Diversion During Construction
River Diversion
• The diversion structures are the group of works necessary
to guarantee that the river can bypass the dam site during
the main structure construction.
• The primary function of the diversion structure is to
protect and ensure the site safety during construction.
• A river diversion can be of various types. The implemented
structure design is based on a compromise between the
cost of the diversion facilities and the amount of risk
involved.
• The following factors should be analyzed:
• Streamflow characteristics;
• Physical characteristics of the site;
• Type the dam that requires river diversion;
• Definitive structures on the dam;
• Sequence of construction operations.
1.6. River Diversion During Construction
Types of River Diversion
1. River diversion tunnel (the river diversion through
tunnel has great applicability in embankment
dams but it has the highest cost)
2. River diversion in conduits (alternative to tunnel
diversion when surrounding rock has no enough
quality to make a tunnel)
3. River diversion in channel (when it’s not
economically feasible to carry out a tunnel- this
solution can use where the topography is
characterized by flattened valleys.
4. Opening left in the dam body (this method use in
concrete dams, more especially arch dam.
5. Temporary diversion with laterally constriction of
the river (in lateral contraction of the river section
by building a cofferdam)
1.6. River Diversion During Construction
Types of river diversion
1.6. River Diversion During Construction
Types of river diversion
1.6. River Diversion During Construction

Types of river diversion

Some of Ethiopian Dam Data
Name of the Dam Height Purpose
Aba Samuel 22m Hydropower & Flood Control
Arjo Dedesa 47m Irrigation
Genale Dawa III 110m Hydropower
Genale Dawa IV 39m Hydropower
GERD 155m Hydropower
Gidabo 22m Irrigation
Gilgel Gibe I 40m Hydropower
Gilgel Gibe III 250m Hydropower
Kesem 90m Irrigation
Koka 47m Hydropower
Rib 74m Irrigation & Flood Control
Megech 76m Irrigation & Water Supply
Melka wakena 42m Hydropower
Tekeze 185m Hydropower
Tendaho 53m Irrigation
Zarema May-Day 135m Irrigation
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