Table of Contents

Table of Contents| VIII

Table of Contents ........................................................................ VII

General Introduction ..................................................................11
CHAPTER-I. An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature......20
I.1. Definition of Post-colonialism: ......................................................... 21

I.2. Definition of Neocolonialism: ........................................................... 23

I.3. Postcolonial Theory: ........................................................................ 24

I.3.1. Trajectories of diaspora: .....................................................................25

I.4. Postcolonial Literature:................................................................... 31

I.5. A Novel as a Postcolonial Tool: ......................................................... 32

I.5.1. Representation of Women in Postcolonial Literature:..........................34

I.6. Defining Diaspora: ........................................................................... 35

I.6.1. African Diaspora: ...............................................................................36

I.6.2. Indian Diaspora:.................................................................................37

I.7. Diaspora Literature: ........................................................................ 38

I.7.1. Features of Diasporic Literature: ........................................................39

I.7.2. Indian diaspora literature: ..................................................................42

I.7.3. Nigerian diaspora literature: ...............................................................44

I.7.4. Definition of a diasporic writer:...........................................................45

I.8. Diasporic Studies:............................................................................ 46

I.8.1. Parallel Concepts of Diaspora:.............................................................46

I.8.2. Fundamental Issues in Diaspora: ........................................................50

I.9. Diaspora in Postcolonial Literature: ................................................. 58

I.10. Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni: ........................................................... 58

I.10.1. Divakaruni as a Portrait of the American-Indian Diaspora: ...............59
 Table of Contents| IX
I.10.2. Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni’s Style and Works: .................................59

I.11. The Mistress of Spices’ Plot Summary: ........................................... 61

I.12. Tilo's Diasporic Experience, Identity, and Representation of

Culture: ................................................................................................. 61

I.13. Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie: ........................................................... 63

I.13.1. Chimamanda as a portrait of the American-Nigerian Diaspora: .........63

I.13.2. Chimamanda's Literature Style and Works: ......................................64

I.14. Americanah’ Plot summary: ........................................................... 65

I.15. Diasporic Experiences in Americanah: ........................................... 66

CHAPTER-II. : A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of

Spices and Americanah ............................................................. 69
II.1. Divakaruni and Adichie, Two Different Generations of Diaspora
Writers: ................................................................................................. 70
II.1.1. Identity and Historical Context: .........................................................70

II.1.2. Themes and Style: .............................................................................72

II.1.3. Language: .........................................................................................74

II.1.4. Audience:..........................................................................................77

II.2. Identity as Central to the Discourse of Diaspora: Representation

from The Mistress of Spices and Americanah: ........................................ 78
II.2.1. Exploring Identity Issues: ..................................................................78

II.2.2. The Complexity of Defining Identity: .................................................81

II.3. The Representation of Postcolonial Themes in Both Novels: ............ 85

II.3.1. Displacement: ...................................................................................85

II.3.2. Hybridity: .........................................................................................86

II.3.3. Racial discrimination: .......................................................................89

II.3.4. Feminism in Postcolonial Context:.....................................................92

II.3.5. Language: .........................................................................................93

II.4. A Postcolonial Insight into The Mistress of Spices and Americanah: 94

II.4.1. In-betweenness: ................................................................................94
 Table of Contents| X
II.4.2. Unhomeliness: ..................................................................................96

II.4.3. Mimicry: ...........................................................................................98

II.4.4. Otherness: ....................................................................................... 100

II.4.5. Ambivalence: .................................................................................. 102

II.5. The Bildungsroman in the Context of Diaspora, Race and Gender: 105
II.5.1. Tilo and Ifemelu's Transformative Character Journey:..................... 106

II.5.2. Comparing Struggle Expression: Two Character Analysis: ................ 110

II.5.3. Comparing Purposes: Tilo and Ifemelu in Modern World: ................ 110

II.6. Diaspora Experiences: Exploring Conflicts and Similarities in

Divakaruni's and Adichie's Novels: ........................................................ 111
II.6.1. Home and Belonging: ...................................................................... 111

II.6.2. Memory and Nostalgia: ................................................................... 112

II.6.3. Inner Conflict: ................................................................................. 113

II.6.4. Diasporic Sensibility: ....................................................................... 114

II.6.5. Immigration: .................................................................................. 114

II.6.6. Documenting Diaspora Experiences: ............................................... 116

II.6.7. Cultural Clash: ................................................................................ 117

II.6.8. Negotiating Women’s Power and Issues: .......................................... 118

II.6.9. Return (back home): ...................................................................... 120

II.7. Postcolonial and Diaspora Experiences Narrating: ........................ 121

General conclusion .................................................................. 127

Bibliographical / References ................................................... 130
General Introduction
 General Introduction| VI

Background of the study:

The phenomenon of human migration has a long history, driven by various factors such as
the pursuit of food, shelter, improved social conditions, or access to higher education. However,
a significant number of immigrants have left their homelands to seek opportunities in wealthier
and more developed countries, motivated by factors like job prospects, higher wages, or the
desire to escape natural disasters, domestic violence, or political oppression based on their race,
gender, political affiliations, religious beliefs, or nationality. Throughout history, our ancestors
have migrated and established new homes in unfamiliar territories, indicating that migration is
an ongoing and perpetual process. It is crucial to draw attention to the experiences of Indian
and African immigrants who have predominantly migrated to Western countries, as they often
face challenges in adapting to the new society and must decide whether to conform or resist the
prevailing norms.

Furthermore, in this era of globalization, there is a widespread aspiration among individuals

to leave their native lands in pursuit of better living conditions. Indians and Africans from di-
verse professional and social backgrounds, including engineers, doctors, computer scientists,
and writers, migrate to various parts of the world seeking improved prospects. And despite their
hard work and contributions, they often encounter mistreatment and discrimination in the soci-
eties they choose to migrate to. Regardless of their positive integration or the value of their
work, they are often viewed as an inconvenience within these developed societies. This holds
true for Indian and African immigrants facing various challenges in the United States, which
may include issues related to racism, cultural assimilation, access to education, employment
opportunities, and social acceptance.

Many writers of Indian and African descent firmly believe that literature serves as a powerful
medium to address the issues and problems faced by their communities within diverse societies
such as America. Postcolonial diasporic literature writers, including Anita Desai, Bharani
Mukherjee, Shauna Singh Baldwin, Amitav Ghosh, Anjana Appachana, Sefi Atta, Helon
Habila, Helen Oyeyemi, Taiye Selasi, Chika Unigwe, Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni, and
Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, are no exception to this belief. Although settled in distant lands,
their connection and affection for their motherlands remain deeply rooted. The present study
primarily focuses on two prominent diaspora writers, Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni from India
and Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie from Nigeria. Despite their different cultural backgrounds and
 General Introduction| VI

life experiences, they share more than just their status as "minority" writers in the United States.
As postcolonial diaspora writers, their journeys are portrayed in their works, such as The Mis-
tress of Spices and Americanah, employing various diasporic techniques and themes like stream
of consciousness, immigration, hybridity, alienation, identity, rootlessness, and nostalgia to ex-
plore their experiences and perspectives.

In the past two decades, the term diaspora, which originated in ancient times, has gained
global significance, describing contemporary phenomena. It refers to the ability of certain pop-
ulations, in the era of globalization, to form communities despite being geographically dis-
persed. This is achieved through maintaining connections and cultural or religious characteris-
tics, with a shared sense of homeland or territory, whether existing or desired. While originally
associated with the Jewish community in the 3rd century BCE, the concept of diaspora has
expanded beyond its initial context and now represents a symbol of a new globalized existence,
where belonging can coexist with distance. (Dufoix, 2016, p.1).

In recent decades, diasporic literature has gained significant popularity, primarily driven by
the substantial migration of individuals from former colonies who were either brought as labor-
ers or voluntarily immigrated to Euro-American regions. These individuals, who now form part
of diaspora communities, maintain a strong connection to their original cultures and identities.
Their experiences of displacement, cultural hybridity, and the constant negotiation between
their heritage and the adopted cultures contribute to the rich tapestry of diasporic literature. This
genre allows writers from diverse backgrounds to explore and express their unique perspectives,
shedding light on the complexities of belonging, identity formation, and enduring ties to their
homelands. Through diasporic literature, these authors navigate themes of nostalgia, cultural
preservation, cultural assimilation, and the struggles faced by individuals living between mul-
tiple worlds.

The popularity of diasporic literature reflects a growing recognition of the importance of

diverse voices and narratives in contemporary literary landscapes, offering readers a deeper
understanding of the multifaceted nature of human migration and the profound impact it has on
individual lives and collective communities. Diaspora literature involves the idea of displace-
ment of a person or a group of people from their homeland to an alien place due to various
compulsions. They are regarded as a minority community living in exile. (Tomlinson, 2020).
 General Introduction| VI

Moreover, postcolonial literature brings to the center various concerns and debates about
diaspora issues and immigrants’ cultural and identical heritage. In this context, the native cul-
ture of the immigrants clashes with the culture of the settled land and generates further issues
like identification and so on. The expressions of such experiences by immigrant writers in lit-
erature have given birth to “Diaspora Literature” and both the chosen writers Adichie and Di-
vakaruni are prominent writers of Diaspora.

Diaspora generates some existential issues for immigrants such as feelings of displacement,
cultural conflict, identity confusion, etc. Of course, immigrants have the option of whether to
give up the language, culture, and traditions of their native land or hold on to them in the settled
land. It is important to dive into the importance of diaspora in postcolonial studies because the
ancestors of these people built highly unique cultures that both maintain and build on the per-
ceptions of their original cultures.

Some of the literary works in the same field of study, both American-Indian and American-
African diasporic novels, The Namesake (2003) by Jhumpa Lahiri, the novel opens in Cam-
bridge, Massachusetts, where Ashima Ganguli and her husband Ashoke, both immigrants from
Calcutta, are expecting their first child. The story follows the experiences of their son, Gogol,
as he navigates the challenges of growing up between two cultures. As Gogol's parents grapple
with their cultural identity and the pressures of assimilation, Gogol himself struggles with his
unusual name and the complexities of his heritage. The narrative spans several decades, explor-
ing themes of diaspora, identity, and the clash between tradition and modernity. Through the
characters' journeys, the novel offers a poignant portrayal of the diasporic experience and the
search for a sense of belonging. Gogol's exploration of his namesake, the Russian writer Gogol,
adds another layer of introspection and self-discovery. Ultimately, the novel delves into the
profound impact of cultural roots on personal identity and the enduring connection to one's
heritage. And Behold the Dreamers (2016) by Imbolo Mbue is a compelling novel that delves
into the lives of Jende and Neni Jonga, a Cameroonian couple who immigrate to New York
City in search of a better life. As they navigate the complexities of the American immigration
system and face the harsh realities of living in a new country, their aspirations and dreams
collide with the challenges they encounter. The novel offers a poignant exploration of their
longing for their homeland, the yearning for a sense of belonging, and the sacrifices they make
 General Introduction| VI

to pursue the elusive American dream. Mbue's storytelling illuminates the immigrant experi-
ence, shedding light on themes of identity, family, and the profound impact of seeking a better
future while grappling with the enduring ties to one's roots.

One important book in Postcolonialism is Post-Colonial Studies: The Key Concepts by Ash-
croft, Bill which explores the aftermath of colonialism and its impact on societies. It delves into
the complexities of power, identity, and cultural hybridity in the postcolonial world, offering a
critical lens to analyze the legacies of colonization. By examining literature, history, and poli-
tics, Ashcroft provides key insights into the ongoing struggles and narratives of formerly colo-
nized peoples, challenging dominant Eurocentric perspectives.

Another one in Diaspora is Global Diasporas: An Introduction by Cohen Robin. It is a com-

prehensive exploration of diaspora as a global phenomenon shaped by migration and displace-
ment. The book examines the social, cultural, and political dynamics of diasporic communities,
highlighting their transnational connections and struggles for identity and belonging. Cohen's
work sheds light on the complexities of diaspora, emphasizing its transformative power and
contribution to globalization and multiculturalism.

Motivation:

Our motivation for pursuing this research topic lies in our deep interest in the themes of
postcolonial literature and diaspora, as well as the transformative potential of studying abroad.
We are captivated by the complexities and challenges faced by individuals navigating diasporic
experiences, particularly in terms of adaptation, identity formation, and the impact of societal
norms. As research partners, we share a mutual drive to consistently strive for success and push
ourselves further in our academic endeavors. We find motivation in our collaborative efforts,
constantly motivating and supporting each other throughout the research process. Additionally,
we are fortunate to have a considerate supervisor who provides valuable guidance and closely
monitors our progress, further fueling our motivation and dedication. Through this research, we
hope to discover what people will deal with once they immigrate, therefore being a part of a
diasporic community, whether they go undertake the same experiences or not. In this way, we
will be providing ourselves with the necessary ideology in case we were put in the same cir-
cumstances.

Problem statement:
 General Introduction| VI

In Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni's The Mistress of Spices and Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie's
Americanah, the authors endeavor to portray the experiences of two women originating from
highly conservative and traditional or politically and economically troubled communities. Each
woman approaches her beliefs and values in a manner that aligns with her upbringing. However,
their journeys in America bring about significant changes in their lives. Transitioning from
strict and limited societies like India and Nigeria to the most open and modern country in the
world comes with both positive and negative consequences. The protagonists, Tilo and Ifemelu,
encounter the influence of their new environment and the prevailing ideologies of the society
they find themselves in. As diasporic individuals, they grapple with cross-cultural challenges,
witness instances of oppression and racism, and are often subjected to judgment or misunder-
standing due to their differing social backgrounds and cultural roots. The narratives of these
novels shed light on the complexities and struggles faced by individuals navigating between
multiple cultural identities in an increasingly interconnected and diverse world.

Research Questions:

When linking both novels to each other in a comparative study many questions may be tack-
led:

- To what extent are the selected novels considered a projection of the Indian and Nigerian
post-colonial diaspora?

- To what extent are the protagonists considered as a reflection of Divakaruni and Adichie’s
postcolonial diasporic experiences?

- To what extent do diasporas from different nationalities go through similar experiences?

Objectives:

The selection of The Mistress of Spices by Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni and Americanah by
Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie for the present research is driven by several key objectives. Firstly,
the research aims to analyze the concepts of postcolonialism, diaspora, and related terms such
as alienation, identity confusion, and multiculturalism. Secondly, it seeks to examine the sig-
nificant themes and major attributes of diasporic writings portrayed in both novels. Addition-
ally, the research aims to explore the messages conveyed by Divakaruni and Adichie through
 General Introduction| VI

their respective novels, shedding light on their perspectives and insights. Furthermore, the re-
search aims to compare and contrast the struggles faced by the protagonists in the two novels,
evaluating the outcomes of their respective journeys. It also seeks to investigate the character
development of the main characters in both novels, tracing their growth and transformation.
Moreover, the research aims to identify similarities between the novels of Adichie and Di-
vakaruni, as well as explore the connection between their writings and their personal lives.
Lastly, the research aims to examine the conflicts experienced by the diaspora characters in
both novels and analyze the impact of these conflicts on their lives.

Significance:

The significance of this research lies in its exploration of various facets of the diaspora ex-
perience. Furthermore, it holds academic importance as it focuses on the manner in which two
distinct novelists; hailing from different countries, portray the principles of postcolonialism and
diaspora within their literary works. By analyzing their writings, this research sheds light on
the complexities and nuances of these themes, contributing to a deeper understanding of di-
asporic literature and its significance in contemporary discourse.

In recent times, there has been a significant increase in diaspora, with its rapid growth ob-
served worldwide. Understanding the concept of diaspora and its connection to one's roots is of
great importance, especially for researchers who have personal experiences with immigration.
However, there has been a lack of in-depth investigation into comparative studies of different
diasporic experiences, particularly in Algerian universities and specifically at Kasdi Merbah
University. This research aims to fill this gap by offering literary researchers an opportunity to
explore the similarities and differences between the novels Americanah and The Mistress of
Spice, within the framework of the discussed theories and concepts of Postcolonialism and Di-
aspora. Furthermore, this study seeks to benefit readers who are interested in gaining insights
into the lives of immigrants in America and how their diasporic experiences are portrayed in
literary works.

Understanding the treatment of diasporas from diverse communities in the Western world
holds significant importance. Additionally, exploring the character development of the protag-
onists in both novels allows for a comparative analysis of the struggles they endure and the
outcomes that emerge from their respective journeys. The experiences depicted in these novels
 General Introduction| VI

serve as a source of inspiration for readers worldwide. As such, this research delves into the
postcolonial and diasporic elements present in The Mistress of Spices and Americanah, encom-
passing the complexities and themes inherent in these narratives. By examining these literary
works, this study aims to shed light on the multifaceted dynamics of diasporic experiences,
offering valuable insights into the challenges, transformations, and resilience exhibited by in-
dividuals navigating the interplay of culture, identity, and belonging in a globalized world.

Methodology:

The current research adopts a comparative approach to analyze and evaluate both novels,
considering the theoretical framework and characteristics of diaspora. Chitra Banerjee Di-
vakaruni represents a first-generation diasporic writer, while Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie is
considered a more recent one. The deliberate choice of writers from different countries and
generations aims to investigate potential variations in diasporic sensibility, identity struggles,
and the connection between identity and the host country in the writings of authors from diverse
national backgrounds.

This thesis is a qualitative study that is structured into two parts, theoretical and practical.
The first theoretical chapter will use the historical-analytical method to gather historical infor-
mation that may contribute to answering the research questions. However, the second practical
chapter will apply analytical, evaluative, and interpretive methods to analyze The Mistress of
Spices and Americanah according to the tackled theories. The objective is to touch upon the
diasporic sensibility in both novels. Specifically, a thematic analysis will be used to examine
the struggles that diasporic characters encounter in both novels. Furthermore, a character-based
comparative analysis will be implemented in the final section to compare and contrast the im-
pact of these struggles on the protagonists in each novel.

The Structure of the Study:

This dissertation is divided into two chapters, the first chapter titled "An Overview of Post-
colonial Diaspora Literature" is also divided into two sections, the first one serves as an exten-
sive exploration of various aspects. It delves into the realm of Postcolonial literature and theory,
comprehensively discussing its foundations and principles. Additionally, it examines the con-
 General Introduction| VI

cept of Diaspora and its constituent elements, emphasizing the intersection between Postcolo-
nialism and the Diaspora experience. The second section, however, is dedicated specifically to
introducing the authors in relation to their respective works.

On the other hand, the second chapter, named "A Comparative Study between The Mistress
of Spices and Americanah", presents a meticulous examination of the two novels. This chapter
focuses on conducting a detailed comparative analysis, meticulously scrutinizing, comparing,
and contrasting the authors, their respective literary works, and the characters of the protago-
nists. Special attention will be given to the development of these characters as they navigate
their struggles throughout the narratives.

This study relies on extracting samples from both novels with a special focus on themes and
tropes related to postcolonial diaspora experiences and the data collected for the research are
gathered from well-known books, electronic libraries, literary journals, and other recent articles
and theses.
CHAPTER-I. An Overview of
Postcolonial Diaspora
Literature
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 21
Introduction:

Chapter One presents an extensive overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature, providing

a comprehensive analysis of its theoretical foundations and fundamental concepts. It com-
mences with the elucidation of postcolonialism and neocolonialism, subsequently delving into
the various trajectories of postcolonial theory, such as alienation, identity, hybridity, mimicry,
ambivalence, assimilation, and diaspora. The chapter then examines diasporic studies in addi-
tion to its interrelated concepts, such as transnationalism, cosmopolitanism, and globalization,
emphasizing the essential issues of Identity quest, place, space, dispersal, home, belonging,
memory, nostalgia, return, in-betweenness, borders, and difference. It further explores the rep-
resentation of women in postcolonial literature, defines diaspora, African and Indian diasporas,
and a diasporic writer, Also discusses the characteristics of diaspora writings and their role in
Indian women writers. The chapter concludes by introducing diaspora literature and its features
as well as their relationship to postcolonial literature. The second section of the chapter focuses
on two prominent authors in postcolonial diaspora literature, Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni and
Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, detailing their backgrounds, literature styles, and works. It pro-
vides a comprehensive analysis of the plot summaries besides the diasporic experiences por-
trayed in Divakaruni's The Mistress of Spices and Adichie's Americanah.

I.1. Definition of Post-colonialism:

The term post-colonial and post-colonialism first appeared in the mid-1980s in scholarly
journals in Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths and Helen Tiffin's book The Empire Writes Back:
Theory and Practice in Post-Colonial Literatures (2002). By the mid-1990s, both terms were
familiar in a wider range of academic and non-academic discourses. The term "post-colonial"
can be traced back to the late 1970s in texts like Edward Said's Orientalism (1978). However,
it was not widely used at that time. It was only in 1990 when the postcolonial critic and theorist
Gayatri Spivak used the term in a collection of interviews and recollections called The Post-
Colonial Critic. This eventually led to the development of the colonialist discourse theory by
critics such as Homi Bhabha. In summary, the term "post-colonial" emerged in the late 1970s
but it wasn't commonly used until the 1990s, and it became a crucial concept in the development
of post-colonial studies. (Ashcroft, et al, p. 168).
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 22
According to Loomba (1998), Postcolonialism is a critical perspective that seeks to under-
stand and challenge the legacy of colonialism and imperialism. It draws on a range of disciplines
to analyze how power and identity are constructed and contested in the postcolonial world.
Postcolonialism is a field of study that incorporates a diverse set of academic disciplines to
examine the social, political, economic, and cultural consequences of colonialism and imperi-
alism, including literature, anthropology, history, philosophy, and cultural studies. It was de-
veloped with the expansion and colonization of Europe over the last decades.

The term imperialism has been understood to be a special form of the more general ideology
of colonialism, particularly as it relates to the ongoing political, economic, social, and cultural
domination of formerly colonized peoples by the West. It emerged in the mid-20th century as
a response to the continuing effects of colonialism, both in the countries that had been colonized
and in the metropole countries that had established and maintained colonial empires. According
to the postcolonial theorist and critic Edward Said, ‟ “imperialism” means the practice, the
theory, and the attitudes of a dominating metropolitan center ruling a distant territory; “coloni-
alism”, which is almost always a consequence of imperialism, is the implanting of settlements
on the distant territory. ˮ (p. 9)

The critical part of a definition of “postcolonial” concerns the prefix “post”, which signifies
two different meanings in one compound word. Critics such as Ashcroft et al (1989), Slemon
(1995), Young (1996; 2001), and Moore (2001) have tried to address this issue Slemon (1995)
admits that one of the most “vexed areas of debate within the field of postcolonial theory has
to do with the term ‘postcolonial’ itself.” According to Moore (2001), such a conception of
“post(-)colonial” can be viewed as “naïve, inadequate, or utopian”. By contrast, Slemon
(1995:101) argues that colonialism comes into existence within the concept of imperialism, “a
concept that is itself predicated within large theories of global politics and which changes rad-
ically according to the specifics of those larger theories.” The prefix ‘post’. In a simpler sense,
‘post’ means ‘after’ carrying a chronological meaning indicating a temporal succession period
that comes after colonization, post-independence, on the one hand. On the other hand, 'post-
colonial' may refer to the state of the land that is no longer colonized and has regained its polit-
ical independence such as post-colonial Algeria (Ashcroft et al., p.116). (Young, 2003). Post-
colonialism (or often Postcolonialism) deals with the effects of colonization on cultures and
societies. As originally used by historians after the Second World War in terms such as the post-
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 23
colonial state. However, since the late 1970s the term has been used by literary critics to discuss
the various cultural effects of colonization. (Bill Ashcroft, 2000, p. 178).

Postcolonial literature is the literature of the countries of Asian, African, and South, Ameri-
can continents that have been marginalized as a result of colonization. And also this literature
seeks to understand the possibility of retrieval and reversal of their 'own' pre-colonial pasts.
Also, it can be observed as literature of anger, protest, resistance, and of hope.

All in all, Postcolonialism is a process of resistance and reconstruction that deals with the
effects of colonization on cultures and societies during the post-independence period. It focuses
on the challenges and implications that former colonies faced and still face. In literature, Post-
colonialism analyzes and explains the impacts of colonialism and imperialism, particularly the
colonizer-colonized experiences. Edward Said is a leading theorist in this field, and Chinua
Achebe is one of its leading authors.

I.2. Definition of Neocolonialism:

Neo-colonialism means ‘new colonialism’ it is a term used to describe a form of indirect
control or influence exerted by a powerful country or group of countries over a weaker, often
formerly colonized country. The term was first coined by Kwame Nkrumah (1965), the first
president of Ghana, in his book Neo-Colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism.

Neocolonialism is used to refer to any form of control of the ex-colonies over their former
territories after political independence. According to Nkrumah (1965), neocolonialism is "the
last stage of imperialism" where Western powers use economic, political, and cultural manipu-
lation to control developing countries. This includes controlling resources, imposing trade
agreements that favor the West, and influencing political leaders to serve Western interests.
Neocolonialism perpetuates underdevelopment in the Global South, creating a system where
former colonial powers benefit at the expense of developing countries.

Amin (1976) argues that neocolonialism is a continuation of colonialism through different

means. While colonialism was characterized by direct military occupation, neocolonialism op-
erates through economic and cultural dominance. Through multinational corporations, Western
countries maintain control over the resources of developing countries, often paying low wages
and extracting wealth while not reinvesting in local economies. For instance, the United States
played a significant role in cultures and economies through new instruments of indirect control
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 24
through the power of multinational corporations and cartels which artificially fixed a crucial
place in the world, and through a variety of other educational and cultural NGOs (Non-Gov-
ernmental Organizations).

Neocolonialism is the most recent form of imperialism. It is not quite direct colonialism, but
it operates by breaking up large territories into small, dependent states that cannot survive with-
out the support of their former imperial power. While these countries may appear to be free,
their economic and political policies are still controlled by external forces.

In conclusion, neocolonialism refers to the continuation of colonialism through economic,

political, and cultural domination. This perpetuates underdevelopment in developing countries,
maintaining the dominance of former colonial powers over the Global South.

I.3. Postcolonial Theory:

Ashcroft et al (1989) argue that postcolonial theory emerges “from the inability of European
theory” to deal effectively with the challenges and the varied cultural provenance of postcolo-
nial writing. Christian (1995) contends that the language employed mystifies instead of clarifies
the condition of the marginalized.

Postcolonial theory is a multidisciplinary field of study that emerged in the latter half of the
20th century as a response to the continued impact of colonialism and imperialism on global
societies. It aims to deconstruct the cultural, social, and political legacies of colonialism and
their effects on the lives and experiences of postcolonial subjects. According to Ashcroft, et al;
postcolonial theory existed for a long time before the term was used to describe it. As soon as
colonized people had reasons to reflect upon and express the tension which arose from the
colonization and powerful imperial experiences, the postcolonial theory came into being. (Ash-
croft, et al, p. 1)

Postcolonial theory deals with the reading and writing of literature written in previously or
currently colonized countries, or literature written in colonizing countries which deals with col-
onization or colonized people. It focuses particularly on the way in which literature by the col-
onizing culture distorts the experience and realities, and inscribes the inferiority, of the colo-
nized people; on literature by colonized people which attempts to articulate their identity and
reclaim their past in the face of that past's inevitable otherness. It can also deal with the way in
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 25
which literature in colonizing countries appropriates the language, images, scenes, traditions,
and so forth of colonized countries (Al-Saidi 2014).

The postcolonial theory involves a discussion about experiences of various kinds: migration,
slavery, suppression, resistance, representation, difference, race, gender, place, and responses
to the influential master discourses of imperial Europe such as history, philosophy, and linguis-
tics, and the fundamental experiences of speaking and writing by which all these come into
being. None of these is ‘essentially’ postcolonial, but together they form the complex fabric of
the field. Like the description of any other field, the term has come to mean many things (Ash-
croft, Griffiths, & Tiffin, 1995)

According to the critic Said (1994), postcolonial theory is concerned with the intersections
of race, class, and gender in the context of global power relations. It seeks to expose and chal-
lenge how colonialism has shaped the discourse of Western knowledge production and to high-
light the voices and perspectives of the colonized that have been marginalized or silenced.

Postcolonial theory is interested in exploring the areas of convergence between the binary
oppositions that are inherent in imperialist thinking. Examples of these binary oppositions in-
clude civilized/primitive, human/bestial, and colonizer/colonized, as well as white/non-white
and enlightener/enlightened. It also aims to critique and disrupt the structural relations of these
binary systems, revealing the inherent contradictions that exist within them. This allows for a
more nuanced and complex understanding of the power dynamics at play within postcolonial
societies.

Edward Said, a Palestinian American cultural critic, is widely recognized as a major figure
in postcolonial thought. His book Orientalism is considered to be the foundational text of the
postcolonial theory. Other significant postcolonial critics include Homi K. Bhabha, Gayatri
Chakravorty Spivak, and Frantz Fanon, who have contributed to the development of the key
ideas and perspectives of the theory.

I.3.1. Trajectories of diaspora:

I.3.1.1. Alienation:
In her book Neurosis and Human Growth, Karen Horney (1950) examines the concept of
alienation from the perspective of psychoanalytic theory. According to her, alienation arises
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 26
from a fundamental conflict between an individual's true self and the external pressures of so-
ciety and culture. She argues that "the cultural influences with which the child is surrounded -
for example, the values and norms of his parents, the aims and ideals of his school and society
at large - may be such as to force him away from his own spontaneous trends" (p. 155). This
can lead to a sense of internal conflict and confusion, as individuals struggle to reconcile their
own sense of self with the demands of the external world. Horney states:

The real self, we said, is the alive, unique, personal center of ourselves; the only part
that can, and wants to, grow. We saw that unfortunate conditions prevent its unimpeded
growth from the very beginning.

In psychiatric terms, we call it the "alienation from self." This latter term is applied
chiefly to those extreme conditions in which people lose their feeling of identity, as in
amnesias and depersonalizations, etc. (p. 155)

Horney also sees alienation as a key factor in the development of psychological distress, and
emphasizes the importance of fostering self-awareness and self-acceptance to overcome this
sense of disconnection from oneself and others.

I.3.1.2. Identity:
According to Brah (1996) The concept of identity, much like culture, is difficult to pin down.
We often refer to different identities, acknowledging that our sense of self can vary in different
situations and change over time. “We know from our everyday experience that what we call
'me' or 'I' is not the same in every situation; that we are changing from day to day” (p. 20).
However, there is still something we perceive as familiar and recognizable in ourselves and
others, even as we undergo constant change. This perception of identity is influenced by both
social and psychological factors. Therefore, identity remains a mysterious and complex phe-
nomenon that cannot be precisely defined.

Two influential analyses of the concept of identity in recent years have come from Erikson
(1968) and Berger and Luckman (1971). According to Erikson, identity is characterized by a
subjective sense of continuity and sameness, as well as a connection to one's cultural back-
ground. He views identity formation as a process that occurs both within the individual and
within their community, establishing the interplay between these two identities. Erikson em-
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 27
phasizes that identity formation is mostly unconscious, except when internal and external fac-
tors intensify one's awareness of their identity. He argues that identity is never a fixed or un-
changeable achievement but rather a dynamic and evolving aspect of a person's personality.

On the other hand, Homi Bhabha (1994) in The Location of Culture, concerning Identity
identification suggests, the process of identification is not a simple affirmation of an existing
identity, nor is it a self-fulfilling prophecy. Instead, it involves the creation of an image of iden-
tity and the transformation of the individual as they adopt that image. When we seek identifi-
cation with others, we necessarily position ourselves within a framework of differentiation and
otherness. Identification always involves a return of an image of identity that carries the traces
of fragmentation from the Other place from which it originates. For thinkers like Fanon and
Lacan, the fundamental moments of this self-repetition can be found in the desire for recogni-
tion and the limitations of language. The uncertain atmosphere surrounding the body both con-
firms its existence and poses a threat of fragmentation. (p. 45)

I.3.1.3. Hybridity:
Homi K. Bhabha is commonly linked to the term "hybridity", which refers to the interde-
pendent relationship between colonizers and colonized individuals, and the way in which they
both shape each other's subjectivities. Bhabha (1994) argues that cultural systems and expres-
sions are always created within a specific context, which he calls the Third Space of Enuncia-
tion, He illustrates:

It is significant that the productive capacities of this Third Space have a colonial or
postcolonial provenance. For a willingness to descend into that alien territory . . . may open
the way to conceptualizing an international culture, based not on the exoticism of multicul-
turalism or the diversity of cultures, but on the inscription and articulation of culture’s hy-
bridity. (p. 38)

Bhabha delves deeper into the concept of hybridity and its relationship to colonial power.
He argues that hybridity is not just a byproduct of colonialism, but a deliberate strategy em-
ployed by colonizers to maintain their authority. By creating discriminatory identities that up-
hold the illusion of a "pure" and original identity of authority, colonizers can secure their power
over colonized peoples. However, he suggests that hybridity also creates space for subversion
and resistance, as it unsettles the mimetic demands of colonial power and turns the gaze of the
discriminated back upon the eye of power. Ultimately, he argues that the colonial hybrid is a
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 28
complex and ambivalent space where power is enacted on the site of desire, creating both dis-
ciplinary and disseminatory effects. (Ibid, p. 112)

I.3.1.4. Mimicry:
One prominent theorist of mimicry in postcolonial theory is Bhabha (1994) who argues that
in the tension between colonial domination's demand for identity and stability, and the counter-
pressure of history and change, mimicry serves as an ironic compromise. It represents the desire
for an ‘Other’ that is similar yet different, a subject that is reformed and recognizable. However,
mimicry is constructed with ambivalence, as it must continually produce its slippage, excess,
and difference to be effective. This mode of colonial discourse is marked by indeterminacy, as
mimicry becomes the representation of a difference that involves disavowal. It is a double ar-
ticulation—a complex strategy of reform and regulation that appropriates the Other while vis-
ualizing power. However, mimicry also embodies the inappropriate, a form of difference or
resistance that threatens the dominant knowledge and disciplinary powers. (p. 86)

The impact of mimicry on the authority of colonial discourse is significant and unsettling.
By normalizing the colonial state or subject, it alienates its own language of liberty and gener-
ates an alternative understanding of norms. This ambivalence can be seen, for instance, in
Locke's Second Treatise, where the word 'slave' is used both to describe a legitimate form of
ownership and an intolerable exercise of power. The distance between these two uses highlights
the imagined difference between the 'Colonial' State of Carolina and the Original State of Na-
ture.

Bhabha's work on mimicry has been highly influential in postcolonial theory and has helped
to shape our understanding of the complex and dynamic processes of cultural negotiation and
resistance in both colonial and postcolonial contexts.

I.3.1.5. Ambivalence:
According to the American Psychological Association (APA), ambivalence is “the simulta-
neous existence of contradictory feelings and attitudes, such as pleasantness and unpleasantness
or friendliness and hostility, toward the same person, object, event, or situation.” APA Diction-
ary of Psychology. (VandenBos, 2015, p. 44)

Critics have also discussed ambivalence in various contexts. For example, cultural studies
scholar Stuart Hall (1996) has written about ambivalence as a key feature of cultural identity.
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 29
He suggests that ambivalence arises when individuals or groups experience conflicting cultural
influences, and that this can lead to a sense of uncertainty and instability. He argues that am-
bivalence is an important aspect of cultural identity, as it allows individuals and groups to ne-
gotiate the complex and dynamic processes of cultural change and transformation.

In one chapter, Hall (1996) does not specifically discuss ambivalence. However, he explores
the complexities of identity formation in a multicultural and globalized world, highlighting the
fluid and contingent nature of identity. He argues that identity is not fixed or essential, but rather
constructed through social and cultural processes. He emphasizes the need to move beyond
essentialist and homogeneous notions of identity and to recognize the diversity and hybridity
of identities in contemporary society.

I.3.1.6. Assimilation:
In his article Cultural Identity and Diaspora, Hall (1990) examines the relationship between
cultural identity and the experience of diaspora, and how diasporic communities negotiate their
relationships with both their homelands and host societies. Hall argues that assimilation is a
form of cultural hegemony that involves the imposition of dominant cultural values and norms
on marginalized groups, resulting in a loss of cultural specificity and a sense of cultural erasure.
He writes: “Assimilation involves a fundamental change in the cultural identity of those groups
that are drawn into relations with more powerful and dominant cultures. They are compelled to
abjure their own particularity and to 'become' cultural others. Their difference is obliterated in
favor of the dominant culture's norms and values. They must become like the dominant culture,
speak its language, adopt its attitudes and values, and conform to its behavioral expectations.
The process is one of cultural hegemony.” (p. 232)

This excerpt from Hall's article illustrates his view that assimilation involves a loss of cul-
tural specificity and the imposition of dominant cultural norms and values on marginalized
groups. This can result in a sense of cultural erasure and a fundamental change in the cultural
identity of the assimilated group.

Williams Jr & Ortega, (1990), in their article, defined Assimilation according to Gordon
(1964). He asserts that Assimilation refers to a process in which one group, typically a minority
or immigrant group, becomes fully absorbed or integrated into the dominant or host society.
Gordon initially described assimilation using an "unbalanced" model, where one group is com-
pletely absorbed by the "host" group, with Anglo Americans being considered the standard or
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 30
"core society" in the context of the United States. However, Gordon (1978) recognized the
possibility of reciprocal influences and acknowledged that assimilation can be analyzed against
the goals of both the "melting pot" and "adaptation to the core society and culture." He also
noted the potential for analyzing assimilation within a pluralist model. Therefore, the lower the
level of pluralism, the greater the degree of assimilation, regardless of whether it aligns more
closely with the melting pot ideal or Anglo conformity. (p. 699)

I.3.1.7. Diaspora:
The meaning of diaspora can vary greatly and is often considered a stage in the process of
migration. However, not all types of migration are considered diasporas. According to Robin
Cohen (1997) a leading scholar of diaspora studies, said that diaspora can be defined as "the
dispersal, migration, and settlement of a group of people away from their homeland". Robin
Cohen is a notable figure in diaspora studies and his book, Global Diasporas, examines the
connection between migration and identity. He used various methods, such as typologies and
comparisons, to enrich the study of present-day transnational migrant flows through the ancient
concept of diaspora. He also identified five main types of diasporas, including victim, imperial,
trade, labour, and cultural diasporas.

He emphasizes that diaspora is not just a physical movement of people, but also involves the
maintenance of social, cultural, and political ties with the homeland and other diasporic com-
munities. He writes:

The Jewish experience continued to influence Safran’s view of the vital importance of
homeland in defining one of the essential characteristics of diaspora. For him, members of
a diaspora retained a collective memory of ‘their original homeland’; they idealized their
‘ancestral home’, were committed to the restoration of ‘the original homeland’ and contin-
ued in various ways to ‘relate to that homeland’ (p. 4)

In his book Diaspora and Visual Culture: Representing Africans and Jews, Nicholas Mir-
zoeff defines diaspora as "a way of being in the world that is characterized by displacement,
difference, and diversity" (Mirzoeff, 1999, p. 2). He argues that diasporic communities are
united by their experiences of displacement and their struggles to maintain their cultural iden-
tities in the face of assimilation and marginalization.
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 31
I.4. Postcolonial Literature:
In a broad sense, postcolonial literature refers to the writing that has been "affected by the
imperial process from the moment of colonization to the present day" (Ashcroft et al, p. 2). In
the case of India, this includes novels, poetry, and drama that were written both during and after
the British Raj or "reign," which came to a formal conclusion with Indian Independence in
August 1947. Although writing from India and other formerly colonized countries, such as Ni-
geria, Jamaica, Pakistan, and Singapore, may have distinct features.

Postcolonial literature shares some significant concerns and characteristics. According to

Innes (2007, p.17), Critics have sometimes described postcolonial literature as very roughly
falling into several phases: literature of resistance; literature of national consolidation; literature
of disillusion and/or neocolonialism; post-postcolonial literature; and diaspora literature

Postcolonial literature is marked by several distinct characteristics. One of the most notable
features is the use of resistant descriptions, which involve detailed depictions of indigenous
people, places, and practices in order to counteract the stereotypes and inaccuracies propagated
by colonizers. These descriptions are often employed to push back against the representations
of colonized peoples that were disseminated in educational, legal, political, and social contexts.

Another hallmark of postcolonial literature is the appropriation of the colonizers' language.

The literary works of post-colonial writers often mix English with their native language, as seen
in novels such as Neshani Andreas' Purple Violet of Oshaantu and Chinua Achebe's Things Fall
Apart. While many colonized countries have multiple indigenous languages, postcolonial writ-
ers often choose to write in the language of the colonizers. However, some authors, like
Arundhati Roy, deliberately manipulate English to reflect the rhythms and syntax of indigenous
languages. They may even invent new words and styles to demonstrate their mastery of a lan-
guage that was forced upon them.

Furthermore, postcolonial authors frequently rework European art forms, such as the novel,
to incorporate indigenous modes of expression. They may reshape imported colonial art-forms
to reflect the style, structure, and themes of indigenous creative traditions, such as oral poetry
and dramatic performances. This allows for a fusion of different cultural influences and a cele-
bration of indigenous culture in a new and innovative way. (Harrison, 2012, p. 71)
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 32
The bulk of a postcolonial story lies in its allegorical message. Often used as a message
against the status, postcolonial literature has multiple dimensions pertaining to the overall
meaning of the story. As defined by Ashcroft, Griffiths, and Tiffin Postcolonial Studies: The
Key Terms (Third Edition), allegory is defined as “a ‘symbolic narrative’ in which the major
features of the movement of the narrative are all held to refer symbolically to some action or
situation” (p.10). This means that just about any action one can think of in a postcolonial piece
has a hidden symbolic meaning behind it

Edward Said is credited as the father of post-colonialism due to his book Orientalism (1978).
Other theorists, such as Hayden White, have contributed to this field of study by introducing
ideas such as "self-definition by negation," which suggests that we understand other cultures
by perceiving differences from our own, regardless of the validity of those differences.

Postcolonialism has several key tenets, including the idea that colonialism is a powerful and
often destructive force that shapes the identities of both colonized and colonizing people. Suc-
cessful colonialism relies on "othering" the colonized people, creating a sense of difference and
exclusion that incorporates the values and meaning of the colonizing culture, while simultane-
ously rejecting its power to define. This creates a dramatic sense of difference between colo-
nizers and colonized people, which is often reflected in literature. Literature written by colo-
nized people often attempts to articulate more empowered identities and reclaim cultural herit-
age in the face of colonization

In conclusion, according to Walder (1998), the term 'post-colonial' in literature serves a dual
purpose. Firstly, it aims to celebrate the emergence of new literature from former colonial ter-
ritories. Secondly, it aims to analyze and resist the persistent attitudes of colonialism. The year
1950s witnessed the publication of inspiring texts of postcolonialism: Aimé Césaire’s Discours
Sur le Colonialisme, and Frantz Fanon’s Black Skin and White Masks. And in 1958, Chinua
Achebe published his novel Things Fall Apart. Also, George Lamming’s The Pleasures of Exile
appeared in 1960 and Fanon’s The Wretched of the Earth (followed) in 1961.

I.5. A Novel as a Postcolonial Tool:

In The Empire Writes Back, Ashcroft, Griffiths, and Tiffin argue that novels can be a pow-
erful tool for postcolonial resistance and critique. They suggest that postcolonial literature often
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 33
challenges and subverts dominant power structures and offers alternative perspectives on his-
tory, identity, and culture. The authors highlight the importance of language in postcolonial
literature, as it is often used in subversive ways to challenge dominant discourses and create
new, hybrid forms of expression. Additionally, postcolonial novels may explore the complexi-
ties of identity and cultural hybridity, challenging simplistic or essentialized notions of race,
ethnicity, and culture. Finally, postcolonial literature often exposes and critiques the ongoing
legacies of colonialism and imperialism, revealing how colonial power structures continue to
shape contemporary society and culture (2002, p. 5).

Postcolonial literature is preoccupied with journeys of all kinds, with migrations, move-
ments, and crossings, and with the dislocation and destabilization that these entail. In this vein,
Boehmer (2005), in his book Migrant Metaphors: Colonial and Postcolonial Literature ex-
presses:

To give expression to colonized experience, postcolonial writers sought to undercut the-

matically and formally the discourses which supported colonization––the myths of power,
the race classifications, the imagery of subordination. Postcolonial writing, therefore, is
deeply marked by experiences of cultural exclusion and division under empire. […] Build-
ing on this, postcoloniality can be defined as that condition in which colonized peoples
seek to take their place, forcibly or otherwise, as historical agents in an increasingly glob-
alized world. (p. 3).

Postcolonial novels make imaginative space for what has been lost, and they create new,
hybridized spaces for the re-formation of identity and the recuperation of memory. He adds:

with the onset of European migration and colonization, people experienced an intense
need to create new worlds out of old stories […] To decipher unfamiliar spaces––what were
to all intents and purposes airy nothings––travellers and colonizers relied on and scattered
about them the stock descriptions and authoritative symbols that lay to hand (Ibid, p. 15)

Postcolonial literature is a literature of protest and resistance, which aims to challenge the
dominant narratives of colonialism and imperialism, to expose the structures of power that un-
derlie these narratives, and to offer alternative visions of the future he argues:

In the view of the British imperial nation, its history made up a tale of firsts, bests, and
absolute beginnings. Where the British established a cross, a city, or a colony, they pro-
claimed the start of a new history. Other histories, by definition, were declared of lesser
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 34
significance or, in certain situations, non-existent. A world-vision of this nature clearly
required substantial cultural and discursive reinforcement (Ibid, p. 24).

I.5.1. Representation of Women in Postcolonial Literature:

Gandhi (1998) argues that Postcolonialism and feminism are two important frameworks for
understanding the experiences of women in postcolonial societies, and that they intersect in
complex ways. She notes that postcolonial literature often represents women as subjugated and
oppressed by colonialism and patriarchy, but that it also provides opportunities for women to
resist and subvert these systems of domination. She explores the ways in which postcolonial
literature has represented the experiences and perspectives of women who are situated at the
margins of society, such as women of color, working-class women, and queer women.

She explores the impact of feminist theory on postcolonial studies, discussing how feminist
critiques have both questioned and broadened postcolonial theory. She tackled the works of
important feminist postcolonial thinkers like Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak and Chandra Talpade
Mohanty and the way they contributed to the portrayal of women in postcolonial literature.

Inclusively, Gandhi's chapter provides a nuanced and complex analysis of the representation
of women in postcolonial literature, situating this representation within the broader frameworks
of postcolonialism and feminism.

In "Can the Subaltern Speak?" Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak (1988) explores the representa-
tion of women in postcolonial literature and challenges the dominant Western perspective that
often marginalizes and silences the voices of women from the Global South. She argues that
postcolonial literature provides a platform for women to speak out and assert their experiences
and perspectives.

However, she also notes that even within postcolonial literature, the voices of women are
often subordinated to those of men. She suggests that this is due to the intersecting oppressions
of gender, race, and class that women in the Global South face. Spivak argues that it is important
to recognize the complexity and diversity of women's experiences and to resist essentializing
or homogenizing representations of women in postcolonial literature.

In conclusion, Spivak's work emphasizes the need for a more nuanced and inclusive under-
standing of women's experiences and perspectives in postcolonial literature. She calls for a shift
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 35
away from the dominant Western perspective that has historically silenced and marginalized
the voices of women from the Global South. (pp. 271-313)

I.6. Defining Diaspora:

The term diaspora finds its roots in the Greek language and is based on a translation of the
Hebrew word, Galut. Based on speiro (to sow) and the preposition dia (over). In Ancient
Greece, the word referred to migration and colonization. In Hebrew, “the term initially referred
to the setting of colonies of Jews outside Palestine after the Babylonian exile and has assumed
a more general connotation of people settled away from their ancestral homelands” (Shuval,
2003). This is the narrow concept of Diaspora because according to Robin Cohen, the concept
of diaspora embodied that in diaspora studies, diaspora can be defined as "the dispersal, migra-
tion, and transnational movement of communities away from their perceived or actual home-
land" (Cohen, 2008, p. 11). The notion of diaspora occurred progressively to describe migrant
groups: migrants maintaining their ethnic tradition, and a strong feeling of collectiveness (Bru-
neau, 1995; Dorai et al., 1998; Shuval, 2003). It is significant to realize that, it is only during
the 80s that the concept of diaspora has known a period of expansion.

Mishra represents the diaspora as desiring an original homeland or as constructed through

an absence of homeland, even for generations born in the new land. Similarly, Rajendra Chetty
and Pier Paolo Piciucco‘s insightful text India’s Abroad: The Diaspora Writes Back(2004) ad-
dresses the issue of diasporic displacement and the relationship with the homeland by invoking
the tension between the host country and motherland, the overwhelming weight of non-belong-
ingness, and the diasporic struggles associated with movement, journey, migration, and exile.

It is also quite clear that the diaspora are ethnic minority groups that reside in host countries,
but maintain strong emotional, sentimental, and material links with their respective countries
of origin (Sheffer, 1986) The concept has now been generalized to refer to any population which
has migrated from its country of origin and settled in a foreign land. They selectively incorpo-
rate and synthesize themselves with their roots of origin and sense of their past.

The assessment of the diaspora thus goes beyond historical and cultural ties and extends to
a wider economic role. In a globalizing world, migration is a significant force of historical
change when a diasporic community assimilates, acculturates into its host society and tends to
lose its affinity and linkages with its land of origin (Gupta 2003: p. 2). The diaspora plays a
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 36
significant role in shaping ethnic identity, influencing ethnic relations, and reconstructing soci-
eties. Diasporic communities are valuable for understanding the cultural dynamics of a society,
and their importance is increasing in contemporary history.

In his article “DIASPORAS AND THE STATE: FROM VICTIMS TO CHALLENGERS”,

Robin Cohen (1996) tackles the common features of diaspora as follows:

1. Dispersal from an original homeland, often traumatically, to two or more foreign regions;

2. Alternatively, the expansion from a homeland in search of work, in pursuit of trade or to further
colonial ambitions;

3. A collective memory and myth about the homeland including its location, history and achieve-
ments;

4. An idealization of the putative ancestral home and a collective commitment to its maintenance,
restoration, safety and prosperity, even to its creation;

5. The development of a return movement which gains collective approbation;

6. A strong ethnic group consciousness sustained over a long time and based on a sense of distinc-
tiveness, a common history and the belief in a common fate;

7. A troubled relationship with host societies suggesting a lack of acceptance at the least or the pos-
sibility that another calamity might befall the group;

8. A sense of empathy and solidarity with co-ethnic members in other countries of settlement; and

9. The possibility of a distinctive yet creative and enriching life in host countries with a tolerance for
pluralism. (p. 8)

I.6.1. African Diaspora:

African Diasporic literature cannot completely dissociate itself from the African experience.
In terms of number, African diaspora is one of the most important in the world. And precisely
The Nigerian diaspora is the largest African immigrant population it is spread across the globe,
from neighboring countries such as Ghana and Cameroon to continents like North America,
Europe, Asia, etc. According to the African Union: “The African diaspora consists of peoples
of African origin living outside the continent, irrespective of their citizenship or nationality”
(AU, 2005, cited in Bakewell 2008). Okpe (1999, p.10) observes that “the origin of the African
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 37
diaspora can be traced to the dehumanizing trade in slaves across the Atlantic Ocean. It started
with Europeans invading the coast of Africa and capturing inhabitants for sale on the European
market” The history of the African diaspora can be divided into two main periods. The first
period was characterized by forced migration, as Africans were taken as slaves to the New
World. The cruel treatment they received was documented in art, literature, music, dance, and
religion. The descendants of these slaves now permanently reside in America and Caribbean
islands. The second period was the result of decolonization, starting in the 1950s, which led to
an increase in African migration to Europe. This created the conditions for the settlement of an
active African diaspora.

I.6.2. Indian Diaspora:

The Indian Diaspora is estimated to be the second largest in the world and has a diversified
global presence. The Diaspora, estimated at over 25 million, is spread across more than 200
countries with a high concentration in regions such as the Middle East, the United States of
America, Malaysia, and South Africa ((Engaging Diaspora: The Indian Growth Story, 2013, p.
32), The Indian Diaspora has not only increased in numbers but has been gaining universal
recognition for the unique contributions to its host countries historically, As it is mentioned in
the annual report of 2012 /2013 published by the Ministry of Overseas Indian Affairs, The dis-
persion of people from India and the formation of Indian Diaspora communities is the result of
different waves of migration over hundreds of years driven by a variety of reasons: slavery
under mercantilism, indentured labor under colonization, and guest work programs post-colo-
nialism. This transnational engagement of people, riding on the processes of globalization has
been reinforced through global networks of families, friends and businesses, which are symbi-
otic and which enable the exchange of shared ideas of cultural, social, and economic interests.

There are two types of contemporary flows originating from India. The first one is the emi-
gration of highly skilled professionals, workers, and students with tertiary and higher educa-
tional qualifications who migrate to developed countries such as the USA, UK, Canada, Aus-
tralia, and New Zealand. This flow began after India gained independence and grew rapidly
with the emigration of professionals in the 1990s. The second type is the flow of unskilled and
semi-skilled workers who mostly go to Gulf countries and Malaysia, particularly from Kerala
and other southern parts of India.
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 38
I.7. Diaspora Literature:
Post-colonial diasporic writers often employ certain writing styles that are associated with
their cultural and historical background. These styles may include stream of consciousness,
immigration narratives, magic realism, themes of alienation, and the challenges of adapting to
new cultures and environments. Many writers from Nigeria and India who write in English are
members of diasporic communities living outside of their home countries. Despite their physi-
cal distance from their homelands, these writers are able to connect with readers from a variety
of different countries through their writing.

Diaspora literature has a long history within postcolonial literature and takes many forms,
including novels, short stories, travel writing, poetry, and prose. This type of literature is created
by authors who live outside of their native lands and are marked by a strong yearning and sense
of nostalgia for their homelands, as well as a struggle with their sense of identity. This desire
for connection to one's roots, including traditions, religion, and language, has given rise to the
genre of diaspora fiction.

Some writers may write about a place without going there or a short-term visitor may also
produce literature about a particular place of stay. Scholars and critics assert this kind of litera-
ture doesn’t fall under this category. Instead, diasporic literature is the piece or body of literature
produced by a diasporic individual living in a diasporic community for a long. However, of late
the debate seems to be taking in the new definition of diasporic literature for good, that is— a
piece of literature that shows some of the diasporic sensibilities, irrespective of its creator’s
state of being or geography of being, can be called diasporic literature. (Pokharel, 2020)

Diasporic writers often incorporate their own experiences of cultural displacement into their
characters. These experiences may include feelings of being disconnected from their roots, at-
tempts to navigate between two cultures, efforts to find a sense of belonging and adapt to new
cultural norms, a desire to blend in rather than stand out, a sense of longing for their homeland,
and yet a reluctance to return.

Diaspora literature can be characterized by the themes it explores, rather than its geographic
origin. One example of this is the story of Joseph in Genesis 37-50, which is often considered
a diaspora story because it portrays Joseph's experience of adapting to life outside his homeland,
despite being written in Israel. Similarly, the Book of Job may also be considered diasporic
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 39
because it was likely written after the Babylonian destruction, and reflects on the suffering of
the Jewish people and their relationship with God during a time of displacement.

Each genre tends to possess some specificities of its own kind in its own light, so does dias-
pora in the arena of its literature. Hanif Kureishi, a British Asian author who said, “the only
way I could make sense of my confused world was to write" (quoted in Knott, p. 145) in 2002
UK, makes a point that the diasporic literature is founded on the diasporic subjects or themes.
The relationship between cultural loss affected through the diasporic displacement of peoples
and subsequent cultural production, particularly seen in the Diaspora and Diasporic Literature:

Uma Parameswaran (2018) has characterized diasporic literature as a reflection of the im-
migrant experience, which often encompasses themes such as alienation, displacement, and the
search for identity in a new cultural context. According to her, the experience of diaspora can
be divided into four phases. The first phase is marked by nostalgia for the homeland left behind,
combined with fear and uncertainty in a new land. The second phase is a period of adjustment
to the new environment, during which there may be little creative output. In the third phase,
diaspora communities begin to shape their ethnocultural identity, engaging with issues related
to their cultural heritage. The fourth and final phase occurs when diaspora communities have
established themselves and become active participants in broader political and national issues.
As Parameswaran puts it, "they have 'arrived' and start participating in the larger world of pol-
itics and national issues."

I.7.1. Features of Diasporic Literature:

The literature rising from the background of diaspora has led to two distinctive types of
writing. Tololyan (1994) In discussing the different types of writing on diaspora, the author
distinguishes between two discourses: emic and etic. The emic diaspora refers to diasporas that
discuss themselves, while etic diaspora refers to scholarly works on diaspora. The author argues
that the self-study of diasporas results in representations of self-knowledge in various forms,
such as quotidian practices, public performances, oral and written archives, and native language
presses. This study, however, focuses on two categories of writers: those who critique or depict
their home country and its culture for foreign readers, and those who write about their new
settlement to reflect changes they undergo or to expose discrimination they face, or to show
their progress in their new home.
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 40
Despite variations among diasporic writings, there are common thematic and stylistic fea-
tures that characterize them. These include the writer's use of vocabulary, sentence structure,
figurative language, and argumentation to convey mood, imagery, and meaning in the text.
Writers such as Emecheta and Adichie skillfully depict their characters' appearance, actions,
habits, inner feelings, and thoughts. Therefore, it can be said that the writing style plays a critical
role in determining the authenticity and appeal of a literary work. Additionally, the effective
use of language in writing is a key determinant of a writer's literary proficiency.

A significant number of diasporic works explore the connection that individuals have to their
homeland and their desire to belong in their new settlement, which often leads to a hybrid ex-
istence as stated by Lau (2000):

They are people who are as multi-cultural as they are multi-lingual. They do not regard
themselves as fully belonging in either culture, and have practically evolved a sub-culture
peculiar to themselves. They try to take the best from both worlds, but they suffer a sense
of hybridity and cultural entanglement. (p. 241)

Emphasizing this point, Jain (2004), refers to it as a ‗split narrative‘(p.76). She further por-
trays the past and the present of diasporic literature as being different; the past has a different
history, tradition, regional and colonial memories, and political equations. The present has dif-
ferent kinds of loneliness, isolation, success, affluence and recognition. Even though they live
in the present, they co-exist in the past too. Yet another point of interest is that of Ramraj (2003,
p.12) in Diaspora and Multiculturalism who discusses the difference among immigrants, exile,
and expatriate writings. According to him, ‘’exile and expatriate writings are more immersed
in the situation at home and the circumstances that prolong the individual‘s exile or expatria-
tion‖ than with ―the emigre‘s community relationship with the dominant society. Therefore,
he thinks that diasporic writing is often about persons linked by common histories of uprooting
and dispersal, common homelands, and common cultural heritages, but due to the political and
cultural particularities of the society, it develops different cultural and historical identities

Nostalgia and displacement are prevalent themes in diasporic literature. Rushdie (1992,
p.76) notes that exiles, emigrants, and expatriates are often haunted by a sense of loss and a
desire to reclaim their past, even at the risk of being transformed into pillars of salt. Diasporic
writing often emerges as a response to the challenges of lost homes and issues such as displace-
ment, nostalgia, racial discrimination, survival, cultural change, and identity. Displacement is
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 41
a pervasive feeling that affects diasporic communities, with various factors contributing to their
displacement from their home country to a foreign land. These factors can be broadly catego-
rized as voluntary and non-voluntary movements. Voluntary movements typically result from
educational or economic needs, while non-voluntary movements arise due to political and na-
tional pressures. Women may also experience non-voluntary movements due to marital causes.

When diasporic individuals are displaced from their ancestral home, they often experience
emotional distress and attempt to locate themselves in a nostalgic past. Nostalgia serves as a
coping mechanism to escape the reality of life in their new settlement. However, diasporic com-
munities often face feelings of loneliness and alienation in the new country, which makes it
difficult for them to connect with others in the host society. Even if they attempt to blend in,
they frequently face discrimination, which exacerbates their sense of alienation and loss. These
inner struggles, such as loneliness and alienation, are often more challenging for diasporic in-
dividuals to overcome than external problems such as discrimination and identity crises.

One of the significant challenges faced by the diasporic community, particularly the first
generation of immigrants, is cultural change. When attempting to settle in a new environment,
they face unique challenges that lead to feelings of nostalgia and a desire to cling to the cultural
practices of their ancestral homeland. This desire to preserve their culture can be intensified
when the diasporic community faces rejection or discrimination in their new settlement. This
rejection can lead to a sense of embarrassment and eventually to a self-definition and behavior
based on their culture, which may further exacerbate racial distinctions. As Wieviorka (1999,
p.72) points out, these challenges can lead to the interiorization of cultural differences and dis-
crimination, ultimately resulting in a self-imposed cultural identity.

The diasporic community tends to hold onto their cultural traditions even after living in a
new land for an extended period. They often recreate family ties and communal structures that
resemble those of their ancestral homeland. Diasporic literature is an effective way to convey
the emotional impact of migration, as writers depict the painful and destructive experiences that
migrants face. Migration can be a catalyst for redefining one's sense of self and relationships
with others, and Nigerian diasporic literature reflects the struggle between past circumstances
and future expectations.
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 42
One of the novels analyzed in this dissertation, which served as a subject of comparative
study, is Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni's work titled The Mistress of Spices, published in 1997, is
considered a very rich novel that examines the characteristics of diasporas. It includes cultural
displacement, the tension between tradition and modernity, and a search for identity and be-
longing. Tilo, the protagonist, experiences a longing for her home culture and a struggle to
reconcile her duties as a Mistress of Spices with personal freedom. The character of Jagjit ex-
emplifies the challenge of finding a sense of belonging in a foreign land (Divakaruni, 1997).
Divakaruni portrays the complexity and challenges of the diaspora experience through her char-
acters. For instance, Tilo says, “But before the store was the island, and before the island, the
village, when I was born.” (Divakaruni, 1997, p. 12). This quote illustrates Tilo's sense of long-
ing for the familiarity of her home culture.

The second novel is Americanah by Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, published in 2013, where
the characteristics of diaspora include cultural displacement, the search for identity, and the
experience of otherness. The protagonist, Ifemelu, struggles to adapt to American culture and
reconcile her identity as a Nigerian immigrant. Additionally, the tension between the diaspora
and the dominant culture is evident through Ifemelu's observations about race and racism in
American society. The search for identity is also an important characteristic, as Ifemelu at-
tempts to define herself as a Nigerian in America. Adichie describes the protagonist’s "Ifemelu"
identity quest experience, as a Nigerian anti-racism blog writer in America she questions herself
and her beliefs. Adichie writes, “Sometimes making fragile links to race. Sometimes not be-
lieving herself. The more she wrote, the less sure she became. Each post scraped off yet one
more scale of self until she felt naked and false.” (Adichie, 2013, p. 11).

I.7.2. Indian diaspora literature:

Diasporic Indians maintain a connection with their ancestral homeland and seek to preserve
a sense of continuity with their roots. However, their settlement in a foreign land can also result
in a sense of dislocation and a break from their previous identity. This dislocation is often ac-
companied by feelings of loneliness and a sense of non-acceptance from the host society, as
well as experiences of ethnic discrimination. William Safran (1991) has observed that; “—they
continue to relate personally or vicariously, to the homeland in one way or another, and their
ethnic-communal consciousness and solidarity are importantly defined by the existence of such
a relationship.” (p, 23)
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 43
The history of Indian diasporic writing dates back to the earliest days of the diaspora, with
the first Indian writing in English attributed to Dean Mohamed, who was born in Patna, India.
His book, The Travels of Dean Mahomet, was published in 1794, forty years before the first
English text written by an Indian residing in India. The first Indian English novel, Rajmohan's
Wife by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, was published much later in 1864. Interestingly, descend-
ants of Indian indentured laborers in "girmit colonies" have largely preferred writing in English.
Notable writers in this field include See Prasad Naipaul, Shiva Naipaul, V.S. Naipaul, Cyril
Dabydeen, David Dabydeen, Sam Selvon, M.G. Vassanji, Subramanian, K.S. Maniam, Shani
Muthoo, and Marina Budos.

The literature of old diasporic Indian writers focused mainly on India and rarely recorded
their experiences as expatriates, discovering their Indianness while outside of India. The new
diaspora of international Indian English writers, however, register their experiences away from
India, often in a melancholic tone. These writers investigate themes of displacement, alienation,
assimilation, and acculturation, with their portrayal of dislocated characters gaining signifi-
cance in the geopolitical background of the vast Indian subcontinent.

The early novels of Anita Desai and Kamala Markandaya effectively depicted diasporic In-
dian characters facing racial prejudice in the UK. Bharati Mukherjee's novels portrayed Indians
in the US, and Salman Rushdie adopted the technique of magic realism to approach migration.
Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni depicted the migrant's anguish, while Amitav Ghosh's novel
showed the extent of rootlessness encountered by characters born and brought up in foreign
lands.

The second generation of diasporic Indian writers, like Meera Syal, Shashi Tharoor, Hari
Kunzru, Sunetra Gupta, and Jhumpa Lahiri, demonstrated the lives of both first and second-
generation immigrants in the US. They focus on small, unappreciated things that gain enormous
significance in changed conditions, and the different reactions by Indian, Western, and di-
asporic characters towards similar situations reveal that the inner needs of all human beings are
the same.

The postmodern Indian English novelists concentrate on a completely new set of themes,
including globalization, multiculturalism, feminism, queer theories, diasporic sensibility, glam-
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 44
our, consumerism, commoditization, upward mobility, and erosion of ethical values. They de-
part from the first generation of Indian English novelists and portray a more inclusive life in
the age of globalization.

I.7.3. Nigerian diaspora literature:

Nigerian diaspora literature is a genre of literature that focuses on the experiences of Nige-
rians living outside of Nigeria.The literary representations of migration span all climes, ages
and genres. Migration is one of the defining realities of the present times, owing to the forces
of globalization, which have fostered faster and safer means of transportation and communica-
tion, which have in no small measure encouraged movement from one continent to another.
Olaoluwa (2008, p. 32)

Diala (2011, p.11) perceptively notes that every generation recreates its defining experiences
in its literature. Nnolim (2012, p.158) also asserts that every generation of writers confronts the
burning issues in its society and wrestles with them. Since migration is a major defining char-
acteristic of the twenty-first century, Nigerian writers have taken up the issues of migration in
their texts. Many of the creative works published post-2000 deal with one aspect of migration
or the other. Such texts include Sarah Manyika’s In Dependence, Ike Oguine’s A Squatter’s
Tale; Teju Cole’s Everyday is for the Thief and Open City; Sefi Atta’s A Bit of Difference and
News from Home; Doreen Baingana’s Tropical Fish, Chimamanda Adichie’s Americanah; Se-
gun Afolabi’s A Life Elsewhere and Goodbye Lucille; Helen Oyeyemi’s Icarus Girl, Chris
Abani’s Becoming Abigail, Chika Unigwe’s The Phoenix and On Black Sisters’ Street; Unoma
Azuah’s Edible Bones and E. C. Osondu’s Voice of America. These texts by all migrant writers
thematize migration, return migration and exile, and the attendant consequences of these on
migrant characters.

Literary texts by Nigerian writers in the diaspora have often focused on exilic themes and
aesthetics (Ayo Kehinde (2007), Senanyon OlaOluwa (2008), Ayodeji Shittu (2009)); issues of
displacement, rootlessness and identity crisis and the representations of woes that beset the
motherland (Alexander Hartwiger (2014), Helen Yitah and Michael Okyerefo (2016), with in-
adequate attention paid to diverse texts’ preoccupation with the presentation of female migrants.
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 45
Almost all the writers that can be termed contemporary migrant writers belong to what has
been captured as the third generation of African writing. The third generation of Nigerian writ-
ers is led by those living outside of Nigeria, with Chimamanda Adichie, Chika Unigwe, and
Chris Abani being notable examples. These writers have gained worldwide recognition for their
works and have addressed a wide range of themes, including the reasons for their migration,
experiences with racism in their host countries, and the challenges facing their homeland. All
three writers were born in Nigeria and later moved to other countries, and their works often
reflect their own experiences as migrants. They explore issues of displacement, identity crisis,
and the complexities of living between cultures. Their works offer a compelling portrait of the
Nigerian diaspora experience.

The fiction written by Nigerian migrants reflects the complexity of their experiences, includ-
ing the reasons that motivate them to leave Nigeria, the impact of neocolonialism, and the dis-
illusionment that comes with living in a postcolonial society. This literature also portrays the
challenges faced by female migrants due to their gender, social status, and racial identity.

I.7.4. Definition of a diasporic writer:

In his article “Diaspora Writings: Epiphany, Emotions and Ethics” Singh (2017) examines
the definition of diaspora writers, as she proclaims, Diaspora writers express their experiences
and identities as expatriates, immigrants, migrants, and displaced individuals. They convey
their thoughts, feelings, and ideas through a continuous stream of consciousness. Their con-
scious experiences, observations, and impressions are influenced by their subconscious mind,
memories, desires, fears, and apprehensions. By sharing their sentiments, these authors shed
light on contemporary circumstances and demystify the reality of their inner thoughts. In doing
so, they not only express personal anguish but also universalize the problems they face, gaining
self-awareness in the process. Through their artistic and dialogic perception, these writers es-
tablish a connection between the readers' thoughts and the novelists' autobiographical experi-
ences and consciousness. They achieve this by employing characterization techniques in their
stories.

An essential aspect of the diaspora writer's role is enabling readers across transnational
boundaries to reconsider socio-cultural aspects and validate repressed memories, desires, and
fears, particularly in terms of gender and changes within a transnational context. The creative
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 46
writing takes different forms, including textual, intertextual, and sub-textual versions, which
sensibly persuade readers to re-examine ideology and the real politics of collective conscious-
ness from a diaspora perspective. Rather than solely focusing on historical and geographical
significance, these writers aim to symbolically determine the human experience and reclaim the
value of their marginalized status as immigrants. They seek to move forward, leaving the past
behind, and embrace a hopeful future by incorporating new practices into the complex network
of historical and geopolitical dynamics. The division of emotions arising from conflicting value
systems between the East and the West is a recurring theme in their work, and these writers
address geopolitical issues through the lens of emotions. (p. 51, 52)

I.8. Diasporic Studies:

I.8.1. Parallel Concepts of Diaspora:

I.8.1.1. Transnationalism:
According to Glick-Schiller et al. (2006), transnationalism is a key aspect of born-again in-
corporation, as immigrants and their descendants engage in a variety of transnational practices
and networks that connect them to both their home countries and the wider world. These trans-
national practices can include remittances, visits to home countries, participation in transna-
tional social movements, and engagement with global media and cultural forms. The authors
argue that transnationalism enables immigrants and their descendants to maintain ties to their
home countries and cultures, while also participating in the social, economic, and cultural life
of their host country.

They also emphasize the importance of locality in understanding the experiences of immi-
grants and their descendants. They argue that immigrants and their descendants are not simply
passive recipients of global forces, but active participants in the creation of local communities
and cultures. The authors suggest that transnationalism should be understood as a dynamic pro-
cess that involves the negotiation and transformation of local cultures and identities, as well as
the creation of new forms of hybridity and cosmopolitanism.

On the other hand, Bauböck, R. Faist, T. (2010). In their work, Diaspora and Transnation-
alism: Concepts, Theories and Methods, have some interesting ideas concerning Diaspora and
Transnationalism, as they call them awkward dance partners, in the first chapter of the book
Faist argues,
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 47
Striving for exact definitions of terms such as ‘diaspora’ and ‘transnationalism’ may
seem a futile exercise. Diaspora, in particular, has become an all-purpose word. It may
therefore be more meaningful to look at its uses. As the uses of these terms often overlap
and are sometimes even interchangeable, no clear separation is to be expected. (p.14)

Faist in the same chapter examines the similarities and differences between both terms. He
finds that both ‘diaspora’ and ‘transnationalism’ share similarities in their focus on sustained
cross-border ties, including connections to regions of origin, destination, and other regions
where migrants reside. Both concepts address homeland ties and the incorporation of individu-
als living abroad into their destination regions. Diaspora approaches often consider the relation-
ship between homelands, dispersed people, and destination countries, while transnationalism
tends to emphasize issues of incorporation and integration in immigration countries. The dias-
pora literature highlights cultural distinctiveness, while the transnational literature delves into
migrant incorporation and transnational practices, possibly influenced by scholars situated in
immigration countries and public policy debates on integration and social cohesion. Both ap-
proaches explore the link between integration and cross-border engagement, as well as the con-
nection between cultural autonomy and minority group integration. However, the specific social
mechanisms underlying these connections are still under discussion. Both approaches recognize
the importance of "community without propinquity," where social connections are not solely
based on geographical proximity but are primarily rooted in social proximity. (p.20)

He also argues that 'Transnationalism' is a broader term compared to 'diaspora' in two main
ways. Firstly, it encompasses a wider range of social formations, including religious, ethnic,
and national groups, as well as business networks and social movements. Secondly, while di-
aspora approaches focus on collective identity, transnational approaches center around cross-
border mobility. Additionally, there is a difference in emphasis regarding the time dimension,
with 'diaspora' often referring to multi-generational patterns and 'transnationalism' focusing on
recent migrant flows. (p.21-22)

I.8.1.2. Cosmopolitanism:
Cosmopolitanism has been identified as a parallel concept of diaspora in the literature, with
scholars exploring the ways in which these two concepts intersect and overlap.
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 48
Cohen (1987, 1997) claims, the concept of "diaspora" has often been used interchangeably
with a new form of cosmopolitanism, particularly in relation to emigrant writers, artists, aca-
demics, intellectuals, and professionals. However, it is important to recognize that this usage of
diaspora can sometimes overlook the forced dispersal of economically disadvantaged individ-
uals from regions such as Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean. These individuals
include contract workers, casual laborers, domestic servants, undocumented immigrants, refu-
gees, asylum seekers, and victims of ethnic cleansing. Unlike the voluntary migration experi-
enced by emigrants, these individuals face coercive circumstances and encounter punitive bar-
riers when attempting to move from the South and East to the North and West regions. It is
crucial to expand our understanding of diaspora beyond the cosmopolitan perspective to en-
compass the experiences and challenges faced by marginalized populations in their forced dis-
placements.

On the other hand, Delanty (2011) in his article emphasizes the importance of cosmopolitan
theorists engaging in dialogue and exchange with multiculturalism and diaspora studies. It sug-
gests that exploring the contributions of multiculturalism and diasporic communities in Europe
can provide valuable insights and corrections to cosmopolitanism. He says, “the nature and
logic of cosmopolitanism is primarily one of encounter, dialogue and exchange”. (p. 652).

Another source that investigates this matter is the repository copy of Rethinking Cosmopol-
itanism, Multiculturalism and Diaspora via the Diasporic Cosmopolitanism of Europe's Kurds
by Ipek Demir. In the first part of this chapter, the author challenges the opposition between
cosmopolitanism and multiculturalism and proposes a re-conceptualization of cosmopolitan-
ism. In the second part, the focus is on the diasporic cosmopolitanism of Kurds living in multi-
cultural neighborhoods in Europe. The author aims to incorporate elements of diaspora and
multiculturalism into cosmopolitanism, highlighting their shared concerns such as intercultural
communication, solidarity, and hybridity.

While non-Eurocentric cosmopolitan approaches have emphasized openness to those outside

of Europe, the author argues for the importance of acknowledging and studying Europe's di-
asporic communities as part of cosmopolitanism. The author takes the case of the Kurdish di-
aspora in multicultural European cities as a case study to examine the concept of "diasporic
cosmopolitanism." Although diasporic communities are often seen as representing ethnic and
cultural closure, in contrast to the openness promoted by cosmopolitanism, the author argues
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 49
that it is possible to find cosmopolitan engagement and sociability among diasporic communi-
ties, challenging the dominant understanding of diaspora and cosmopolitanism. The author crit-
icizes the limited perspective of using diaspora as an analytical category, which tends to privi-
lege the nation-state model and nationally-defined formations in discussions about immigration.
While diaspora, migration, and travel do not automatically lead to cosmopolitan sociabilities,
diasporas can embody both ethnic-parochial and open characteristics, emphasizing contin-
gency, hybridity, and indeterminacy in contrast to essentialist notions of nation, race, and cul-
ture. The author highlights the dynamic and vibrant nature of diasporas and their evolution over
time. (Demir, 2016).

These scholars promote that cosmopolitanism and diaspora are closely related concepts that
share many common features, including a border-crossing orientation, a commitment to cultural
hybridity and mixing, and a critical engagement with the politics of identity and difference.

I.8.1.3. Globalization:
Globalization and diaspora are frequently seen as interconnected concepts, often overlapping
and reflecting the evolving dynamics of modern migration and cultural interchange. Cohen
(1995) in his article claims that regarding the diasporic experience in the context of globaliza-
tion, there are several key aspects that can be observed.

First, ‘Globalized economy’, Globalization has facilitated faster and more extensive eco-
nomic transactions, with improved communication, cheaper transportation, and liberal trade
and capital policies. This has allowed diasporas to adapt and thrive economically on a global
scale, as they can leverage their strong networks and cultural ties to engage in transnational
business and trade.

Second, ‘Changing patterns of migration’, In the era of globalization, countries are less re-
ceptive to mass migration, particularly of unskilled or dependent migrants. However, compa-
nies with global reach now sponsor temporary assignments abroad for their employees, sup-
porting a cyclical pattern of migration known as sojourning. This practice, historically seen in
various diasporic communities, has been revived and facilitated by advancements in communi-
cation and transportation.
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 50
Finally, ‘Cultural dynamics’, Diasporic communities have long been well-positioned to nav-
igate the intersections between their own specific cultural identities and broader universal val-
ues. They possess a heightened awareness of shared experiences and potential clashes with
majority cultures. This awareness contributes to their artistic and cultural contributions, as well
as their engagement in legal, civic, and social justice causes.

In summary, globalization has provided opportunities for diasporas to excel in the global
economy, adapt to changing migration patterns, and contribute culturally and socially by bridg-
ing the particular and the universal.

I.8.2. Fundamental Issues in Diaspora:

I.8.2.1. Identity Quest:
The quest for identity can be a significant issue in the context of diaspora. Diasporic indi-
viduals often find themselves navigating multiple cultural, social, and linguistic contexts, which
can create a sense of displacement and fragmentation. Since the diasporic experience is highly
considered one of the post-colonial forms, the search for a cohesive and authentic identity be-
comes challenging as they strive to reconcile their heritage, cultural roots, and experiences in
the host society. In this context, Hall (1990) claims that the issue of identity is in the way we
perceive its conception in the first place. He argues: The concept of identity is far from straight-
forward and uncomplicated. Rather than perceiving identity as a pre-existing entity that is re-
flected in cultural practices, it may be more useful to view identity as an ongoing and unfinished
process that is shaped and constructed through representation. This perspective challenges the
notions of authority and authenticity associated with the term "cultural identity," highlighting
that identity is constantly in flux and intimately intertwined with the act of representation itself.
(p. 222). He writes,

Far from being grounded in a mere recovery of the past, which is waiting to be found,
and which, when found, will secure our sense of ourselves into eternity, identities are the
names we give to the different ways we are positioned by, and position ourselves within,
the narratives of the past. (p. 225)

Hall also asserts that there are two contrasting perspectives on cultural identity. The first
perspective emphasizes a unified and unchanging cultural identity that lies beneath superficial
differences. It seeks to rediscover and express this essential identity through various forms of
representation. This view played a crucial role in post-colonial struggles, providing a sense of
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 51
unity and empowerment to marginalized communities. The second perspective recognizes the
significance of deep and meaningful differences that constitute our identities. It acknowledges
that cultural identities are not fixed and transcendental but are shaped by history, power dynam-
ics, and cultural processes. Our identities are constantly in flux and subject to transformations.
They are not rooted in a static past waiting to be discovered, but rather constructed through
memory, narrative, and myth. This understanding of cultural identity highlights the traumatic
aspects of the colonial experience and the power dynamics involved in representation. It reveals
that cultural identities can be internalized and enforced, leading to a sense of displacement and
disorientation. Resisting the silences and distortions imposed on marginalized identities is cru-
cial to avoiding a loss of anchor and a fragmented sense of self. (Ibid, p. 223-226)

I.8.2.2. Place and Space:

The significance of place as a complex and transformative factor emerges within the context
of diaspora, where it influences identity, belonging, and the creative potential of individuals
navigating the fluid and ambiguous intersections of multiple cultural and geographical spaces.

In this context Sigona, Gamlen, Liberatore, & Neveu Kringelbach (2015) in their respective
book, Diasporas Reimagined: Spaces, Practices and Belonging, see that Diaspora goes beyond
being a fixed identity or a theoretical concept; is an active practice involving conscious actions,
negotiations, and expressions. The arts, including visual and literary mediums, play a crucial
role in this practice by providing a platform for diasporic individuals to shape their identities
through artistic narratives. These mediums offer flexibility that aligns with the fluid and often
ambiguous nature of diasporic subjectivities, which are constantly shifting in relation to notions
of place, myth, and memory. Artistic expression allows diasporans to imagine and yearn for
their places of belonging, especially when their current environment fails to fulfill that longing.

For the children and descendants of diasporans, who may have been born or raised in the
diaspora, the questions of home and belonging become even more complex. They struggle with
their ambiguous connections to both their country of citizenship and their ancestral homeland.
Their social, cultural, and political lives are dispersed across multiple places, some of which
they have only imagined. Although living in this liminal space of "in-betweenness" can be chal-
lenging, it also offers a unique vantage point for creative thought and expression. It allows for
a curious perspective on the world, one that can effortlessly shift and adapt.
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 52
Brah (2003) introduces the concept of "diaspora space" as a dynamic convergence of dias-
pora, border, and dis/location, representing a significant meeting point for economic, political,
cultural, and psychological processes. It is not solely inhabited by migrants and their descend-
ants but also includes those who are perceived and labeled as indigenous. Brah provides the
example of the diaspora space known as "England," where various diasporic communities such
as African-Caribbean, Irish, Asian, Jewish, and others intersect with one another and also en-
gage with the constructed identity of "Englishness," thereby reshaping and redefining it in the
process.

I.8.2.3. Dispersal:
Homi Bhabha is a prominent postcolonial theorist who has written extensively about dias-
pora and the effects of displacement and dispersal on cultural identity. In his work, Bhabha
emphasizes the ways in which diasporic communities negotiate their identity and culture in the
context of physical dispersal and displacement.

The critic argues that the experience of dispersal creates a sense of "in-betweenness" for
diasporic communities, as they exist in a liminal space between their homeland and their new
location. He writes that "diasporic identities are those which are constantly producing and re-
producing themselves anew, through transformation and difference, in the articulation of hy-
bridity and dispersal" (Bhabha, 1994, p. 6). According to Bhabha, the process of dispersal can
have profound effects on the cultural identities of diasporic communities, as they negotiate their
sense of self and belonging in relation to both their homeland and their new location. He argues
that diasporic communities engage in "cultural translation" as they navigate the tensions be-
tween different cultural traditions and identities.

In this way, he emphasizes the importance of understanding the effects of dispersal on the
cultural identities of diasporic communities. By recognizing the complex negotiations of iden-
tity and belonging that take place in the context of physical dispersal, we can gain a deeper
understanding of the experiences and perspectives of diasporic communities.

I.8.2.4. Home and Belonging:

Home and belonging are central issues in the diaspora concept, as diasporic communities
often experience displacement from their homeland and struggle to find a sense of belonging in
their new location. This can have profound effects on cultural identity and can impact the way
that diasporic communities relate to both their homeland and their new location.
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 53
One way that home and belonging are issues in diaspora is through the concept of "diasporic
consciousness," which refers to the ways in which diasporic communities navigate the tension
between their longing for their homeland and their need to create a new sense of belonging in
their new location. As Robin Cohen (1997) notes, diasporic consciousness is a consciousness
of simultaneous attachment to two or more places – a relationship which is by definition not
reducible to assimilation, integration, or the simple experience of living between two cultures
(p. 10).

Brah (1996) argues, In the diasporic imagination, ‘home’ is both a mythical place of longing
that may never be physically returned to, even if the geographical origin is visited and a lived
experience of a specific locality with its sensory aspects and social dynamics, she problematizes
Home saying:

Where is home? On the one hand, ‘home’ is a mythic place of desire in the diasporic
imagination. In this sense, it is a place of no return, even if it is possible to visit the geo-
graphical territory that is seen as the place of ‘origin’. On the other hand, home is also the
lived experience of a locality. Its sounds and smells, its heat and dust, balmy summer eve-
nings, or the excitement of the first snowfall, shivering winter evenings, sombre grey skies
in the middle of the day…all this, as mediated by the historically specific everyday of social
relations. (p.192)

In this way, home and belonging are central issues in diaspora, as diasporic communities
negotiate their sense of self and belonging in the context of displacement and multiple attach-
ments. By recognizing the complexities of diasporic consciousness and the ongoing process of
negotiation and struggle that accompanies it, we can gain a deeper understanding of the expe-
riences and perspectives of diasporic communities.

I.8.2.5. Memory and Nostalgia:

According to Oxford English Dictionary, “Nostalgia n. 1. a longing to return to an earlier
period or condition of life recalled as being better than the present in some way. 2. a longing to
return to a place to which one feels emotionally bound.” (p.500)

Diasporic communities often have a strong attachment to their homeland, and memories of
their past experiences and cultural traditions can serve as a way to maintain a connection to
their roots. Therefore, memory and nostalgia are important issues in the diaspora.
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 54
Nostalgia, or a longing for the past, is a common feeling among diasporic communities.
Svetlana Boym in the introduction of her book The Future of Nostalgia, (2001) notes, Nostalgia
extends beyond individual psychology as it encompasses a yearning for a different time, par-
ticularly the slower rhythms of childhood dreams, representing a rebellion against the modern
concept of time associated with history and progress. It seeks to transform history into personal
or collective mythology, resisting the irreversible nature of time. While nostalgia fosters empa-
thy among individuals sharing a longing, attempts to reconcile longing with a sense of belong-
ing often lead to divergence and hinder mutual understanding. Nostalgia encapsulates the par-
adox of combining yearning with a double exposure of home and abroad, past and present, and
dreamlike and everyday life, challenging the notion of a singular image. Although nostalgia
was once considered a curable disease, it has become an incurable condition in the modern era,
replacing the optimistic belief in the future. Nostalgia possesses a utopian quality, albeit one
that is no longer oriented towards the future, sometimes even defying both the past and conven-
tional constraints of time and space.

In the context of diaspora, nostalgia can serve as a way for diasporic communities to main-
tain a connection to their cultural heritage and to preserve their traditions and memories. How-
ever, nostalgia can also create a sense of ambivalence and disorientation for diasporic commu-
nities, as they struggle to reconcile their longing for their homeland with their new experiences
and sense of belonging in their new location.

Memory also plays a significant role in shaping the cultural identity of diasporic communi-
ties. In the current era, acknowledging the significance of cultural memory becomes increas-
ingly crucial in the fight for minority rights. Understanding how cultural memory shapes iden-
tities and influences the portrayal of oneself within the diaspora is essential in challenging the
dominant cultures' misrepresentations of the Other. As immigrants, our memories of home and
our potential play a vital role, particularly amidst the disorienting effects of a rapidly changing
postmodern world. It is important to recognize that memories in the diaspora are not static or
readily accessible; instead, they require research, construction, and representation. The re-
presentation of our cultural memories holds great significance in our quest for a voice, as “...all
representation –whether in language, narrative, image, or recorded sound is based on memory.
Re-presentation always comes after, even though some media will try to provide us with the
delusion of pure essence” (Huyssen 1995, p.2). "
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 55
Anh Hua (2005) claims that,

Memory analysis is significant to diaspora and feminist theorizing because it can reveal both
the inner psychic states of postcolonial diaspora women and men—such as desire, fantasy, re-
pression, denial, fear, trauma, identification, repulsion, and abjection as well as the social state
of diasporic communities. (p. 199)

She also adds that memory can trigger “identity formation, the rewriting of home and be-
longing, nostalgia, mourning and a sense of loss frequently found in diaspora, exile and immi-
grant narratives” (Ibid, p. 200).

In short, memory and nostalgia are important issues in diaspora, as they shape the cultural
identity and experiences of diasporic communities. By recognizing the complexities of memory
and nostalgia, we can gain a deeper understanding of the experiences and perspectives of di-
asporic communities.

I.8.2.6. Difference:
Bhabha (1994) problematizes Difference in diaspora in the chapter called BORDER LIVES:
“THE ART OF THE PRESENT” from his book The Location of Culture. He asserts that the
formation of subjects occurs in the spaces between, surpassing the mere summation of individ-
ual differences such as race, class, and gender.

The emergence of overlapping and displaced differences plays a crucial role in negotiating
collective experiences of nationhood, community interests, and cultural values. The formation
of subjects occurs in these interstices, exceeding the sum of individual differences like race,
class, and gender. The process of representing and empowering communities with shared his-
tories of deprivation and discrimination is complex and sometimes conflictual. Recent social
crises demonstrate the impact of cultural differences, such as conflicts in South Central Los
Angeles and the response to The Satanic Verses controversy in Great Britain. Cultural engage-
ments can be both consensual and conflicting, challenging traditional boundaries and normative
expectations. The representation of difference is performative and not a reflection of fixed tra-
ditions. Tradition is reinterpreted through contingent and contradictory circumstances, estrang-
ing the notion of an original identity or received tradition. (p. 2)
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 56
I.8.2.7. In-betweenness and Borders:
Edward Said's concept of "Between Worlds" goes beyond a mere article title and encom-
passes a state of mind and a power struggle that shaped his life and worldview. Said explores
the experiences of immigrants who find themselves straddling two worlds, two languages, two
cultures, and two worldviews, without a strong sense of belonging to either. The feeling of
being at home, which is taken for granted by many, is elusive or difficult to achieve for immi-
grants. In a colonial context, the dilemma of home and belonging becomes even more complex,
challenging the dominant discourse and introducing alternative values and concepts. Said em-
phasizes the linguistic challenges faced by immigrants, which can lead to a sense of muteness
and an inability to articulate their unique lived experiences.

The issue of home and identity extends beyond individual psychology and involves power
negotiations and the clash between knowledge and power. Said argues for the deconstruction
of official histories and the exploration of alternative perspectives. While there are binary dy-
namics at play, with a dominant group and a subordinated one, Said also acknowledges the
existence of an in-between space, where he himself struggles to define his home country, lan-
guage, and culture. The essay reflects an oscillation between binary representations and more
ambiguous positions of in-betweenness, with an emphasis on the colonial mechanisms that sub-
jugate marginalized groups. (1998).

Brah (2003) employs the interconnected concepts of diaspora, border, and politics of loca-
tion to examine the contemporary movements of individuals, information, cultures, commodi-
ties, and capital on a global scale. In this analysis, the notion of diaspora inherently involves
traversing borders, which extends beyond physical and political boundaries. Brah argues that
borders encompass various symbolic boundaries encompassing psychological, sexual, spiritual,
cultural, class, and racial aspects, which are arbitrarily constructed. Consequently, these con-
structed borders contribute to the exclusion and marginalization of diaspora communities.

In essence, Brah's perspective highlights that borders are not solely limited to territorial di-
visions or legal frameworks but encompass broader dimensions that shape the experiences and
identities of diasporic populations. These boundaries act as metaphors, influencing and defining
the lived realities of individuals within diaspora communities. They operate as mechanisms of
control and separation, leading to the marginalization of certain groups and restricting their
access to resources, opportunities, and recognition.
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 57
By contextualizing borders in this multifaceted manner, Brah draws attention to the intricate
power dynamics and social structures that underpin the experiences of diasporic individuals.
This expanded understanding of borders encourages a critical examination of the diverse fac-
tors—psychological, cultural, and socio-economic—that contribute to the exclusionary pro-
cesses faced by diaspora communities.

I.8.2.8. Return:
According to Brubaker (2005), diasporas are characterized by geographic dispersal, the
preservation of ethnic identity separate from host societies, and a connection to a homeland.
This article focuses on homeland orientation, as there is limited research on the actualization of
this orientation through physical Return to the country of origin. The longing for their country
of origin or ancestral homeland often leads diasporic individuals to strongly desire relocation,
as evident in various literature sources.

The desire for Return can be interpreted as a manifestation of the belief that individuals
should have a connection to their cultural and territorial "roots," which is deeply ingrained in
modern discourses (Malkki, 1995). However, this notion is disrupted when forced or voluntary
population displacement occurs. This idea of rootedness influences both sedentary majority
populations, who perceive people as carriers of roots, culture, and identity, and migrants, who
view returning to their place of origin as normality and a means of reclaiming their social iden-
tity. Within diasporic communities, the aspiration for return is often perceived simplistically as
a way to complete the migratory cycle and regain a sense of social identity. (Black and Koser
1999; Markowitz and Stefansson 2004).

From this perspective, Christou (2006) confirms that the concept of diaspora typically re-
volves around an absent homeland or home region. The idea of a homeland plays a fundamental
role in shaping diaspora communities, regardless of whether they function as organized com-
munities or not. The significance of this homeland can range from a symbolic connection based
on ancestry and roots, which may be little-known or visited, such as in the case of many Afro-
American communities, to a tangible place and society that people actively travel to and visit,
as seen in diasporas resulting from recent labor migration. As a result, a majority of diasporic
individuals have developed a desire for "return" or "counter-diasporic" movement, aspiring to
go back to their homeland. However, in most instances, these aspirations remain unfulfilled,
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 58
leading to unrealized return projects and occasional seasonal movements. Consequently, the
notion of return is often depicted as a dream, occasionally even portrayed as a nightmare.

Return in diaspora does not always guarantee a joyful reunion with loved ones and the res-
olution of the migratory journey. Extensive research indicates that return migration is a multi-
faceted experience, fraught with practical challenges and the difficult process of "reintegration."
Individuals who return often encounter obstacles and stressful interactions with an unfamiliar
and occasionally unfriendly homeland society. This journey back home can be unsettling and
unsettling, leading to a complex and uncertain path of return. (Markowitz and Stefansson 2004)

I.9. Diaspora in Postcolonial Literature:

In "The Location of Culture," Homi K. Bhabha considers the theme of diaspora as a signif-
icant aspect of postcolonial literature. He argues that diaspora literature reflects the experience
of displacement, cultural hybridity, and the negotiation of multiple cultural identities in the
context of colonial and postcolonial histories.

He also suggests that diaspora literature challenges the fixed and stable notions of cultural
identity and belonging that are often imposed by colonial power structures. Instead, diaspora
literature embraces the fluid and dynamic nature of cultural identity, highlighting the ongoing
process of negotiation and transformation that characterizes the diasporic experience.

In addition, he emphasizes the importance of the "liminal" space created by diaspora litera-
ture, which exists between the fixed categories of colonial and postcolonial identities. This lim-
inal space offers a site of resistance and possibility, where new forms of cultural identity can
be imagined and created

Section Two:

I.10. Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni:

Chitra Divakaruni is an award-winning writer, activist and teacher, and the author of 21
books such as Mistress of Spices, Sister of My Heart, Before We Visit the Goddess, Palace of
Illusions, The Forest of Enchantments, and The Last Queen. Her newest novel, Independence,
depicts the experiences of three sisters in strife-torn Calcutta as India frees itself from the British
yoke. She writes for adults and children.
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 59
Her work has been published in over 100 magazines and anthologies and translated into 30
languages, including Dutch, Hebrew, Bengali, Hungarian, Turkish, Hindi, and Japanese. Her
work has been made into films, plays and dance dramas, and performed as operas. Her awards
include an American Book Award, a PEN Josephine Miles award, a Premio Scanno, and a Light
of India award. In 2015, The Economic Times included her in their List of 20 Most Influential
Global Indian Women. She is the McDavid professor of Creative Writing in the internationally
acclaimed Creative Writing Program at the University of Houston and lives in Houston with
her husband Murthy.

Divakaruni has been an activist in the fields of education and domestic violence and has been
closely associated with the following nonprofits: Pratham, which educates underprivileged chil-
dren in India, and Daya and Maitri, which assist survivors of domestic violence in starting life
anew. (Divakaruni, n.d., About the Author section)

I.10.1. Divakaruni as a Portrait of the American-Indian Diaspora:

Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni enriches the complex firmament of Diasporic writers who ex-
plore the uncanny conditions of Diasporic realities; the phenomenon of isolation, alienation,
cultural heterogeneity, expatriation, syncretism, dialogisms and hybridity in identity and their
relationship with the phenomenon of the world. She has been a sensitive woman, a consummate
artist, and a visionary endowed with exceptional human sensibility and innovative vision. She
has been conscious of the problems and issues related to the life of women. Since 19991, she
has been the founder and president of MAITRI, a helpline for South Asian Women that works
to redeem the sufferings of the victims of domestic violence and other traumatic situations. As
a president of MAITRI, she made rigorous efforts to study and investigate the root cause of the
problems of women across the globe. (Mishra, 2020)

I.10.2. Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni’s Style and Works:

Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni is a renowned Indian-American author known for her works of
fiction, poetry, and non-fiction. She is known for her ability to capture the complexities of the
immigrant experience, especially for South Asian women.

Divakaruni's literature style is characterized by her ability to weave intricate narratives that
are rich in detail and emotion. She often draws on her personal experiences as an immigrant to
explore themes such as identity, culture, and belonging. Her writing style is also marked by its
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 60
poetic language, vivid imagery, and attention to detail. She has a talent for creating evocative
descriptions that transport the reader to different places and times.

In an interview with The Punch, it is mentioned that her writing career is described as di-
verse, spanning multiple genres such as poetry, short stories, essays, and fiction. Her fiction
work encompasses various forms such as realistic, historical, magical realism, myth, and fan-
tasy, set in both the US and India, often exploring the experiences of South Asian immigrants.
Additionally, she has also written for children and young adults. Her short story collection,
Arranged Marriage, won the American Book Award, and several of her works, including The
Mistress of Spices and Sister of My Heart, have been adapted into films. Divakaruni's latest
novel, Before We Visit The Goddess, explores the relationships between mothers and daughters
and the different types of love that connect them, and has been published by Simon & Schuster.
(The Punch, 2017)

In another interview with Culture Map, Divakaruni spoke about the use of stories within her
work, the stories within her stories. She says, “Storytelling is a big theme in my narrative.” In
many of her works, “people are always telling each other stories. People are always interpreting
stories that are told to them, and seeing themselves within these stories.”

Explaining what story has to do with our everyday lives, she says, “Stories have a very im-
portant effect on us as human beings, especially in terms of how we relate to each other. When
we share stories or we have stories in common that is a very good way, a very deep way, of
relating to and understanding people.”

The writer grew up in India listening to family stories and “folk tales, fairy tales, legends
and epics” told by her mother and grandfather. Now she sometimes worries that “here in Amer-
ica we’ve gotten away from the storytelling culture.”

She also declares, “I think in other cultures there maybe still more of a sense that story is
important, that story is how we define and identify ourselves. But in America we’re losing it
because there is other media that is bombarding us, and the telling of story from one person to
another has not been as important.” (Gaines, 2011)
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 61
I.11. The Mistress of Spices’ Plot Summary:
Divakaruni’s bestselling novel Mistress of Spices (Doubleday/Anchor), written in a unique
style that blends prose and poetry, magic and reality, was named one of the top 100 books of
the 20th Century by the San Francisco Chronicle. Divakaruni comments, “I wrote the book in
a spirit of play, collapsing the divisions between the realistic world of twentieth century Amer-
ica and the timeless one of myth in my attempt to create a modern fable.”

The novel follows the adventures of Tilo, a mysterious figure who runs a grocery store in
inner-city Oakland and uses her knowledge of spices to help her customers overcome difficul-
ties. Tilo provides magical spices not only for cooking but also for the challenges that Indian
immigrants in an alien land experience. She develops dilemmas of her own when she falls in
love with a mysterious stranger she calls the Lonely American, as now she has to choose
whether to serve her people or to follow the path leading to her own happiness. (Divakaruni,
1997)

I.12. Tilo's Diasporic Experience, Identity, and Representation of

Culture:
Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni’s novel The Mistress of Spices explores the theme of diasporic
identity through the experiences of the protagonist, Tilo, who is a member of the Indian diaspora
living in the United States. Tilo's diasporic identity is represented in several ways throughout
the novel.

Firstly, Tilo's experiences as an immigrant in the United States highlight the challenges of
adjusting to a new culture and environment. She struggles to adapt to the fast-paced, individu-
alistic lifestyle of American society, while also trying to maintain her connection to her Indian
heritage and cultural traditions.

Tilo’s spiritual journey is also, as Divakaruni explains:

[…] the quintessential immigrants’ tale. […] For each of us it is a balance, between our past and our
new home that we have to reach on our own (1997).

In other words, Tilo also learns that cultural assimilation indeed comes at a certain cost
and this is perfectly encapsulated in the situation Tilo is put in as she is compelled to ask
herself: how far do one’s traditions and values affect how one can assimilate into a new life
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 62
and how much of them should one give up to fit in? So, ultimately, she is forced to rethink
her role as a healer beyond the simplistic split between her desire to help others and to help
herself and in doing so, she conjures up a new American identity which however, she will
metaphorically speaking, have to pay for. (Bernardon, n.d)

P, V. Ramana in her article concerning Tilo’s diasporic identity states: “In The Mistress of
Spices Divakaruni highlights the element of Diasporic identity through the character Tilo, who
migrated to Oakland, California and runs a spice bazaar and also she acquires magical powers
and with those powers she cures the psychological and physical disorders. Even though she is
an Indian, she herself creates an identity in Oakland and she also appears in Indian attire as she
respects the Indian culture and tradition”. (P. Venkata Ramana, Dr. K. K. Sunalini, & B. Pavan
Kumar, 2022).

Secondly, Tilo's connection to the spices she sells and the shop itself represents her diasporic
identity. The spices remind her of her homeland and her cultural heritage, and the store bound-
aries that she must not cross as a mistress of spices serve as a way for her to connect with other
members of the Indian diaspora who come to her seeking comfort and familiarity.

The Mistress of Spices is allowed by the powers that be to work magic only for the good of
her own Indians. The others, they must go elsewhere for their need', the first mother, the senior
preceptor, had warned her that National boundaries become aggressive, all important in the
Diaspora, as a way of defining identity, a liminality that marks the contours of one's experience,
a platform for resisting co-optation by the dominant/hegemonic discourse. The spice store with
its sacred, secret shelves functions as a geographical/textual space that is the repository of a
monolithic national identity. The Mistress of Spices is the benign spirit who hovers over Indians
living in America. But for Divakaruni, assuaging the pain of diasporic life is more complex. (P.
Venkata Ramana, Dr. K. K. Sunalini, & B. Pavan Kumar, 2022).

Lastly, Tilo's relationships with other characters in the novel, particularly with the American
man Raven and the Indian immigrant Haroun, reflect the complexities of diasporic identity.
Tilo is torn between her attraction to Raven and her loyalty to Haroun, who represents her
connection to her homeland and her cultural identity. Through these relationships, the novel
explores the tension between assimilation and cultural preservation that is central to the expe-
rience of diaspora.
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 63
The portrayal of diasporic identity in The Mistress of Spices is characterized by its intricate
and diverse nature, capturing the complexities of navigating a new cultural environment while
retaining ties to one's cultural roots. Divakaruni skilfully presents her characters as vivid por-
traits that embody the Indian American identity and depict their unique experiences.

I.13. Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie:

Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie was born in 1977 in Enugu, Nigeria. She studied medicine and
pharmacy at the University of Nigeria then moved to the US to study communications and
political science at Eastern Connecticut State University. She gained an MA in Creative Writing
from Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore. After initially writing poetry and one play, For
Love of Biafra (1998), she had several short stories published in literary journals, winning var-
ious competition prizes. Her first novel, Purple Hibiscus, was published in 2003 and is set in
the political turmoil of 1990s Nigeria, the narrative is told from the perspective of 15-year-old
Kambili Achike. It won the 2005 Commonwealth Writers Prize (Overall Winner, Best Book),
and was shortlisted for the 2004 Orange Prize for Fiction. Her second novel is Half of a Yellow
Sun (2006), set before and during the Biafran War. It won the 2007 Orange Broadband Prize
for Fiction. Chimamanda’s third novel Americanah, was written during a fellowship awarded
by the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study in 2011-2013 and was published to great acclaim
in 2013. In 2019 it was announced that Americanah will be adapted into a ten-part TV series
for HBO Max. We Should All Be Feminists, a long essay adapted from a 2012 TEDx Talk, was
published in 2014, followed by Dear Ijeawele, or A Feminist Manifesto in Fifteen Sugges-
tions in 2017, which won the 2017 Grand Prix de l’Héroïne Madame Figaro (nonfiction). she
divides her time between Nigeria, where she regularly teaches writing workshops, and the
United States. (British Council, n.d.)

I.13.1. Chimamanda as a portrait of the American-Nigerian Diaspora:

Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie is one of the brilliant African authors in the new millennium
that fosters and sustains African identity and dignity regardless of gender. She belongs to the
third generation of African writers in the post-colonial era. Her writings target the issue of Af-
rican immigrants and their struggle with racial and ethnic discrimination in the West (Coulibaly
& Coulibaly, 2019). In her TED Talk, The Danger of a Single Story, Adichie discusses the
importance of recognizing and embracing the multiple narratives that make up the African di-
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 64
aspora. She argues that by only hearing a single story about a group of people, we risk perpet-
uating stereotypes and limiting our understanding of their experiences” (2009). through her
personal experiences and her work as a writer, Adichie recognizes that there are often multiple
narratives that make up any given story, and that these narratives are shaped by a wide range of
factors, including culture, race, gender, and history. By embracing these multiple narratives,
Adichie suggests that we can gain a more nuanced and comprehensive understanding of the
experiences of different communities. Adichie's quote highlights the importance of recognizing
the limitations of a single perspective, and of embracing multiple narratives in order to gain a
more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of complex issues.

I.13.2. Chimamanda's Literature Style and Works:

Adichie is considered one of the most prominent members of the third generation of Nigerian
writers. This label groups literary works “on the basis of their putative affiliation to a nation-
state and their location in a historical narrative beginning with foundational figures and pro-
ceeding through stages” (Dalley, 2013, p. 16). However, contemporary postcolonial writing
problematizes the idea of “nation” as written by previous generations of authors. As described
by Dalley, the models of time and space are not valid anymore since transnational migration
and displacement are fundamental aspects that define the Nigerian nation, which can be seen
as “an entity made through movement” (p. 18). The works of Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie ex-
plore this new concept of “nation”, through her characters’ struggle to find their place in a
complex and changing environment with a heavy political aura.

It should be noted that the personal and the political are always interpenetrated in her writing.
her debut novel, Purple Hibiscus, draws heavily from her own experiences growing up in Ni-
geria during the oppressive rule of Abacha's dictatorship in the 1990s. The novel explores the
tension between traditional Igbo culture and the western values imposed upon them through
colonialism and Catholicism. Through the coming-of-age story of Kambili, Adichie depicts the
evolution of a young girl from her father's abusive and fanatic religious influence to a more
mature understanding of the world around her. Adichie uses Kambili's journey as an allegory
to represent Nigeria's struggle to break free from colonialism and create its own history. In this
way, Adichie's female characters are often linked to the larger narrative of the Nigerian nation.
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 65
This ongoing quest for self-definition is a common theme through Adichie’s writing,
Adichie's second novel, Half of a Yellow Sun, is set during the Biafran War of the 1960s and
follows the lives of diverse individuals who are affected in different ways by the conflict. The
story is mainly centered on Olanna and her husband, both professors at Nsukka University,
whose comfortable lives are disrupted by the traumatizing effects of the war. Adichie's sympa-
thy for the idea of Biafra is evident, and the novel carries a sense of political engagement. While
the characters' stories focus on the human side of war, Adichie also writes about the chaos that
fragments Nigeria. In comparison, Purple Hibiscus presents the blending of cultures as the only
viable option in a post-colonized era, while Half of a Yellow Sun depicts it as unfeasible due to
historical circumstances. Adichie and other third-generation Nigerian writers tend to question
the idea of the nation as a single coherent story, in contrast to previous generations who “found
in the use of the literary tool a means to celebrate and establish the nation” (Nwakanma, 2008,
p. 13). This evolution is a result of population dispersion and migration, which demands a re-
definition of belonging. Adichie's later works, such as Americanah and The Thing Around Your
Neck, center on the diaspora experience and reflect this redefinition of belonging.

In the US, Adichie realized that the Western world holds a single story of what Africa is,
based on racist stereotypes she writes to combat these stereotypes and the “single story”. In
most of her writing we find characters that are educated, have comfortable lives, do not starve
and have cellphones and cars. These traits made them, as seen by some critics, “not authenti-
cally African” (Adichie, 2008, p. 48). Again, this breaks the tradition of previous generations
of Nigerian writers, such as Chinua Achebe (1930-2013). Adichie insists on portraying the di-
verse faces of Africa, not just the one that the West is comfortable with: “Achebe’s characters
were nothing like me and lived without the things that I saw as the norm in my life: cars, elec-
tricity and telephones” (Adichie, 2008, p.42).

In conclusion, Adichie is Known for her bold style and realistic, compelling characters,
Adichie considers issues of power dynamics, Postcolonialism, and cultural intersections within
a global society.

I.14. Americanah’ Plot summary:

In Americanah Adichie traces the learning process which leads to a critical consciousness
regarding race and her own position as a Black woman through the character of Ifemelu. By
describing the life of a central character who grapples with her social surrounding and thereby
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 66
develops an active consciousness and reflectivity, the story generally is about Ifemelu and
Obinze who are young and in love when they depart military-ruled Nigeria for the West. Beau-
tiful, self-assured Ifemelu heads for America, where despite her academic success, she is forced
to grapple with what it means to be black for the first time. Quiet, thoughtful Obinze had hoped
to join her, but with post-9/11 America closed to him, he instead plunges into a dangerous,
undocumented life in London. Fifteen years later, they reunite in a newly democratic Nigeria
and reignite their passion—for each other and for their homeland (Adichie, n.d.).

I.15. Diasporic Experiences in Americanah:

Nigerian diasporic literature commonly explores migration and its associated issues, partic-
ularly the challenge of identity formation for individuals who move to new countries. This
struggle is often linked to skin color assumptions. In Americanah, Adichie examines the impact
of immigration on her characters, highlighting the significance of borders in a global context
and showcasing the experiences of Nigerians living outside their home country. Through
Ifemelu, the novel's protagonist, Adichie depicts the struggles faced by a middle-class woman
attempting to obtain an education in a foreign land. Overall, Americanah offers a unique per-
spective on the complexities of identity formation and migration.

The novel Americanah deals with the theme of identity and how the main characters, Ifemelu
and Obinze, struggle to find their place in the world. National and racial identities are closely
tied to their sense of self due to their circumstances. Obinze faces difficulties adapting to life in
England and resorts to assuming others' identities and jobs in order to obtain a green card. This
experience leaves him feeling worthless and he is eventually deported back to Nigeria. Despite
giving up his dream of America, Obinze is able to build a successful new identity for himself
in Nigeria, including wealth and a beautiful wife. However, this is disrupted when Ifemelu re-
turns and reconnects with him after facing her own identity crisis.

Adichie employs symbols in Americanah to convey themes related to cultural and individual
identity, oppression, and racism. Ifemelu, a middle-class Nigerian girl, has a deep connection
to her Nigerian roots, as evidenced by her fondness for Nigerian customs and practices.
Ifemelu's admiration for her mother's thick, black hair is an example of this. When people ask
Ifemelu, “Is it your real hair?” (Adichie, 2013) she wants it like that because Ifemelu believes
that her hair is a reflection of her Nigerian identity and considers it "dead" without curls. The
pressure to straighten her hair in America signifies the racism prevalent in American society.
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 67
“Just a little burn,” the hairdresser said, “but look how pretty it is. Wow, girl, you’ve got the
white-girl swing.” (Adichie, 2013). As a result, Ifemelu starts a blog to document her experi-
ences and struggles with identity. The blog reflects the obstacles she encounters in the process
of discovering her true identity.

According to Bhabha (1994), it is concluded that diasporic experiences problematize

Ifemelu’s identity and make her hybrid. She leaves Nigeria for America with a dream ‘to pros-
per’ and make her home there. However, she finds her land of dreams different, and she faces
many problems in the host land in terms of getting settled there. The host land injects a sense
of displacement and unhomeliness in her. In order to cope with the situation and to be “a re-
formed, recognizable Other”, she starts imitating Western culture through her appearances,
manners and language. Further, for getting the ‘desirable other’, she gives up her Nigerian iden-
tity and starts learning to adapt the dominant identity of the host society. However, she does not
get her desired acceptance by Whites and as a result, she starts feeling irritated by not getting
accepted by them and an inner sense of guilt pricks her by ignoring her own Afro-culture. She
feels ambivalence as the result of her mimicry and feels mimicry as “a garland that she hung
around her own neck” (p. 131).

Adichie's novel covers multiple countries, cities, and characters with different relationships,
highlighting the various factors that shape one's identity, such as cultural, economic, racial, and
personal preferences. Despite Ifemelu's affinity for American culture, she still values and pre-
serves her own. Americanah novel portrays the struggles of diaspora individuals in terms of
their identity and experiences, highlighting both opportunities and prejudices they face.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, Chapter One provides a comprehensive overview of Postcolonial Diaspora

Literature, covering theoretical foundations and key concepts. It explores postcolonialism, ne-
ocolonialism, and trajectories such as alienation, identity, hybridity, mimicry, ambivalence, as-
similation, and diaspora. The chapter discusses diasporic studies, interrelated concepts, and the
representation of women in postcolonial literature, which facilitated a profound comprehension
of the workings of postcolonialism and the principles underlying diaspora. It introduces the
African and Indian diasporas, defines diaspora literature, and its relationship to postcolonial
literature. The chapter then focuses on authors Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni and Chimamanda
 An Overview of Postcolonial Diaspora Literature | 68
Ngozi Adichie, detailing their backgrounds, literature style, and works, with an analysis of The
Mistress of Spices and Americanah in terms of diasporic experiences. Eventually, by establish-
ing a theoretical foundation, Chapter One sets the stage for further practical investigation and
lays the groundwork for a well-informed conclusion that emphasizes the interplay between
postcolonial diaspora literature, the selected novels, and the authors' personal experiences.
CHAPTER-II. : A Comparative Study
Between The Mistress of
Spices and Americanah
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 70
Introduction:

This chapter is a comparative study between the novels The Mistress of Spices (1997) by Chitra
Banerjee Divakaruni and Americanah (2013) by Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie. This chapter ex-
plores the representation of diasporic identities and the complexity of defining one's identity in
these two novels. It examines the postcolonial themes of alienation, hybridity, race, gender, lan-
guage, and displacement in both works. The chapter also provides a postcolonial insight into the
novels by analyzing the concepts of in-betweenness, unhomeliness, mimicry, otherness, and am-
bivalence. The Bildungsroman in the context of diaspora, race, and gender is also analyzed in
relation to the journeys of Tilo and Ifemelu, the central characters of the novels. A character anal-
ysis of Tilo and Ifemelu is presented, along with a comparison of their struggles and purposes in
the modern contemporary world. The chapter examines the conflicts faced by diasporas in both
novels, including issues of home and belonging, memory and nostalgia, inner conflict, and di-
asporic sensibility. Other similarities between the two novels, such as immigration, social com-
mentary, and cultural issues, are also explored. This chapter ultimately compares and contrasts the
works of two different generations of diaspora writers, Divakaruni and Adichie, with a focus on
identity, historical context, themes, style, language, and audience.

II.1. Divakaruni and Adichie, Two Different Generations of Diaspora

Writers:
Diaspora writers in the USA are divided into generations and our current study involves two
different generations of diaspora writers: Chitra belongs to the first generation, while Chimamanda
belongs to the third one. Indian and Nigerian diaspora writers from different generations may differ
in terms of their themes styles, Identity and historical context, and audiences.

II.1.1. Identity and Historical Context:

Indian and Nigerian diaspora writers from different generations may have varying experiences
of their cultural identity that shape their writing. Early Indian diaspora writers often came from
traditional and conservative backgrounds, while early Nigerian diaspora writers may have strug-
gled with questions of cultural identity and belonging. In contrast, later generations of Indian and
Nigerian diaspora writers have more diverse backgrounds and experiences, including growing up
in more liberal and westernized cultures, which has influenced their perspectives on their heritage
and the diasporic experience. This may explain why later generations of Nigerian diaspora writers
may be more confident in their Nigerian identity, while later generations of Indian diaspora writers
may explore the complexities of their heritage in their writing.
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 71
Divakaruni is an Indian diaspora writer who has lived in the United States for many years. Her
writing often explores the tension between traditional Indian culture and the modern Western
world. Her characters struggle to reconcile their Indian heritage with their experiences in America,
often feeling caught between two worlds. A study on modern Indian diaspora writers found that
they can be classified into two distinct groups based on their experiences with displacement. One
group has lived in India for a portion of their lives and carried their cultural heritage with them, as
is the case with Chitra who reflects that in her novels, while the other group grew up outside of
India and only has a dream-like perception of their homeland. Despite these differences, both
groups have produced a significant amount of English literature that explores themes of displace-
ment, alienation, assimilation, and cultural adaptation. (Nagalakshmi, 2021, p.1909)

In contrast, Nigerian diaspora writers from different generations have experienced different
historical contexts, which can also influence their writing. Writers who came of age during the era
of Nigerian independence and the Biafran War may focus on themes related to nation-building,
colonialism, and conflict, while those who came of age during a period of economic instability and
political repression in Nigeria may focus more on the impact of corruption and dictatorship on
individual lives, which is the case with Adichie who is a Nigerian diaspora writer who has lived
in the United States and also in Nigeria. Her writing explores themes of identity, race, and cultural
differences. Her characters often grapple with issues of cultural identity and belonging, as well as
the complexities of the immigrant experience. Adichie's writing is shaped by her experiences as a
diaspora writer who came of age during the 1990s and early 2000s, a period marked by political
and social upheaval in Nigeria. Her work reflects the experiences of a generation of Nigerians who
grew up during a time of military dictatorship, economic instability, and social change

The younger generation of Nigerian writers, including Adichie, are more interested in themes
such as "nomadism, exile, displacement and deracination," (Adesanmi & Dunton, 2005, p. 16)
compared to the older generation who focused more on the state of Nigeria after independence.

lastly, while Indian literature is unique, Selasi (2013) asserts that the problem with categorizing
Nigerian literature as a part of African literature is that the African continent is culturally, reli-
giously, ethnically, and linguistically diverse. The continent consists of 55 states recognized by
the UN, and there are over two thousand languages spoken on the continent, over 400 in Nigeria
alone. This diversity makes it challenging to draw broad conclusions about African literature and
its writers.
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 72
II.1.2. Themes and Style:
Indian and Nigerian diaspora writers have both evolved in terms of their writing styles and
themes across different generations. Early Indian diaspora writers often wrote about the challenges
of adapting to a new country and the search for a sense of belonging, while early Nigerian diaspora
writers may have focused on questions of cultural identity and belonging. However, later genera-
tions of Indian and Nigerian diaspora writers have expanded their scope to include a wider range
of themes related to social justice, race, gender, and sexuality. Additionally, the writing styles of
both groups have also evolved, with later generations of Indian diaspora writers experimenting
with postmodernism, magical realism, and other experimental forms of storytelling, and younger
Nigerian diaspora writers exploring different forms and genres to tell their stories. Overall, both
groups have undergone significant changes in their writing styles and themes across different gen-
erations, reflecting the evolving experiences of their respective diasporic communities.

The writings of post-colonial diasporic authors are typically characterized by a set of patterns,
utilizing various techniques such as stream of consciousness, immigration, magic realism, aliena-
tion, and cultural adaptation to engage readers from around the world. Notably, a majority of In-
dian English-language literature is written by diasporic writers residing outside of India. Girish
and Chowdhury (2017) in this context note that:

The protagonists of the novels who are the first generation immigrants, struggle to bring
up their children in a foreign land trying to keep them connected to their Indian roots and
culture. The children, as second generation immigrants, find it difficult as they are completely
disconnected with the Indian culture leading to inter-generational conflicts between the parents
and the children. The parents experience a sense of alienation while the children experience
emotional dichotomy. Each generation of Indian diaspora experiences cultural clashes in dif-
ferent ways. (p. 761)

Although the writing styles of diaspora writers vary, they do share some common traits. Many
writers who are part of the diaspora often depict their own experiences of being in a foreign country
through the characters in their novels. Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni is no different in this regard. In
The Mistress of Spices, Divakaruni uses a poetic and lyrical writing style that weaves together
magical realism, folklore, and sensory details to create a dream-like atmosphere. The novel ex-
plores themes of identity, cultural heritage, and the tension between tradition and modernity using
the story-telling technique throughout the novel. Even the context and the setting of the story seem
more traditional which represents the nostalgic feelings of the writer herself. The protagonist, Tilo,
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 73
is a mistress of spices who uses her powers to heal and transform the lives of her customers using
traditional yet magical spices, but she is also torn between her duties to her people and her desire
for a different kind of life.

In contrast, recent Nigerian diaspora writers like Adichie in Americanah have a more straight-
forward writing style focused on character development and social commentary. According to
Dimitriu (2021)

Adichie belongs to a younger generation of 21st century Nigerian writers, whom critic Maxi-
milian Feldner (2019, p. 15) refers to as “the new African Diaspora”. This younger generation of
Nigerian émigré writers – Seffi Atta, Ike Oguine, Chris Abani, Helon Habila, Jackie Kay, Noo
Saro-Wiwa, to name but a few – have shown great flexibility in navigating between country of
origin and adopted host country, “able to move freely between continents, which allows them to
invest [themselves] in their African homelands (idem: 17). (p.273)

The novel follows the story of Ifemelu, a Nigerian woman who immigrates to the United States
and grapples with issues of race, identity, and cultural assimilation. Adichie explores themes of
race, identity, immigration, and cultural differences, highlighting the complexities of the immi-
grant experience in the United States. The novel also delves into the complexities of romantic
relationships and the intersection of personal and political struggles. In his article "Nigerian Writ-
ing in the 21st Century," (2017), Rasheed Gbadegesin discusses the state of Nigerian literature in
the new millennium. He examines the literary output of Nigerian writers and identifies several key
trends, including the continued dominance of the novel as the preferred literary form, the emer-
gence of new themes and genres, and the increasing prominence of female writers. He also exam-
ines the impact of digital technology and social media on Nigerian literature and the ways in which
these technologies are changing the way writers connect with readers. Overall, Gbadegesin argues
that Nigerian literature is thriving and continues to be a vital expression of Nigerian culture and
identity in the 21st century.

In the chapter "New Voices, Emerging Themes" from The Cambridge Companion to the Afri-
can Novel, Dominic Thomas examines the state of the African novel in the early 21st century,
highlighting the diversity of voices and themes that are emerging in contemporary African litera-
ture. He notes that while many African novels continue to engage with issues of colonialism, post-
colonialism, and identity, there is also a growing emphasis on new themes, such as globalization,
neoliberalism, and transnationalism. Thomas discusses the work of several contemporary African
novelists, including Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, Binyavanga Wainaina, and Helon Habila,
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 74
among others, to illustrate these new directions in African fiction. He also emphasizes the im-
portance of considering the broader cultural and historical contexts in which African novels are
produced and consumed. Thomas's chapter offers a nuanced and insightful analysis of the current
state of African literature and its evolving themes and concerns. (Thomas, 2010, p. 227-242)

II.1.3. Language:
Both Divakaruni and Adichie's use of language in their writing reflects their connection to their
respective cultural and linguistic roots, as well as their willingness to experiment with different
narrative techniques and structures. Divakaruni's early works, such as Arranged Marriage and The
Mistress of Spices, show a strong influence of Indian English, reflecting her own experience of
growing up in India and her familiarity with Indian languages and idioms. In these works, she
often uses a more formal and traditional English style, similar to the earlier generation of Indian
diaspora writers. However, in her later works, such as The Palace of Illusions and One Amazing
Thing, Divakaruni displays a greater confidence in her use of the English language and incorpo-
rates more contemporary and globalized English styles. She also experiments with different nar-
rative techniques and structures, reflecting the influence of postmodern literature.

Indian English literature has undergone transformations in both its themes and narrative styles
over time, influenced by different perspectives on colonialism and national identity. Early writers
were preoccupied with building a sense of nationhood, while later writers displayed more confi-
dence in their use of the English language, with Indian diaspora writers being particularly innova-
tive in blending Indian and global influences. These writers have embraced experimentation while
retaining a sense of continuity with traditional themes.

According to Shameem (2016), the development of Indian English literature is marked by shifts
in both its themes and narrative styles, with different periods reflecting different attitudes towards
colonialism and national identity. Colonial writers were more focused on nation-building, while
postcolonial writers often rejected these ideals. Postcolonial writers were more confident in their
use of the English language, which became more natural and adopted over time. Sunanda Mongia
identified three phases of Indian English writing: Nativity, Confluxion, and Postcolonial. In the
Postcolonial phase, writers shed their inhibitions and asserted their identity. Indian diaspora writ-
ers, in particular, have been able to blend continuity with experimentation, evoking the aroma of
Indian life in living English. The evolution of Indian English literature reflects both conformity to
tradition and new narrative experiments among diasporic writers. (p.187).
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 75
On the other hand, For writers in Africa, the question of language and identity in African liter-
ature is very strong. Several conferences and summits have been held and several scholars have
come up with one theory or the other on how to attain the African linguistic identity. This has
resulted in linguistic experimentations by African writers. Ranging from writing in African Lan-
guages, producing an African version of the English Language, writing with both the African Lan-
guage and the English Language called Bilingualism as proposed by Ola Rotimi in his inaugural
lecture “African dramatic literature: to Be or to Become?” (1991) as well as other communication
resources like cultural iconography, and performing arts like dance, music, and chants, etc. Lan-
guage, as an emblem of identity, is more relevant and successful among ethnic groups than nations
like Nigeria faced with the problem of cultural and linguistic pluralism. Beyond the Nigerian land-
scape, it is beneficial to look at the linguistic identity issue as handled and appropriated by Ngugi
wa Thiong’O and others. (Binebai, 2013, p. 207)

Adichie's use of language in her writing reflects the evolving social and political landscapes of
Nigeria, influenced by modern communication and the global spread of English. Unlike earlier
generations of Nigerian writers, such as Chinua Achebe and Wole Soyinka, who embraced a more
formal and traditional English style shaped by British colonial education, Adichie and other con-
temporary writers like Teju Cole employ a contemporary and globalized English style that inte-
grates Nigerian and African idioms and expressions. Adichie, in particular, stands out for her in-
corporation of Nigerian Pidgin English, a language widely spoken in everyday Nigerian life. This
incorporation of Pidgin English, along with other Nigerian and African linguistic elements, en-
hances the authenticity and depth of her characters and settings. For instance, when Ifemelu visits
her boyfriend’s mother, Obinze, they use many Nigerian though they spoke in English, “Mummy,
nno, [welcome] he said. She acknowledged his greeting with a nod and put down her bag on the
centre table”. (Adichie 2013, p. 230)

The author also makes the intersection of Nigerian and English accents and languages clear
throughout the novel when Obinze was in trouble in Britain, seeking help from the Nigerian man
who speaks British with Obinze’s friend Iloba:

Thirty-five percent is the best I can do. This is business.” He had lost his accent and now
spoke Nigerian English. “Let me tell you, there are many people in your situation.” Iloba spoke
up in Igbo. “Vincent, my brother here is trying to save money and do his papers. Thirty-five
is too much, o rika biko. [it is too much] Please just try and help us. (Ibid, p. 246)
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 76
Besides, in her novel Americanah, Adichie uses language to highlight the experiences of the
main character, Ifemelu, as an immigrant in the United States. Ifemelu's use of language changes
over time, reflecting her evolving identity and the challenges she faces in adapting to a new culture.
Adichie's use of language thus serves to capture the complexities of the diasporic experience and
to give voice to a new generation of Nigerian writers.

Language is a crucial aspect that distinguishes different generations of Nigerian diaspora writ-
ers. The earlier generation of writers, such as Chinua Achebe and Wole Soyinka, often wrote in a
more formal and traditional English style, reflecting the influence of British colonial education. In
contrast, the newer generation of writers, such as Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie and Teju Cole, tend
to use a more contemporary and globalized English style that incorporates Nigerian and African
idioms and expressions. This reflects the influence of modern communication and the global
spread of English as a language. Eventually, the language used by Nigerian diaspora writers has
evolved over time, reflecting both the changing social and political contexts of Nigeria and the
broader forces shaping global literature.

Therefore, Adichie, when asked about the reasons for choosing both the English and Igbo lan-
guage as the medium of expressive writing, replied:

I come from a generation of Nigerians who constantly negotiate two languages and some-
times three, if you include Pidgin. For the Igbo in particular, ours is the Engli-Igbo generation
and so to somehow claim that Igbo alone can capture our experience is to limit it. Globalization
has affected us in profound ways. I’d like to say something about English as well, which is
simply that English is mine. Sometimes we talk about English in Africa as if Africans have no
agency as if there is not a distinct form of English spoken in Anglophone African countries. I
was educated in it; I spoke it at the same time as I spoke Igbo. My English-speaking is rooted
in a Nigerian experience and not in a British or American or Australian one. I have taken
ownership of English. (Azodo, 2008, p. 2)

The experience of Nigerians, particularly the Igbo, cannot be limited to a single language or
cultural identity. The globalization of our world has deeply impacted this new generation, resulting
in a unique blend of languages and experiences. English, as a language, is not foreign to us, but
rather a tool we have mastered and made our own. Our agency and ownership of the English lan-
guage should not be overlooked or dismissed, as it reflects our distinct Nigerian experience.
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 77
To conclude, both writers' use of language in their respective works highlights the complexities
of the diasporic experience and reflects their willingness to explore and experiment with different
forms of expression while retaining a connection to their cultural and linguistic roots.

II.1.4. Audience:
Early Indian diaspora writers wrote primarily for an Indian or South Asian audience, using
regional languages and focusing on topics that reflected the experiences and struggles of other
Indian immigrants in the diaspora. Their works were not widely available outside of small ethnic
communities. In contrast, recent Indian diaspora writers have a broader readership that includes
people from diverse ethnic and cultural backgrounds, both within and outside of the diaspora. They
have been able to leverage digital technologies and social media to promote and sell their work,
establishing a strong online presence through platforms like Twitter and Instagram.

The audience for early Indian diaspora writers preferred traditional literary forms and themes
related to cultural identity, struggle, and the immigrant experience. Recent Indian diaspora writers
explore a wider range of topics related to sexuality, race, politics, and identity, reflecting the grow-
ing recognition and acceptance of the diaspora and its experiences, as well as the increasing pop-
ularity of diasporic literature in the global literary marketplace.

Similarly, Nigerian diaspora writers from different generations may have different audiences.
Early Nigerian diaspora writers wrote primarily for a Nigerian audience or another diaspora Nige-
rians, while later generations may have a wider global audience. In her analysis of Nigerian writers
from different generations, Kehe, M explores the notion that their respective readerships are influ-
enced by differences in the themes and topics they address in their work.

The article discusses two Nigerian-born writers who have gained recognition in the US. Uwem
Akpan's book of short stories, "Say You're One of Them", has received positive reviews and is
attracting new readers. Meanwhile, Chinua Achebe's classic novel, "Things Fall Apart", celebrated
its 50th anniversary earlier this year and was honored at an event in New York. Despite both au-
thors being Nigerian-born, the article notes that their works differ significantly. Achebe's novel
aimed to challenge established norms and was deeply rooted in Nigerian culture, while Akpan's
stories cover a wider range of African experiences and are more like reportage. (Kehe, 2008)

Towards the conclusion of the article, the author highlights the contrast between the readerships
of Nigerian writers from various generations. She even references Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie
among others as an exceptional contemporary writer as she states:
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 78
For decades now, readers around the globe have been picking up not only the books of Achebe
but also those of writers like Wole Soyinka and Ben Okri. Today, a new generation of Nigerian
authors – including Helen Oyeyemi, Chris Abani, Helon Habila, and Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie
– are finding international audiences of their own. It gives Nigeria – and Africa – an audience in
places where its voices might not otherwise have been heard. For those who believe in the power
of the written word to bring humankind closer, these books and their authors are simple stories of
success. (Kehe, 2008)

II.2. Identity as Central to the Discourse of Diaspora:

Representation from The Mistress of Spices and Americanah:

II.2.1. Exploring Identity Issues:

According to Bhattacharya “immigrants to do not simply accept the ‘melting pot’ roles expected
of assimilated Americans” (quoted in, (Jayalakshmi, 2018)). Instead, they continually redefine
their sense of identity in recent times, a number of third-world writers have immigrated to the
West. Their developing identity in new surroundings has been instrumental in influencing their
style and content of writing. “The double or hybrid identity is precisely what the postcolonial
situation brings into being the shift in attitude in the 1980s and 1990s was towards postcolonial
writers seeing themselves as using primarily African or Asian forms” (Barry, 2000, 129). The
writers who move from one country to another occupy significant position between culture and
countries. They realize that their culture or identity doesn’t remain the same as it was earlier. Iden-
tity evolves, grows and is subject to many changes. The act of writing makes him/her explore both
cultures of homeland and host land. Memories of the homeland are kept alive in his thoughts and
imagination in fact, becomes a channel between the self and the world. (Shailja, 2008, 52)

The Mistress of Spices depicts the struggles and inner conflict faced by immigrants who have
moved politically, geographically, culturally and socially from India. This population is trying to
come to terms with a new existence in America. The novel's characters experience a moral conflict
regarding which cultural values to adopt, as the West prioritizes materialism while the East, par-
ticularly India, emphasizes spirituality. These two cultures are fundamentally different from each
other.

The narrative delves into the profound concept of identity struggle, examining the transforma-
tive power of changing names, the impact of isolation and disconnection, the pervasive feeling of
strangeness, and the transformative potential of language change. These collectively illustrate the
arduous journey of individuals as they navigate their quest for a new self-reconstructed identity.
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 79
Through introspection and adaptation, the characters in the story explore the intricate layers of
their own existence, revealing the inherent complexity and fluidity of personal identity

In both novels, the protagonists, Tilo and Ifemelu, carry multiple names that reflect different
dimensions of their identities. Tilo's character in The Mistress of Spices is given various names
“Nayantara became Bhagyavati, Bhagyavati became Tilotamma, and Tilo became Maya” (Di-
vakaruni,1997, p. 21). Each represents distinct aspects of her being as a woman, lover, healer, and
member of the Indian diaspora. These name changes symbolize her movement, growth, and strug-
gle for survival, highlighting the internal conflicts faced by immigrants in unfamiliar territories.
With each new name, Tilo sheds her old identity, akin to a snake shedding its skin, and embraces
a new persona, mirroring the challenges of immigrants in finding a stable sense of self in a foreign
cultural context. “Each time she took a new name, she became a new person, shedding the old
identity like a snake shedding its skin” (p. 202). And “Tilo watched as Maya faded away, replaced
by a new identity, a new name, and a new life” (p. 211).

Similarly, Ifemelu in Americanah initially grapples with her Nigerian identity upon moving to
America, prompting her to change her name to "Ifem" to assimilate and conform to American
norms. This alteration signifies the pressure to conform to the dominant culture and the erasure of
one's cultural identity in order to fit in. However, when Ifemelu returns to Nigeria, she acquires
the name "Aunty Uju," which reflects her bond with her aunt and the influence of family and
community in shaping one's identity. Furthermore, Ifemelu's experiences living in America have
transformed her into a more outspoken and confident individual, leading her friends and family in
Nigeria to affectionately label her Americanah, which encapsulates the complexities of identity
and how our encounters shape whom we become.

The comparison of Tilo and Ifemelu's name changes underscores the parallel struggles faced
by both characters in navigating their cultural identities and adapting to new environments. Their
name variations serve as metaphors for the challenges immigrants encounter in defining their true
selves amidst diverse cultural influences. By exploring these multiple identities and the dynamics
of cultural adaptation, both novels provide profound insights into the complexities of identity for-
mation within diasporic contexts.

One way in which identity is explored in both novels is through the characters' relationships
with others. In The Mistress of Spices, Tilo is hesitant to form relationships with others, feeling
that her role as a spice mistress sets her apart since it involves many strict rules; her adherence to
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 80
these rules reflects her sense of isolation and disconnection from others. It also captivates the com-
plexity of Tilo's character and the themes of isolation and identity in the novel, showing how Tilo's
relationships with others, or lack thereof, contribute to her sense of self and shape her understand-
ing of her place in the world. Likewise, in her book Americanah, Adichie portrays the disappoint-
ing reality of the diasporic experience. The experience is characterized by loneliness, rootlessness,
nostalgia, isolation, marginalization, exclusion, and dispossession. Adichie delves into the ques-
tion of identity and how it changes when individuals are placed in a culture that is hostile to their
very being. She follows the transformation of her characters, Ifemelu and Obinze, and illustrates
how their negotiation with cultural aspects becomes a way for them to assert and resist their iden-
tities. Through her writing, Adichie sheds light on the subaltern who were “hungry for choice and
certainty” (p. 276). Ifemelu struggles to form connections with others due to her sense of displace-
ment. She describes herself as "a stranger in a strange land" (Adichie, p.31) and struggles to form
close relationships with others, feeling like an outsider.

Another way in which the theme of identity is explored in both novels is through the characters'
struggles with their cultural heritage. In The Mistress of Spices, Tilo grapples with her identity as
an Indian woman living in America. She feels torn between her love for India and her desire to
belong in America. Similarly, in Americanah, Ifemelu struggles with her identity as a Nigerian
woman living in the United States. She feels like an outsider in both cultures, saying, "I was not
black enough for America and not white enough for Nigeria" (Adichie 170). Both Tilo and Ifemelu
struggle with their cultural identities, trying to find a balance between their heritage and their new
surroundings.

Another aspect of identity is language, Tilo's accent in The Mistress of Spices serves as a
constant reminder of her foreignness. Initially, her thick Indian accent sets her apart from others
when she arrives in America, making communication difficult and reinforcing her sense of being
an outsider. However, as she spends more time in the country, her accent gradually changes to a
more Americanized one, allowing her to better blend in with her surroundings. This accent trans-
formation highlights the tension between assimilation and preserving one's cultural heritage. Sim-
ilarly, in Americanah, Ifemelu experiences language barriers upon her arrival in the United States.
Her struggle to understand and improve her American accent reflects her desire to fit into Ameri-
can culture and her insecurity about being different. Over time, Ifemelu embraces her accent as
part of her identity and recognizes the impact it has on her relationships. Her acceptance of her
accent signifies her agency and the deliberate ownership of her identity. Furthermore, Ifemelu's
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 81
experiences in America lead her to a newfound awareness of her black identity, prompting her to
explore and gain insights into American culture and society. As the author illustrated:

She hungered to understand everything about America, to wear a new, knowing skin right away:
to support a team at the Super Bowl, understand what a Twinkle was and what sports lockouts
meant, measure in ounces and square feet, order a muffin without thinking that it really was a cake,
and say I scored a deal without feeling silly. (Adichie, 2013, p. 102)

Ifemelu at first tries to advocate her accent when her friend tells her to improve it in order to
find a job saying "I cannot do that. I am not an American. I am a non-American black." This
statement highlights Ifemelu's sense of cultural identity and her unwillingness to erase her own
identity for the sake of assimilation. Yet, Ifemelu feels challenged when Christina Tomas mocks
her non-American accent, “I bet you [speak English] ‘but I don‘t know how well” (Adichie, 2013,
p. 130). She then tries to improve her accent due to invisible and inevitable pressure to get ac-
ceptance in the host society

Throughout the novel, Ifemelu's African accent becomes a symbol of her cultural identity and
her resistance to assimilation. For example, when she first decides to speak without an American
accent, Ifemelu feels relieved as she talks to the woman behind the Amtrak counter, she says:

“Could I have a round-trip to Haverhill, please? Returning Sunday afternoon. I have a Stu-
dent Advantage card,” she said, and felt a rush of pleasure from giving the ‘t’ its full due in
“advantage,” from not rolling her ‘r’ in “Haverhill.” This was truly her; this was the voice with
which she would speak if she were woken up from a deep sleep during an earthquake.
(Adichie, 2013, p.172)

II.2.2. The Complexity of Defining Identity:

The novel The Mistress of Spices explores the significant issue of hybrid identity in an unfamil-
iar land. The protagonist, Tilo, is born into a destitute Indian family as their third and unwanted
daughter and struggles with reconciling her predetermined social status with her achieved success.
The novel portrays the harsh realities of Indian immigrants in the United States. Tilo undergoes a
purification ceremony, crossing the Shampai's fire along with two other Mistresses of Spices. She
opens a spice store in the Spice Bazaar and uses her magical abilities to cure people's ailments.
The First Mother instructs her to adhere to two rules: she can use her powers to help others but
must remain in the store, and she must not have any physical contact with humans. However, Tilo
breaks these vows and falls in love with a lonely American.
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 82
The protagonist of the novel undergoes a search for identity that takes her through various iden-
tities, such as Nayan Tara, the queen of pirates, and Maya, to fulfill her emotional need for love
and belonging. The physical aspects of her identity, both in reality and fantasy, are crucial expres-
sions of her identity. In the novel, the experiences of immigrants are portrayed as being marked
by feelings of alienation due to differences in posture and ethnicity from their American counter-
parts. The novel highlights the issue of identity crisis that runs throughout the narrative, as Tilo
violates the rules of the spice mistress to satisfy her urge for identity. Her love for Raven comes at
the cost of angering the spices and losing control over them. In this way, she becomes a repre-
sentative of modern migrants who seek to fulfill their inner desires.

Tilo operates a spice store that recreates a small India, where immigrants come to share their
problems, pains, and predicaments and find solace in her store. For these immigrants, her store is
like a second home, serving as an oasis in a cultural desert. Jagjit, a boy from Punjab who follows
Sikhism, goes to Tilo's store with his mother. He was subjected to racial discrimination at school
and bullied for his inability to speak English fluently. As in, “Talk English (…). Speak up (…)
wetback (…)” (Divakaruni, 1997, p. 39). Throughout the novel, Jagjit undergoes a significant
transformation under Tilo's emotional and remedial care, becoming a responsible young man.
Tilo's spice store also serves as a symbol of monolithic national identity and dignity, and the mi-
grants who visit it are able to find a sense of belonging. Initially, Jagjit is a timid boy, but he later
becomes a hooligan. While many migrants go to America in search of financial prosperity and do
well, some struggle to adapt to the new culture, leading to an identity crisis. Sunaina Mitra and
Rajni note this crisis in the introduction to their anthology of South Asian literature in North Amer-
ica, as some migrants lose their children to the allure of the new culture. For first generation South
Asian issues of belonging become increasingly complicated the longer they stay in America, and
even more profoundly. Boundaries between ethnicities, class, gender, and religion dissolve and re-
emerge, as second-generation South Asians… of contested identities and contested forms of be-
longing (or not belonging) in North America (p. 303).

The writer's diasporic identity is evident in the various immigrant characters who gather around
The Mistress of Spices' spice store in Oakland. The store attracts people from all parts of India,
representing a diverse range of social classes, including the rich, middle class, and working class.
Rich characters such as Anant Soni, Dr. Lalchandani and his wife, Prameela Vijh, and Rajesh
display affectation, while middle-class characters such as Ramu, Geeta, Mohan, Daksha, and
Kwesi struggle with their predicaments. Working-class characters like Haroun, Jagjit, and Lalita
appear forlorn and engrossed in their struggle to maintain their native identity in the new culture.
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 83
All the immigrants seem desperate to express their problems, feelings, and needs. The writer por-
trays the immigrants' inability to cope with the new environment, culture, and plurality while main-
taining their sense of identity very vividly. Tilo's observation about rich immigrant women is par-
ticularly intense. that wealth and outward appearances can mask the underlying vulnerabilities and
emotions that every individual possesses. (Divakaruni, 1997, p. 77)

Indian immigrants in the novel struggle to acculturate and assimilate into the new culture. Har-
roun, who is from Kashmir, comes to America for a better future but is torn between his loyalty to
his native land and his ability to adapt to the new atmosphere. He finds an ally in a Kashmiri
immigrant businessman who helps him buy a cab. Tilo, a compassionate patriot, helps Harroun
out of difficulty and faces punishment from the First Mother for doing so. Lalita, a young and
beautiful wife of a watchman, dreams of running a tailor shop in the new country. When she asks
her husband to accompany her to the gynecologist for a check-up during her pregnancy, he beats
her mercilessly, rapes her, and demonstrates his idea of manliness. Lalita shares her agony of being
mistreated by her husband with The Mistress of Spices, saying:

It is not right that a woman should say such things about her man: all day at home is so
lonely, the silence like quick sand sucking at her wrists and ankles. tears she cannot stop,
disobedient tears like spilled pomegranate seeds, and Ahuja shouting when he returns home to
her swollen eyes (Divakaruni, 1997, p. 15).

The author portrays Tilo as a source of comfort for Indian immigrants who are facing difficul-
ties in adapting to their new environment and striving for independence and a sense of self. Despite
the risks, Tilo builds a passionate emotional connection with Raven, a Native American, and the
novel portrays women's assertion of their rights to fulfill their desires and search for identity. Each
of the fifteen chapters in the novel reveals a different cross-cultural vignette. In the end, Tilo adopts
a new name, Maya, which reflects the writer's diasporic identity and empowers women to articulate
their right to emotional gratification, even in an unfamiliar land. The novel validates women's
desire for emotional fulfillment.

The Mistress of Spices explores the complexities of Indian immigrants' efforts to establish an
identity in a new culture. It also reflects multiculturalism through characters like Geeta, Lalita,
Jagjit, and Haroun, who strive for identity and a sense of self. The author's language is precise and
polished, effectively capturing the nuances of the Indian immigrant experience in America.
Through a kaleidoscopic lens, the novel portrays snapshots of immigrants searching for stability,
liberty, and dignity in a new world while grappling with feelings of alienation and marginalization.
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 84
Divakaruni powerfully expresses the pain and frustration felt by immigrants who have come to
America in search of their dream. Her novel serves as a testimony to her diasporic sensibility and
provides a window into different perspectives on how class, culture, gender, and sexuality shape
the cultural psychology of Indian immigrants. Her examination of the cultural impact of immigra-
tion offers a fresh outlook and explores different facets of the diasporic experience.

In the same vein throughout the novel, Adichie explores the ways in which identity is shaped
by a range of factors, including race, nationality, culture, and personal experience. She highlights
the challenges that individuals face in defining themselves in a world that often imposes rigid
categories and expectations, and offers a nuanced and complex portrayal of the complexities of
identity formation in a globalized world.

For Ifemelu, the process of defining her identity is complicated by her experiences as an immi-
grant in the United States. She struggles to navigate the complexities of American race relations
and grapples with the question of where she fits in as a black woman in a society that often mar-
ginalizes and stereotypes people of colour. As she encounters various forms of discrimination and
prejudice, she becomes acutely aware of the ways in which her identity is shaped by both her
Nigerian heritage and her experiences as an immigrant.

Obinze, on the other hand, faces his own struggles with identity as he grapples with the pres-
sures of conforming to societal expectations in Nigeria. He is torn between his desire for upward
mobility and his sense of loyalty to his cultural roots, and finds himself struggling to reconcile
these conflicting impulses. "He did not know if he wanted to go back home, but he knew that he
did not want to be in a place where he was a ghost." (Chapter 18) - This quote highlights Obinze's
struggle to define his identity in a foreign land, where he feels disconnected from his cultural roots
and invisible in the eyes of others.

Overall, both The Mistress of Spices and Americanah offer compelling explorations of the com-
plexities of identity formation, particularly in the context of migration and cultural displacement.
They demonstrate how individuals must navigate a range of cultural, social, and personal factors
in order to define their true selves, and how difficult it can be to find a sense of belonging in a
world that often imposes rigid categories and expectations.
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 85
II.3. The Representation of Postcolonial Themes in Both Novels:

II.3.1. Displacement:
Regarding displacement as the first and the most important aspect of diaspora, Clifford's argu-
ment addresses the issue of displacement by taking into account both communities and individuals,
as well as voluntary and involuntary reasons for their displacement (1994, p. 303). The novel
Americanah authored by Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, portrays Uju as the first character to migrate
from Nigeria to America. Uju assumes the position of a mistress to a wealthy and influential Gen-
eral with whom she fathers a one-year-old son, Dike. Unfortunately, the General dies in a military
plane crash orchestrated by the governor. In the aftermath, some of the General's relatives threaten
Uju and Dike, thereby putting their lives in peril. As a result, Uju flees to America immediately,
taking everything she owns along with her (Adichie, 2013, p.142). While Uju's migration to Amer-
ica was not a direct consequence of coercive factors such as war or famine, it cannot be regarded
as an entirely voluntary displacement either. Uju was compelled to leave Nigeria due to social
pressure and the inability to sustain her former lifestyle as a mistress. Conversely, the principal
character, Ifemelu, departs Nigeria voluntarily in pursuit of higher education and better social pro-
spects in America with the assistance of a scholarship. Ifemelu's decision was also influenced by
her mother's aspirations for her to seek a better life overseas, particularly in America, given that
Nigeria was under military dictatorship during that time, and political strikes were common in
universities (Adichie, 2013a, p. 104). Some years later, Obinze, in his attempt to join Ifemelu in
America, is denied a visa and eventually migrates to England (Adichie, 2013, p. 223). The dis-
placement of both Ifemelu and Obinze in Americanah cannot be classified as forceful, given that
their reasons for migrating to America were grounded in the desire to overcome dissatisfaction
and pursue prosperity in the Western world. As Obinze contemplates at a friend's party in London,
the earlier settlers may have grasped the concept of fleeing from war or poverty that crushes human
souls, but they would not understand why individuals like him and Ifemelu, who were raised with
adequate resources, were still discontent and conditioned from birth to seek opportunities else-
where, to the extent of engaging in perilous and illegal activities to leave Nigeria. They were not
starving, violated, or from torched villages, but simply eager for options and certainty.

Displacement is also strongly present in The Mistress of Spices. The main character, Tilo, is a
woman who has been displaced from her homeland, India, and has been magically transported to
California. As a result of her displacement, Tilo struggles to reconcile her cultural heritage and
identity with the Western culture of her new environment. She becomes a mistress of spices, a
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 86
magical healer who uses spices to help her customers cope with the challenges of displacement
and cultural alienation. Tilo's struggles with displacement and cultural identity are reflected in the
lives of her customers, who are also immigrants facing similar challenges in their new home.
Through Tilo's interactions with her customers, the novel explores the complexities of displace-
ment, cultural identity, and the search for a sense of belonging in a new land.

The experience of displacement in the novels differs in terms of the reasons for displacement
and the characters' relationship with their new environments. Americanah portrays both voluntary
and partially involuntary displacement, with characters migrating to America for better opportu-
nities and to escape threats. In The Mistress of Spices, the main character is magically displaced
from India to California, struggling with cultural identity and helping other immigrants cope with
displacement. Both novels explore the challenges of displacement and the search for belonging in
new environments.

II.3.2. Hybridity:
Ifemelu can be characterized as a hybrid individual due to her profound shifts in identity, strad-
dling the realms of Eastern and Western cultures. Initially rooted in her Nigerian heritage, her
immigration to the United States engenders the assimilation of American cultural influences, ulti-
mately resulting in a hybridized state that encompasses both cultural spheres. The evolution of
Ifemelu's identity is molded by her encounters with Nigerian and American customs and traditions.
Thus, the title of the novel, Americanah, serves as a representation of Ifemelu's hybrid identity, as
she undergoes a process of assimilation into American society. Throughout the narrative, the no-
tion of mobility is underscored, revealing its power to shape and metamorphose one's sense of self.

When Ifemelu arrived in the United States, she immediately started practicing an American
accent “She began to practice an American accent” (Adichie 2013, 136), which suggests that her
identity is shaped by a hybrid of linguistic influences and that it is adaptable. Sackeyfio explains,
“the act of speaking in a foreign voice marks the beginning of conscious doubling of [Ifemelu’s]
identity” (2017). Ifemelu alters her physical appearance, behavior, and speech in order to fit in
with the American social environment, revealing her struggle to navigate between cultures. De-
spite being a hybrid of cultures, Ifemelu's connection to Nigeria undergoes frequent changes
throughout the story, indicating a shifting sense of belonging. Over time, Ifemelu develops a deep
yearning for her homeland and begins to feel a strong sense of belonging to Nigeria. Despite living
in America for a significant amount of time, Ifemelu feels that Nigeria is where she truly belongs,
and the only place where she can establish roots without feeling the urge to uproot and leave. In
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 87
the latter part of the novel, she "decided to stop faking an American accent on a sunlit day in July
" (Adichie, p.176) as she realized that her temporary success had created a void within her. She
had been assuming a persona that did not align with her true self for far too long, leading her to
adopt a tone of voice and mannerisms that were not authentic to her. As a result, she began to
embrace her true cultural identity, symbolized by her decision to stop straightening her hair and
start wearing braids once again “Her fleeting victory had left in its wake a vast, echoing space,
because she has taken on, for too long, a ( ...) of voice and a way of being that was not hers” as
Adichie claimed (Adichie, p.178). Despite her decision to embrace her cultural roots by keeping
her natural hair and abandoning her American accent, Ifemelu is still viewed as a hybrid character.
Ifemelu’s hybrid identity and exposure to both American and Nigerian cultures lead people to
perceive her as Americanized when she returns to Nigeria. This is evident when Ifemelu's old
friend Ranyinudo greets her by calling her Americanah and making remarks about how she has
changed. “You are looking at things with American eyes” (Adichie, p.373). This situation high-
lights how Ifemelu's identity is a mixture of both American and Nigerian cultures, which makes
her feel displaced even in her homeland.

Ifemelu's pursuit of hybridity leads to her feeling unsettled in the United States, torn between
her host country and her home country. However, she ultimately finds a way to reconcile her frac-
tured identity resulting from immigration by negotiating the differences and embracing her hybrid
nature.

Divakaruni's literary work, The Mistress of Spices, provides an insightful portrayal of the sig-
nificance of hybrid identities within a world that is heavily influenced by globalization and impe-
rialism. Accordingly, the novel posits that the concept of what it means to be American must be
continuously reevaluated and renegotiated. Throughout the narrative, the protagonist Tilo faces
the challenges that accompany her hybrid identity, struggling to navigate the complexities of her
dual heritage while simultaneously fulfilling her role as the mistress of spices. Divakaruni exam-
ines the formation of identity through two types of hybridity - one involving a migrant who grap-
ples with preserving cultural purity, while the other involves a native-born American with a mixed
heritage who is yet to fully embrace his cultural roots. Despite living in a foreign culture, Tilo
derives comfort from her homeland traditions symbolized by the potency of Indian spices. She
belongs to a group of diaspora women who seek to preserve their cultural heritage. As the narrative
unfolds, it becomes evident that a complete separation of cultures is untenable, and instead, cul-
tures intersect and gradually influence each other, resulting in blurred lines between them. The
romantic liaison between Tilo and Raven exemplifies the fusion of cultural boundaries. Initially,
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 88
Tilo claims to be disinterested in Americans and committed to her own community, pledging not
to fall in love. However, she finds herself inexplicably drawn to Raven, an outsider who visits her
shop

The characters in the novel choose new names to represent their cultural hybridity, which sym-
bolizes their empowerment and challenges the center/periphery paradigm. This act of self-naming
also reflects the struggles of the subordinate, who must be represented rather than representing
himself or herself. Tilo and Raven's re-naming process highlights their marginal position. The
significance of one's "true-name" lies in its appropriateness, as it represents an individual's under-
standing of their roots and acceptance of their current position. Naming represents an individual's
conscious and free expression, indicating a break from oppression and resulting in empowerment.
For Tilo, naming represents a departure from patriarchal control and Oriental female stereotypes,
while for Raven it signifies an escape from a life of lies that hid his mixed heritage. Raven's identity
went through multiple changes, reflected in his various names. While he never reveals his previous
names, he implies that there were many: as he stated “My true-name, that’s what you want? Well.
Maybe I can figure out which one it is” (Divakaruni, p.107)

The presence of hybrid identities in the novel prompts a rethinking of the concept of American
identity. This is highlighted by the imagery used in the novel. To rethink American identity, fault
lines must be crossed and bridged without any fixed categories. This process is not without con-
flict, as depicted by Divakaruni's use of an earthquake and destruction of the city as the backdrop
for Tilo's transformation into Maya, who seeks to embrace both her Indian and American cultures.
Overall, the earthquake represents a desire to rebuild and redefine American identity.

In conclusion, both The Mistress of Spices and Americanah offer insightful perspectives on the
complexities of hybrid identity and the challenges of navigating multiple cultural identities. While
Tilo and Ifemelu's journeys are different, both demonstrate the importance of embracing one's
cultural heritage and finding ways to integrate it into one's identity. However, Tilo accepts her dual
identity and seeks to bridge the gap between her Indian heritage and American identity. She even
chooses a new name, Maya, to reflect her hybridity. On the other hand, Ifemelu feels alienated in
America and ultimately chooses to return to Nigeria, despite the challenges that come with it.
Therefore, while Tilo's acceptance of her hybrid identity allows her to find a sense of belonging
and create a new community, Ifemelu's struggle with alienation and her eventual return to Nigeria
shows that the process of accepting a hybrid identity is not easy or straightforward for everyone.
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 89
II.3.3. Racial discrimination:
Racism is a notion that has been used to justify discrimination and oppression. Race has become
a pivotal factor in social, political, and cultural discourse. Critical race studies, which encompasses
the analysis of race in literature and culture, the study of ethnicity in minority literature, and spe-
cific literary and philosophical traditions, examines questions related to race and racial discrimi-
nation. Matters of race and ethnicity give rise to group identities and have significant political and
social implications, which can also be reflected in literature.

Divakaruni's novel The Mistress of Spices features a protagonist who sheds light on the harsh
realities of discrimination and racism that individuals of Indian descent frequently encounter due
to their distinct appearance and speech. Such individuals often find themselves relegated to low-
paying positions and subjected to various forms of verbal abuse, and in certain instances, physical
assault. Even law enforcement, whose primary responsibility is to safeguard the populace, treats
these individuals with disdain. One character, Mohan, experiences racial discrimination in Amer-
ica and becomes the target of violent individuals after he refuses to provide them with a bottle
while closing his restaurant for the night. As a consequence, he endures humiliation and abuse at
the hands of these individuals. “Son of a (..) Indian should a stayed in your (…) country” (Di-
vakaruni, p.170). Seeing this humiliation Tilo muses, “O Mohan broken in body broken in mind
by America” (Divakaruni, p.172). The incident of humiliation leaves a lasting impact on Mohan's
psyche, prompting him to make the decision to leave America and return to his homeland of India.
The emotional scars from the experience are profound and have a significant influence on his life
choices.

Another example is Haroun, a Kashmiri taxi driver in the novel, who comes to America in
search of a better life due to the impact of terrorist attacks in his homeland. However, he too ex-
periences racial discrimination in America and is attacked by a group of people, leaving him in-
jured. The irony is that even in America, he is not safe from such violence and discrimination.

Similar sentiments are expressed in Americanah where the presence of discrimination and hu-
miliation is notably evident. It is essential to acknowledge that The intersection of race and beauty
has a negative impact on black immigrants in the United States, limiting their opportunities and
erasing their self-identity. While slavery and racist laws have been abolished, the white suprema-
cist ideology still dominates the discourse and practices of beauty, imposing a social obligation on
black immigrants to modify their physical appearance to conform to the white standard of beauty.
This pressure is perpetuated by media and other social practices, reinforcing the notion of white
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 90
supremacy. Black immigrants are forced to change their natural features, such as kinky hair, dark
skin, and large body structure, to improve their chances of professional success and social mobil-
ity. However, this transformation comes at a physical and emotional cost. Unlike in their home
countries, black immigrants in the United States face negative consequences based on their racial
identity.

Black immigrants face the issue of race only when coming to America. The Nigerian immigrant
Ifemelu reveals that “When you make the choice to come to America, you become black” (Adichie,
p. 220). She highlights the fact that in her home country, Nigeria, people do not face any issues
related to their skin color and race “I came from a country where race was not an issue. I did not
think of myself as black and I only became black when I came to America” (Adichie, p. 290).
Apparently in her blog Ifemelu posts that race is a product of social construction based on biolog-
ical characteristics. The social construction of the black race in America is distinct from that of
African nations. “To My Fellow Non- American Blacks: In America You’re Are Black, Baby”
(Adichie, p. 121). She further comments about the racist attitude of Americans: “Dear Non-Amer-
ican Black, when you make the choice to come to America, you become black. Stop arguing. Stop
saying I’m Jamaican or Ghanaian. America doesn’t care. So what if you weren’t black in your
country? You’re in America now” (Adichie, p. 121). The dominant white Americans in power
generalize all black immigrants and treat them as a uniform group, disregarding their differences,
and subjecting them to discriminatory standards and discussions

The media's standards of beauty, which are based on the white supremacist ideology, also con-
tribute to the discrimination against black women. They promote the idea that black women should
conform to white standards of beauty, which often involves altering their natural physical features.
Ifemelu discusses this issue in one of her blog posts, where she refers to a TV show that depicts a
black woman with natural hair (which is coarse, coily, and kinky) as unattractive "before" and
beautiful "after" her hair is straightened. The media's portrayal of beauty indirectly pressures black
women to conform to the white standard of beauty, which entails changing their natural body
features

Ifemelu observes that black women are largely excluded from the practices and discourse of
beauty in American women’s magazines. To illustrate the lack of representation, she takes her
boyfriend Curt to a bookstore and shows him various women’s magazines. “So three black women
in maybe two thousand pages of women’s magazines, and all of them are biracial or racially am-
biguous, so they could also be Indian or Puerto Rican or something. Not one of them is dark. Not
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 91
one of them looks like me [Ifemelu]” (Adichie, p. 295). The concept of beauty creates a burden on
black women to conform to white beauty standards, with their kinky and dark hair being the most
scrutinized physical feature. The discriminatory ideals of beauty place a societal expectation on
black immigrants to alter their natural African kinky hair to conform to professional and social
standards. Ifemelu also affirms such racist views: “straight is best but if it’s going to be curly, then
it has to be the white kind of curly, loose curls or at worst, spiral curls but never kinky” (Adichie,
p. 206). The connection of race reflects in the colour of skin in America. The racist standard defines
the dark skin of black people as a sign of lack of intelligence, ugliness and evil The detrimental
effects of having black skin drive black immigrants to modify their bodily characteristics chemi-
cally. Bartholomew, Aunt Uju's boyfriend, and a black immigrant, uses skin-lightening products
to achieve a fairer complexion, but the outcome is a joke; instead of a fairer complexion, his face
turns greenish-yellow. Ifemelu comments on this in his absence. “His face is a funny colour. He
must be using the cheap ones with no sunscreen. What kind of man bleaches his skin, biko? Aunty
Uju shrugged, as though she had not noticed the greenish yellow tone of the man’s face, worse at
his temples” (Adichie, p. 117-118). The attempt of Bartholomew reflects that not only black
women but also black men are suffering from the racism of the white notion.

Ifemelu, who has straightened her hair, cannot relate to her natural kinky hair, and the phrase
"something organic dying" represents the loss of her natural black identity in the process of hair
straightening. This loss causes her to feel a sense of grief. In addition, Ifemelu's friend Wambui
explains the physical and emotional pain associated with chemically relaxing black hair saying,
“Relaxing your hair is like being in a prison. You’re caged in. Your hair rules you” (Adichie, p.
205)

The Mistress of Spices and Americanah both explore the deleterious effects of racism and dis-
crimination on individuals who are marginalized based on their race and ethnicity. These works of
literature shed light on the profound emotional and physical trauma that such experiences can
inflict. Additionally, the novels delve into the impact of dominant white beauty standards, which
places tremendous pressure on black immigrants in America to conform to certain physical ideals
at a great cost to their sense of self and well-being. The intersection of race and beauty is a perva-
sive theme in both novels and serves to illustrate the societal limitations and erasure that individ-
uals face when they are unable to fit into the dominant beauty paradigm. Taken together, these
novels emphasize the critical social and political ramifications of race and ethnicity, as they man-
ifest in the realm of literature.
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 92
II.3.4. Feminism in Postcolonial Context:
The discourse on gender in postcolonial contexts highlights the ways in which women are dou-
bly oppressed by both imperialism and patriarchy. In postcolonial literature, gender and sexuality
have emerged as significant themes, particularly in the latter half of the 20th century. The connec-
tion between gender and racial/ethnic identities has been explored through autobiographical works
by indigenous Indian and African-American women such as Divakaruni and Adichie.

Feminism in a postcolonial context was most likely invited in both Divakaruni's The Mistress
of Spices and Adichie's novel Americanah. While the novels explore feminism from different cul-
tural perspectives, they both shed light on the experiences of women who navigate the complexi-
ties of their identities in the aftermath of colonialism.

In The Mistress of Spices, Divakaruni tells the story of Tilo, an Indian woman who is trained as
a mistress of spices and possesses mystical powers. Tilo's journey takes place in the United States,
where she runs a spice shop and helps the Indian diaspora with their troubles even though she
herself is a victim of the same diasporic struggles, which only shows the selfless nature of women
with people around her. Through Tilo's character, Divakaruni explores the challenges faced by
immigrant women who grapple with their cultural traditions and societal expectations while living
in a new country. Along with other female characters in the novel, her experiences reflect the
struggles of many women who seek empowerment and autonomy in a postcolonial society where
traditional gender roles and cultural expectations may hinder their personal growth.

On the other hand, Adichie's Americanah focuses on Ifemelu, a young Nigerian woman who
moves to the United States to pursue her education. The novel delves into the intersectionality of
race, gender, and culture as Ifemelu navigates the complexities of being a black woman in Amer-
ica. Adichie explores how feminism takes on a different dimension for women of colour, high-
lighting the challenges they face due to the intersections of race and gender. Ifemelu is doubly
oppressed in the host society, at one point she has to go against her nature as an African woman,
changing the way she looks only to satisfy others. Therefore, Ifemelu's experiences also shed light
on the nuances of identity, beauty standards, and systemic racism that impact her journey toward
self-discovery and empowerment.

Both novels explore feminism within the context of postcolonial societies. They delve into the
challenges faced by women who grapple with their cultural heritage, societal expectations, and the
intersections of race, gender, and identity. By centering their novels around the experiences of
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 93
women in the aftermath of colonialism, Divakaruni and Adichie offer unique insights into the
complex dynamics of feminism and the quest for empowerment in a postcolonial context.

II.3.5. Language:
Many immigrants from South Asian and African countries face challenges with English profi-
ciency when they move to the US. In their home countries, multiple languages are often spoken
simultaneously, and English is used as a second language for communication in multilingual soci-
eties. However, using English as a second language does not provide a sense of national back-
ground. When immigrants encounter the host society in the US, they may not be able to fully
express themselves due to language barriers, hindering effective interaction and healthy interper-
sonal relationships within the diasporic community. These language barriers can make the process
of adjustment challenging for immigrants on multiple levels, leading to feelings of alienation. Im-
migrants often experience nostalgia for their home country, where they can freely express their
feelings and emotions with their people.

In The Mistress of Spices, the protagonist Tilo uses her knowledge of multiple languages to
connect with customers from different cultural backgrounds. The spices she sells are imbued with
the power of language, as each spice has its own unique story and cultural significance. Tilo's
mastery of language and her ability to navigate cultural barriers through communication allows
her to bridge the gap between different cultures and forge connections. In a similar vein, in Amer-
icanah, the protagonist Ifemelu's use of language is a crucial aspect of her identity and experience.
As a Nigerian immigrant living in America, Ifemelu's use of language is constantly shifting as she
adapts to different environments and social contexts. Her experience of code-switching highlights
the way language can be used as a tool of power and oppression, as she is often forced to alter her
speech to fit in with dominant cultural norms.

All in all, language plays a significant role in shaping identity and cultural experiences in both
The Mistress of Spices by Divakaruni and Americanah by Adichie, showing how language can
both connect and divide people across cultural boundaries.
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 94
II.4. A Postcolonial Insight into The Mistress of Spices and
Americanah:
II.4.1. In-betweenness:
The experience of cultural in-betweenness can be a source of trauma for migrants, as it often
creates tension and confusion that can lead to a blurred sense of self and a questioning of one's
belonging to both cultures.

The theme of in-betweenness in Americanah is explored through the experiences of the char-
acters, as they navigate the complexities of living between cultures, highlighting the difficulties of
forming connections across different cultural contexts and the tensions that arise when one is nei-
ther fully a part of nor separate from a particular cultural identity. One example of this is seen in
the novel's protagonist Ifemelu's relationship with her Nigerian identity and her experiences as a
Nigerian immigrant in America. Another example of in-betweenness is evident in Ifemelu's rela-
tionship with Curt, her white American boyfriend. Ifemelu grapples with the power dynamics and
cultural differences inherent in their relationship, highlighting the difficulties of forming connec-
tions across different cultural contexts. This experience also emphasizes the discomfort of being
in-between cultures and the challenges of reconciling competing identities.

Despite cultural diversity being commonly associated with cultural in-betweenness, it is actu-
ally a source of trauma and anxiety. Ifemelu says, "home was now a blurred place between here
and there" (Adichie, p.114). This statement signifies the emergence of a transnational and global-
ized identity that is somewhat uprooted. The concept of home is closely linked to the idea of roots
and a sense of belonging. However, Ifemelu acknowledges that she cannot clearly define her sense
of belonging, and the boundaries between her two cultural spaces have become indistinct and
blurred. Home is portrayed as a place that is not firmly grounded in reality, a fictional place that
combines features of both Nigeria and the United States. In this context, Ifemelu experiences a
painful psychic tension as she tries to construct and forge her identity between the two cultures,
each of which raises questions of class, gender, identity, ethnic belonging, and race. It is worth
noting that Ifemelu is not the only character struggling with this dilemma. Adichie provides an
illustration of Bartholomew, Aunt Uju's former partner, who had not visited Nigeria for several
years but still held a romanticized image of the country, primarily based on his memories and the
online discussions held by Nigerian expatriates. However, Ifemelu notes that his perception of
Nigeria is distorted, as is often the case with the native land when viewed from a distance, and is
frequently idealized. As with the idealization of the US before their arrival, the homeland also
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 95
becomes a place of fantasy due to the same phenomenon of being viewed from afar. "a mythology
of home"

Bhabha describes how the diasporas are trapped geographically in-between two worlds, and
culturally in-between two cultures resulting from different cultural, political and national identity.
As a result, they rely on their otherness by the adapted.

Likewise, In The Mistress of Spices, the theme of in-betweenness is also explored through the
experiences of the main character, Tilo, as she navigates her dual identities as a mistress of spices
and an Indian immigrant living in the United States. Tilo's unique abilities as a mistress of spices,
which allow her to understand the emotions and desires of her customers, also leave her feeling
disconnected from her own emotions and desires. Additionally, her Indian heritage and cultural
traditions clash with the Western culture she is surrounded by in the United States. This in-be-
tweenness is further complicated by Tilo's romantic relationship with an American man, which
forces her to confront the cultural differences and conflicts that arise in their relationship.

The children of first-generation immigrants are encouraged to adopt Western culture and re-
ceive an English education, while second-generation immigrants are expected to follow Indian
traditions. This cultural conflict results in a feeling of being caught in-between two worlds. Geeta,
who is brought up in America by her Indian parents, excels in her studies and lands a job at a large
engineering company. Despite her achievements, her grandfather disapproves of her coming home
late from work. “So what if this is America, we are still Bengalis, no? And girls and boys are still
girls and boys, ghee and a lighted match, put them together and soon or late there’s going to be
fire”. (Divakaruni, p.55) Geeta's grandfather expresses disapproval towards her personal grooming
choices, including her decision to have short hair and wear makeup. Additionally, he criticizes her
financial decision to purchase a car instead of saving the money for her future dowry. Geeta retorts
back when offered to get married in India according to her grandfather’s choice. She loves Mexi-
can Juan and wants to marry him. But she gets stiff opposition from home. She starts living with
her friend Diana instead of marrying Juan hoping to convince and get the consent of her parents.

In other words, Americanah and The Mistress of Spices both delve into the challenges faced by
immigrants who struggle with their dual cultural identities. The in-betweenness of cultures creates
tension and confusion, leading to a blurred sense of self and questioning of belonging to both
cultures. The characters grapple with forming connections across different cultural contexts and
experience discomfort in-between cultures, which raises questions of class, gender, identity, ethnic
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 96
belonging, and race. The novels also highlight the conflicts between cultural traditions and West-
ern culture, as well as the pressures on first and second-generation immigrants to conform to cer-
tain cultural values. Despite these challenges, the characters exhibit resilience and creativity in
navigating their dual identities and reconciling their competing identities.

II.4.2. Unhomeliness:
Initially, Ifemelu leaves Nigeria for America with hopes of a better life. However, after facing
discrimination and nostalgia, she decides to return to her homeland, despite having legal permis-
sion to live in America and a better life there. This decision reflects the experience of diaspora
individuals who feel partially alienated and insulated from their host society. Ifemelu's return to
Nigeria after fifteen years in America signifies her struggle to find a sense of belonging. Despite
the perception that her diasporic home is more appealing, she chooses to return to Nigeria due to
an emotional attachment to her ancestral home. Nigeria represents a place where she can establish
deep roots and escape the racial bias prevalent in American society. However, upon her return, she
finds Lagos to be different from her expectations, leaving her feeling unhomed in her own home-
land as the author captured:

Lagos assaulted her; the sun-dazed haste, the yellow buses full of squashed limbs, the sweat-
ing hawkers racing after cars, the advertisements on hulking billboards… and the heaps of rub-
bish that rose on the roadsides like taunt. Commerce thrummed too defiantly. And the air was
dense with exaggeration, conversations full of over-protestations. One morning, a man’s body
lay on Awolowo Road. Another morning, The Island flooded, and cars became gasping boats.
Here, she felt, anything could happen; a ripe tomato could burst out of solid stone. Therefore,
she had the dizzying sensation of falling, falling into the new person she had become, falling
into the strange familiar. Had it always been like this or had it changed so much in her absence.
(Adichie, 2013, p. 227)

Ifemelu experiences a sense of disconnection and disorientation in Nigeria due to various fac-
tors, such as the poor conditions, different lifestyle and culture of her people, and unfamiliarity
with their habits and values. These factors contribute to her feeling of being unhomed or not be-
longing in her own country. This feeling is common among individuals who feel uprooted and
detached from their familiar surroundings. Despite being in her homeland, Ifemelu is seen as nei-
ther fully American nor Nigerian, which further intensifies her sense of unhomeliness. Initially,
she attempts to conform to white norms by altering her appearance and accent, but she eventually
rejects them and decides to return to Nigeria in search of a sense of belonging. However, the deep-
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 97
rooted feelings of unhomeliness persist, making her feel foreign even in her homeland and discon-
nected from herself.

On the other hand, In The Mistress of Spices, the main character Tilo, who moves from India
to Oakland, California, experiences a strong sense of unhomeliness. Leaving her spice shop for
the first time, she feels a deep longing for a place to call home and experiences intense emotions
associated with the diasporic experience. “I run my hand over the door, which looks so alien in
outdoor light, and I am stuck by the sudden vertigo of homelessness” (Divakaruni, 128). Tilo does
not feel a true sense of belonging in the USA, and the concept of home is only a distant memory
and idealized notion for her. Her past continually influences her present, with the warnings of the
First Mother haunting her and blurring the line between past and present. This makes it challenging
for Tilo to fully live in the present, as her past becomes a significant part of her current reality.

Divakaruni's writings explore the experiences of women, particularly immigrant women, facing
challenges in both India and the United States. These stories focus on the theme of liberation
through narrative, expressing the emotional and psychological impacts of displacement on families
and cultural norms. The characters, including Tilo and her customers, share a common desire to
reconnect with their homeland and cultural traditions. The spices in Tilo's shop symbolize healing,
endurance, love, and the cure for homesickness, serving as a reminder of their shared cultural
heritage. The spice shop becomes a sanctuary for immigrants seeking a taste of home in America.
The author also emphasizes the need for adaptation and assimilation to the new cultural environ-
ment in order to become American.

Both Americanah and The Mistress of Spices explore unhomeliness, portraying the struggles
and disconnections experienced by diaspora individuals. Ifemelu's return to Nigeria highlights her
search for a sense of belonging, the only difference is that Ifemelu finds herself feeling unhomed
even in her homeland due to changes and unfamiliarity. Tilo on the other hand, despite her longing
for a place to call home and experiencing a deep sense of unhomeliness in the USA she does not
have a choice that Ifemelu has, she had to stay in the us to fulfill her job as a mistress of spices.
Both characters' experiences reflect the common feelings of uprootedness and disorientation faced
by diaspora individuals, as they grapple with the complexities of cultural adaptation and the long-
ing for a sense of belonging and familiarity. The novels emphasize the emotional and psychologi-
cal impacts of displacement and the challenges of finding a true home in a foreign land.
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 98
II.4.3. Mimicry:
In colonial and postcolonial discourse, mimicry refers to the phenomenon where individuals
from the colonized country adopt the behaviors, attitudes, language, and culture of the colonizers.
Bhabha (1994) in The Location of Culture, Similarly, when individuals move to other lands, they
may also adopt the culture of their new surroundings, such as their dress, language, and customs.
The diaspora community strives to adopt a lifestyle that mirrors the attitudes and principles of the
dominant culture, by emulating their mannerisms, communication style, language use, grooming,
and other practices. The main character in the novel Tilo is depicted as mimicking American cul-
ture. seeks to enhance her personality in order to blend into the liberal American culture. When
she dons her first Western attire and steps out onto the street where her shop is situated, she was
not provided with any clothes suitable for outdoor wear, only some old saris to wear in her shop.
She ends up buying some inexpensive clothes to wear for a visit to Geeta. Afterward, she went
into a public restroom at her store and changed into her new clothes - ordinary pants, a plain top,
a brown coat, and a pair of sturdy brown shoes, the author described.

In a public rest room that smells of ammonia I pull on my no-nonsense pants and polyester
top, button my nondescript brown coat all the way to my calves. I lace my sturdy brown shoes,
heft my brown umbrella in readiness. This new clothed self, I and not-I, is woven of strands
of brownness with only her young eyes and her bleached-jute hair for surprise. (Divakaruni,
p. 86)

Jagjit exhibits a desire to emulate the clothing style of his American companions, leading to a
transformation in his way of life that conforms to American cultural norms. In his pursuit of ac-
ceptance within American society, Jagjit even went so far as to cut off his hair as the novelist
crafted The person's hair was rigid and erect like the bristles of a brush, their appearance sullen in
a T-shirt and loose-fitting Girbaud jeans, with untied shoelaces. This attire represents the typical
fashion style of young Americans. (Divakaruni, p. 119).

Lalita is an Indian woman who is a regular customer of Tilo and frequently shares her experi-
ences of being mistreated by her husband with Tilo. Tilo advises Lalita that they are now in Amer-
ica where women have rights and they can start over, away from the oppressive cultural norms
that dictate how men and women should behave as the writer asserted:

Here in America maybe we could start again, away from those eyes, those mouths always
telling us how a man should act, what is a woman's duty. Daughter, remember this, no matter
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 99
what happens. You did no wrong in telling me. No man, husband or not, has the right to beat
you, to force you to a bed that sickens you. (Divakaruni, p.102, 103, 105)

Tilo indulges in the consumption of wine, a beverage that she is prohibited from drinking as a
Mistress, as she adopts and imitates American cultural practices She secretly explores the world
of wine, researching and participating in tastings, driven by curiosity and a desire for cultural im-
mersion. Tilo must conceal her passion from her fellow Mistresses, leading to a personal struggle
between her duties and newfound freedom. The outcome remains uncertain as she seeks to recon-
cile her conflicting desires.

The characters in Americanah face challenges in finding their place in society amid social trans-
formations, and are compelled to choose between embracing or opposing Western cultures, At the
beginning, for Ifemelu,

The world was wrapped in gauze; she could see the shapes of things but not clearly enough,
never enough”, it makes her little bit worried. Her Nigerian identity problematizes her living
in America (Adichie, 2013, p. 99).

Unexpectedly, it is in America where she first becomes acutely aware of her blackness, yet she
continues to explore and gain insight into the multifaceted nature of American society she had a
strong desire to fully comprehend everything about America, to quickly adopt a new, knowledge-
able identity. This included enthusiastically cheering for a team at the Super Bowl, grasping the
meaning of terms like "Twinkle" and "sports lockouts," using measurements in ounces and square
feet, confidently ordering a muffin without considering it as cake, and casually saying 'I scored a
deal' without feeling foolish. (Ibid, p. 102)

The protagonist experiences a strong urge to shed her Nigerian identity first and instead adopt
the dominant identity of the host society, including its language and appearance. Once, Ifemelu
acquires the skill of mimic from Ginika when she says “because this is America. You’re supposed
to pretend that you don’t notice certain things” (Ibid, p. 95)

Upon visiting the international students’ office to enroll in the university, Ifemelu experiences
intense discrimination. Her conversation with Cristina Tomas becomes a significant moment of
realization, as Tomas utters the following statement: “I. Need. You. To. Fill. Out. A. couple. Of.
Forms. Do. You. Understand. How. To. Fill. These. Out?” (Ibid, p. 101). The narrator remarks that
Ifemelu becomes aware that the condescending manner in which Tomas speaks to her is a common
experience for African blacks, the narrator comments:
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 100
Ifemelu shrank. In that strained, still second when her eyes met Cristina Tomas’s before
she took the forms, she shrank. She shrank like a dried leaf … and in the following weeks, as
autumn’s coolness descended, she began to practice an American accent (Ibid, p. 101)

Therefore, Ifemelu begins to conform to American standards and norms. To be precise, Ifemelu
adeptly imitates the American accent and becomes fluent in it in a relatively short time, taking
nearly a year to fully adopt it. She becomes aware of this when an American telemarketer calls her
one July morning and compliments her on her accent. (Ibid, p. 131)

In the novel, it is evident that Ifemelu has been given advice to alter her natural curly hair and
lose the braids in order to increase her chances of finding employment in America (Adichie, 2013,
p.199). in light of the extensive knowledge Ifemelu gains about American customs, she ultimately
decides to cut her hair in the American style. Ifemelu visits a salon in West Philadelphia to
straighten her hair. The professional hairdresser at the salon then states:

But look how pretty it is. Wow, girl, you’ve got the white-girl swing! Her hair was hanging
down rather than standing up, straight and sleek, parted at the side and curving to a slight bob
at her chin. The verve was gone. She did not recognize herself. She left the salon almost
mournfully. (Adichie, 2013, p.200)

To conclude, both Americanah and The Mistress of Spices touch upon the concept of mimicry
to some extent, as characters in the stories strive to adapt to the dominant cultural norms and ex-
pectations of their respective societies. While Tilo and Ifemelu engage in limited mimicry, altering
certain aspects of their behavior, attitudes, language, and appearance to assimilate, their experi-
ences still reflect the complexities and conflicts faced by diaspora individuals as they navigate
cultural differences. These literary works shed light on the challenges of maintaining a sense of
identity and belonging in the face of societal pressures.

II.4.4. Otherness:
Edward Said, a postcolonial theorist, introduced the concept of "otherness" which is particularly
relevant to the diasporic communities of South Asia and Africa that have experienced colonialism.
This theory is useful in understanding how power relations between the colonizer and the colo-
nized shape the experience of feeling different and displaced for immigrants in their host countries.
In essence, Said's concept of otherness sheds light on the root causes of the sense of alienation and
dislocation experienced by these individuals. The concept of otherness is frequently linked with
liminality, marginality, peripheries, and thresholds.
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 101
Adichie skillfully portrays the immigrant experience as a traumatic one, thereby emphasizing
the theme of otherness in Americanah. This theme is particularly evident when Ginika, Ifemelu's
half-caste friend, grapples with the complex nature of her identity and skin color while driving
Ifemelu to Wilson Campus, as she shares her own experiences in America.

Americanah delves into the complex political and social dynamics surrounding the concept of
race and blackness. It highlights the fact that being black often entails being viewed as "other" or
different. For instance, Dike's skin color sets him apart and subjects him to discrimination, leading
to his portrayal as aggressive by his peers at school. This idea is further underscored by Aunty
Uju's conversation with Ifemelu regarding her experience with Dike's principal. It highlights how
racial biases can affect one's life trajectory and opportunities. Some of the evident lines concerning
this conversation are: “Look at him, just because he looks different, when he does what other little
boys do, it becomes aggression” (Adichie, p. 169). It is precisely for looking different that the
principal wants Dike to go to “what they call special ed, where they will put him in a class alone
and bring somebody who is trained to deal with mental children to teach him” (Adichie, p.168).

While on a flight from Ohio to Princeton, the Caucasian middle-level executive made a state-
ment regarding Ifemelu's blog, “ever write about adoption? Nobody wants black babies in this
country, and I don’t mean biracial, I mean black. Even the black families don’t want them”
(Adichie, p. 2), which highlights how adoption can serve as a manifestation of otherness for black
babies in America. This marginalization can result in a sense of being an outsider, even among
one's own community. Also highlights how otherness can be perpetuated through systemic racism
and discrimination.

In the same way, in The Mistress of Spices, Otherness is a prominent theme that is explored
through the experiences of the characters. For example, Jagjit, a Sikh boy who wears a turban, is
singled out by other children in school due to his unique appearance and unfamiliar cultural back-
ground. As a result, he is subjected to bullying and finds it difficult to adjust to his new environ-
ment, particularly because he did not yet have a grasp of the English language. Tilo internally
thinks, “He knows only Punjabi still. Jagjit whom the teacher has put in the last row next to the
drooling boy with milk blue eyes. Jagjit who has learned his first English word Idiot.”(Divakaruni,
p.26)

Jagjit's mother is criticizing him for not adapting well to the cultural norms and expectations of
the school and society he is living in. She may be implying that Jagjit's failure to fit in is due to his
cultural background or race, and that this is causing him to be treated unfairly or differently. The
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 102
criticism may also suggest that Jagjit's inability to integrate will limit his opportunities and success
in the new country. (Divakaruni, p.26)

Jagjit's mother may be expressing frustration or disappointment at her son's decision to give up
on his studies. Her retort may be a mix of concern for her son's future and recognition of the
systemic barriers he is facing admonishing him saying, “why don't you want to attend school?
Your father is exhausting himself with work” (Divakaruni, p.25). Jagjit experienced a sense of
being perceived as different and excluded, leading him to alter his to better conform to the societal
norms prevalent in America. Jaggi's decision may be viewed as a failure to conform to cultural
expectations and norms, highlighting how otherness can lead to social exclusion and pressure to
assimilate. Jaggi's mother's response implies that Jaggi's choice is not only disappointing but also
potentially harmful to the family's reputation and status within their community. the author high-
lights the complexity of otherness within cultural contexts and the ways in which it can lead to
misunderstandings and conflicts within families and communities. It also underscores the pressure
to conform to societal norms and the consequences of failing to do so, which can lead to further
marginalization and exclusion.

Both Americanah and The Mistress of Spices deal with the theme of Otherness. While Adichie
skillfully portrays the immigrant experience as traumatic, highlighting the impact of race and
blackness on one's sense of belonging, Divakaruni explores otherness through characters like
Jagjit, who faces bullying and struggles to conform to societal norms. Both novels emphasize the
challenges and injustices faced by individuals viewed as different, emphasizing the importance of
understanding and acceptance in a diverse society.

II.4.5. Ambivalence:
In the novel, Tilo goes through a process of ambivalence as she grapples with living in a place
that has different cultural norms while also adhering to her own culture and rules as a mistress of
spices. However, her resolve is challenged when she meets an American man in her store, and she
struggles to balance following her own rules with giving in to her desires. This inner conflict be-
tween her rules and desires is a clear example of ambivalence as the author captured:

It’s not as if I haven’t seen American. They come in here all the time ... I give them what
they want. I forget them...But the lonely American feels different, feels like I might have trou-
ble doing the same with him... (Divakaruni, 1997, p.42)
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 103
Tilo, the Mistress, made a promise not to love any mortal man. While living in America, she
strictly followed her rules. However, when Raven, an American man, came to her store, she began
to feel lonely and desired him. Despite trying to resist these feelings, they made her physically ill.
Eventually, she broke her own rules and gave in to her desires, falling in love with Raven and
having a sexual relationship with him.

Additionally, Tilo's ambivalence plays a crucial role in her sense of displacement and lack of
belonging. Through her inner conflicts and uncertainty, she eventually realizes that her new true
home lies in the United States. This ambivalence leads her on a journey of self-discovery and
empowers her to make significant life choices. Her relationship with Raven becomes a catalyst for
her self-identity. In the liberating environment of the US, Tilo finds independence and breaks free
from cultural constraints. Her connection with Raven allows her to cultivate a liberated mindset
and spirit, which contrasts with her experiences in the Third World.

Living in America, Tilo grapples with conflicting emotions as she navigates her desires for an
American man while upholding her cultural values. This internal conflict results in a state of am-
bivalence in her romantic pursuits.

Raven you have made my decision for me. Perhaps the rest is fate, and it is time for me to
relax into it, I have fought my destiny so hard all my life. But there is still one unresolved
thing…Each of us loving not the other but the exotic image of the other that we have fashioned
out of our own lack, our own. ‘Raven, you know nothing of me...But I hold myself hard against
my desiring. All the things that attracted you to me, my power, my mystery they're all gone
anyway. And see, I'm still here. (Divakaruni, p. 204)

Lalita, the wife of Ahuja, is married to a significantly older man and possesses a passion for
tailoring, which her husband forbids. Tragically, she is subjected to the same oppressive circum-
stances as numerous Indian women who are subjected to patriarchal dominance. Her husband ex-
hibits sadistic tendencies towards her, and she is confined to the home without any opportunity for
outings (Divakaruni, p.67). Lalita finds a helpline in a magazine and decides to leave her abusive
husband, which leads her to a peaceful life where she can pursue her interests without any hin-
drance. This experience of ambivalence helps Lalita to become more self-aware and confident,
allowing her to make significant life decisions that she previously found daunting.

Geeta is a modern woman who exhibits a high degree of agency. Despite facing resistance from
her parents and grandfather, she takes the bold step of leaving her familial home to live life on her
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 104
own terms. Through her inner fortitude, Geeta successfully navigates away from the constraints
imposed upon her by her family and forges ahead in a new direction.

In the novel Americanah, the author highlights the issue of ambivalence that is faced by indi-
viduals who do not belong to the white ethnicities who often experience a sense of accomplishment
when their efforts to imitate and assimilate into white-dominated society are recognized and
praised. Ifemelu experiences conflicting emotions when someone compliments her on sounding
American, as it represents both her ability to assimilate and her resistance to losing her own cul-
tural identity. However, ultimately she chooses to embrace the compliment and feel a sense of
achievement in her ability to successfully navigate within a white society. However, “she begins
to feel the stain of a burgeoning shame spreading all over her”, for thanking him, for crafting his
words “You sound American” into a “garland that she hung around her own neck. Why was it a
compliment, an accomplishment, to sound American” (Adichie, p. 172). The following passage
effectively portrays Ifemelu's conflicting emotions regarding the compliment she receives on her
American accent. It accurately conveys the sense of ambiguity and tension she experiences, as she
grapples with the implications of her ability to assimilate into white culture while simultaneously
resisting the loss of her own cultural identity. As illustrated in the following situation, during a
conversation about American politics, she expressed her affinity for America as a potential alter-
native place to live. However, after discussing children with Blaine's friends, she concluded that
if she were to have children, she wouldn't want them to have the typical American upbringing.
Instead, she preferred that they greet adults with "Good morning" and "Good afternoon" rather
than just "Hi." (Adichie, p. 131)

Adichie depicts Ifemelu as having complex and mixed feelings toward Western culture, despite
her ability to imitate it. While she can assimilate into it, she also has reservations and conflicting
emotions about adopting it fully. Adichie portrays Ifemelu as having conflicting emotions about
fully adopting the Western culture, as she simultaneously desires to assimilate into it and retain
her own cultural identity as a Black person. However, she struggles to reconcile these two desires
and feels unable to fully embody both identities at the same time she feels not whole.

Ifemelu's efforts to imitate and blend into Western culture result in mixed emotions, as she
desires acceptance in her new community but also feels a need to retain her cultural heritage. As
an immigrant in a white-dominant society, she finds herself straddling the boundaries between her
own cultural background and the dominant culture, without fully aligning herself with either. This
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 105
liminal space grants her a unique perspective, allowing her to have a thorough understanding of
both groups and their relationship with the dominant culture. She, long after her adaptation:

...decided to stop faking an American accent on a sunlit day in July, the same day she met
Blaine. It was convincing, the accent. She had perfected, from careful watching of friends and
newscasters, the blurring of the t, the creamy roll of r, the sentence starting with so, and sliding
response of oh really, but the accent creaked with consciousness, it was an act of will. It took
an effort, the twisting of lips, the curling of tongue. If she were in a panic, or terrified, or jerked
awake during a fire, she would not remember how to produce these sounds. (Adichie, p. 130)

Another instance of ambivalence that can be seen in the novel Americanah is The ambivalence
surrounding social expectations placed on men, as exemplified by the male protagonist Obinze's
struggles with his identity and emotions. Specifically, his affair with Ifemelu prompts him to ques-
tion the societal pressures that led him to marry his wife Kosi, and the dissonance between his
expected role and his true feelings causes him significant turmoil. Additionally, it is worth noting
that Aunty Uju experiences ambivalence in her relationship with her son, Dike, who is born and
raised in the United States. Aunty Uju wants Dike to be proud of his Nigerian heritage and encour-
ages him to learn about Nigerian culture and traditions. However, at the same time, she also wants
him to assimilate and be successful in American society.

In conclusion, both The Mistress of Spices and Americanah showcase the theme of ambivalence
in unique ways. In The Mistress of Spices, Tilo struggles to balance her strict rules as a Mistress
with her growing desires for an American man, leading to a conflicting internal struggle, ambiva-
lence is also present in the characters of Lalita and Geeta. On the other hand, in Americanah,
besides Ifemelu and Aunty Uju, the male protagonist, Obinze, faces a crisis between societal ex-
pectations of him and his true feelings, causing him to question his identity. Both novels depict
characters grappling with conflicting emotions and desires, ultimately highlighting the complexity
of human nature and the challenges of navigating cultural differences.

II.5. The Bildungsroman in the Context of Diaspora, Race and

Gender:
The bildungsroman is a literary genre that focuses on the coming-of-age or development of a
young protagonist, typically from childhood to adulthood. The term bildungsroman comes from
the German words "Bildung," meaning education or formation, and "roman," meaning novel.

In a bildungsroman, the protagonist typically undergoes a series of challenges, experiences, and

lessons that shape their character and help them to develop into a mature and self-aware adult.
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 106
Often, these experiences involve conflict with authority figures or societal norms, and the protag-
onist must navigate these challenges in order to find their place in the world. Some well-known
examples of bildungsroman include Great Expectations by Charles Dickens, To Kill a Mocking-
bird by Harper Lee, and The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger.

According to Christy (2016), Bildungsroman and Erziehungsroman are both German words
that refer to subcategories of novels that deal with the development of the protagonist's character
and mind from childhood to adulthood, also known as "novel of formation" or "novel of educa-
tion". These novels follow the protagonist's experiences and growth, often involving a search for
identity. Although the term Bildungsroman was first used by German writers in the eighteenth
century, it only became popular in other nations during the twentieth century. Despite this, the
genre's definition is still subject to dispute among critics. In fact, the genre emerged from the con-
troversies and disputes between authors and critics. (p. 1234-1235)

Susanne Howe (1930) in Wilhelm Meister and His English Kinsmen defines the genre:

The adolescent hero of the ‘typical ‘apprentice’ novel sets out on his way through the world,
meets with reverses usually due to his temperament, falls in with various guides and counsel-
lors, makes many false starts in choosing his friends, his wife, and his life work, and finally
adjusts himself in some way to the demands of his time and environment by finding a sphere
of action in which he may work effectively. (p. 4)

The main characters Tilo and Ifemelu experienced hardships throughout their personal growth,
and as a result, our study will focus on analyzing this genre “Bildungsroman” in relation to specific
contexts within the novels, such as Diaspora, Race, and Gender.

II.5.1. Tilo and Ifemelu's Transformative Character Journey:

Being a part of the Indian diaspora community played a significant role in Tilo's character de-
velopment in The Mistress of Spices. As an immigrant and spice mistress living in California, Tilo
is caught between two worlds: her Indian heritage and the new American culture she finds herself
in. This leads to a sense of displacement and a struggle to find her place in the world. Tilo's journey
of self-discovery is intertwined with her exploration of her cultural identity as a member of the
Indian diaspora. Through her interactions with the diverse community of customers who come to
her spice shop, she gains a deeper understanding of the different experiences and struggles of
diaspora life. She declares,
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 107
I had come to America hoping to find my true self, but now that I was here, I felt more lost
than ever. I was torn between two cultures, two worlds, two selves, and neither one seemed
real or valid or even possible. (Divakaruni, p. 31).

Moreover, Tilo's magic, which is grounded in the ancient traditions of India, becomes a way
for her to connect with her cultural roots and bridge the gap between her two worlds. By using her
powers to heal and bring joy to others, she finds a sense of purpose and belonging. However, in
The Mistress of Spices, Tilo also faces discrimination and prejudice as a result of her ethnicity and
cultural background.

Divakaruni's novel, The Mistress of Spices, offers a unique perspective on the issue of racial
discrimination faced by Indians in the United States by incorporating the cultural beliefs and prac-
tices of their home country. The book also portrays India in a way that highlights how gender is a
form of oppression, but it also emphasizes the significance of skin color as a determining factor.
Tilo faces multiple layers of oppression, including gender discrimination within her community
and the patriarchal attitudes of American society. The protagonist's birth is a crucial moment that
sets the tone for her life. Tilo's parents are disappointed upon seeing their newborn daughter be-
cause she is yet another girl in the family, and worse, she has dark skin: “my parents’ faces were
heavy with fallen hope at another girlchild, and this one coloured like mud” (Divakaruni, p.6).
“Wrap her in old cloth, lay her face down on the floor. What does she bring to the family except a
dowry debt” (Ibid, p.6). These quotations address both the issues of race and gender in the life of
the protagonist.

Tilo's experiences with racism and gender issues shape her understanding of the world and her
place within it. She is forced to navigate a society that is often hostile to her not only in her home-
land India; this legacy has followed her to America. In The Mistress of Spices, Divakaruni uses
white physicality as a trope to highlight the Indian belief in the superiority of light-skinned people
and the marginalization of those with darker skin. The novel explores the importance of color tones
in intra-ethnic relations among Indian immigrants, where lighter skin is often associated with
higher status and wealth. The arrival of wealthy Indians in Tilo's store emphasizes the hierarchies
that exist within the Indian community, where fair skin is accompanied by an air of dominance
and condescension towards those with darker skin and lower social status. Tilo's dark skin is con-
trasted with the almost white skin of the rich Indians, emphasizing the divide between their wealth
and social status. Tilo considers, “The rich Indians look at me with heavy eyes that are almost no
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 108
colour at all” (Ibid, p.76). As a result, Tilo becomes more resilient and determined. She learns to
rely on her strengths and resources, developing a sense of independence and self-reliance.

Additionally, Tilo's experiences with discrimination fuel her desire to connect with others who
share her background and experiences. She seeks out members of the Indian diaspora community,
finding solace and support in their shared cultural identity. This search for connection and belong-
ing is a crucial part of Tilo's character development, as she learns to balance her desire for inde-
pendence with her need for community. Overall, the diaspora context in The Mistress of Spices
provides a rich backdrop for Tilo's bildungsroman, as it contributes to her growth and development
as a character, shapes her understanding of herself and her place in the world, and fuels her desire
for connection and community despite facing racial discrimination. She demonstrated a strong
desire to assist Indian customers who were experiencing similar challenges, such as in the case of
Jagjit, a young boy who was subjected to bullying at school.

And here is cinnamon, hollow dark bone that I tuck unseen in your turban just before you
go. Cinnamon friend-maker, cinnamon dalchini warm-brown as skin, to find you someone
who will take you by the hand, who will run with you and laugh with you and say See this is
America, it’s not so bad. (Ibid, p.25).

Similarly, Ifemelu's experiences as a Nigerian immigrant in America with racial discrimination

and marginalization played a significant role in her character development in Americanah. While
she struggled to adapt to American culture, she also had to confront the cultural differences be-
tween Nigeria and the United States, including race relations, social hierarchy, and dating norms.

Through her experiences as an outsider, Ifemelu becomes acutely aware of the impact of race
and racism on her life and those around her. She begins to critically examine the racial dynamics
in both Nigeria and the United States, and her blog about race and identity becomes a central aspect
of her character development. Ifemelu's experience as a diaspora member informs her perspective
on both Nigerian and American society, leading her to become a more complex and nuanced char-
acter.

Ifemelu experiences racism in many forms throughout the novel, including being followed
around a store by security, being asked about her hair, and being told she's "not like other Africans"
because of her education. She also witnesses police brutality against black men and has a conver-
sation with a white man who insists he's not racist but makes many insensitive comments.
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At first, Ifemelu tries to assimilate into American culture, hoping to fit in and be accepted.
However, she soon realizes that no matter how much she tries, she will always be seen as an out-
sider because of her race and ethnicity. This realization forces her to confront her identity and
embrace her Nigerian heritage. Through her blog and her interactions with other immigrants and
people of colour, Ifemelu begins to explore issues of race, identity, and belonging in America.
Ifemelu proclaims,

The only reason you say that race was not an issue is because you wish it was not. We all
wish it was not. But it’s a lie. I came from a country where race was not an issue; I did not
think of myself as black and I only became black when I came to America. (Adichie, 2013, p.
285).

Gender issues also impact Ifemelu's character development, as she faces various forms of dis-
crimination and struggles to find her place in a society that is dominated by men. For example,
Ifemelu's experience of sexual harassment at a job and her difficulty in finding a suitable romantic
partner both reflect the gender inequalities that exist in the United States.

Ifemelu’s experiences with racism and gender discrimination also shape her relationships with
others. She becomes more attuned to the nuances of power dynamics and social hierarchies, and
she learns to be more critical of the people around her. Her experiences with discrimination also
make her more empathetic and understanding toward others who have faced similar challenges.
Overall, both racial and gender discrimination play a crucial role in Ifemelu's character develop-
ment in Americanah, as it shapes her understanding of herself, her identity, and her place in the
world, and ignites her desire to challenge the status quo and fight for social justice.

In conclusion, both Tilo in The Mistress of Spices and Ifemelu in Americanah undergo signifi-
cant character development as they navigate the challenges of being immigrants in the United
States. Tilo's journey of self-discovery is intertwined with her exploration of her cultural identity
as a member of the Indian diaspora, while Ifemelu's experiences as a Nigerian immigrant in Amer-
ica lead her to critically examine the racial dynamics in both Nigeria and the United States. Both
protagonists face discrimination and prejudice, but they also find ways to connect with others who
share their backgrounds and experiences. Ultimately, both novels offer unique perspectives on the
immigrant experience, highlighting the complexities of identity and belonging in a multicultural
society.
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 110
II.5.2. Comparing Struggle Expression: Two Character Analysis:
Tilo in The Mistress of Spices expresses expresses her diasporic, racial, and gender struggles
through her magical powers and personal relationships. As an immigrant woman of color, she
faces discrimination and cultural clashes in America, which she copes with through her connection
with spices. Tilo's struggles also center on her gender and the limitations placed on her as a woman
in her society.

Similarly, Ifemelu in Americanah expresses her diasporic, racial, and gender struggles through
her writing and personal experiences. She confronts issues such as racism, cultural clashes, and
sexism, as well as the complexities of identity as an African immigrant woman in America.
Ifemelu's struggles are also depicted through her relationships with other characters, such as her
Nigerian boyfriend Obinze and her American boyfriend Curt.

While both Tilo and Ifemelu express their struggles in different ways, they share a common
experience of being immigrants of color in America and facing discrimination and cultural clashes.
and are depicted through detailed descriptions of social and political issues, as well as her personal
experiences and relationships.

II.5.3. Comparing Purposes: Tilo and Ifemelu in Modern World:

Tilo's purpose in going to America in The Mistress of Spices is to fulfill her duty as a "Mistress
of Spices" and to help other immigrants who are struggling to adjust to their new lives in America.
Her main goal is to use her magical powers to help people, and she sees America as a place where
she can make a difference. Tilo doesn’t give up on this purpose even though she loses her magical
powers at the end of the novel, she even had an additional reason to stay in America which is living
a normal life as “Maya” her true self with “Raven” the man she loves.

On the other hand, Ifemelu's purpose in going to America in Americanah is to pursue her edu-
cation and to escape the political instability in Nigeria. She wants to explore new opportunities
and experiences, but she soon discovers that America is not the utopia she imagined it to be.
Ifemelu's goals change as she confronts issues such as racism, cultural clashes, and the complexi-
ties of identity as an African immigrant in America.

Both Tilo and Ifemelu are motivated by a desire for a better life in America, but their specific
goals and reasons for going to America are different. Tilo's purpose is more magical and selfless,
while Ifemelu's purpose is realistic and about personal ambition.
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 111
II.6. Diaspora Experiences: Exploring Conflicts and Similarities in
Divakaruni's and Adichie's Novels:

II.6.1. Home and Belonging:

Both Tilo in The Mistress of Spices and Ifemelu in Americanah face conflicts of home and
belonging as immigrants in America. Tilo struggles with the idea of home as she is torn between
her past in India and her present in America. She is also conflicted about her role as a "Mistress of
Spices" and whether she can continue to fulfill her duties while living in America. Additionally,
Tilo has established a spice store in Oakland, California, where she has recreated a miniature ver-
sion of India that features all types of spices, including those that are rare and difficult to find. Tilo
says, “I think I do not exaggerate when I say there is no other place in the world quite like this”
(Divakaruni, p.2). The store serves as a nostalgic haven for her and a vast number of people who
have left their homes and struggle with issues in their diasporic lives.

In the final chapter of the novel, Tilo contemplates changing her name to Maya as her role as a
mistress of spices has come to an end. She asks for help in finding a new name that reflects her
identity, which encompasses both India and America. She tells Raven, “Now you must help me
find a new name. my Tilo life is over […] One that spans my land and yours, India and America,
for I belong to both now” (Divakaruni, p. 209). Tilo states that she belongs to both countries and
considers them both her home.

Similarly, Ifemelu faces a conflict of home and belonging as she navigates the complexities of
identity as an African immigrant in America. She experiences a sense of dislocation and displace-
ment as she struggles to fit into American culture while also maintaining her Nigerian identity.
Ifemelu also grapples with the idea of "home" and whether she can truly feel at home in America
or if she will always feel like an outsider. In Americanah, the concept of belonging is explored
through the characters who have differing views on the issue. Initially, Ifemelu does not feel a
sense of belonging to her homeland and seeks a way to leave. She leaves Nigeria with the hope of
achieving success in America after receiving a scholarship. However, her experiences of discrim-
ination and racism in America alienate her and create a sense of unbelonging. In contrast to recent
fictional works on migration, Adichie's novel has an unusual ending as her main characters choose
to return home permanently.

In both cases, the characters' conflicts of home and belonging are rooted in their experiences of
displacement and the challenges of adapting to a new culture while also maintaining their own
identities.
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 112
II.6.2. Memory and Nostalgia:
In The Mistress of Spices, the element of memory and nostalgia is depicted through the protag-
onist Tilo's relationship with the spices in her store. Each spice carries with it a memory of Tilo's
past in India and her longing for home. “Each spice has a day special to it” (Divakaruni, p.7). In
the second chapter, she expresses a sense of familiarity towards Turmeric, one of the spices as she
says, “When you open the bin that sits by the entrance to the store you smell it right away, though
it will take a little while for your brain to register that subtle scent, faintly bitter like your skin and
almost as familiar” (Ibid, 7). Moreover, relating it to a memory of her homeland traditions saying,
“For a thousand years before history began, brides—and those who long to be brides—have done
the same. It will erase blemishes and wrinkles, suck away age and fat. For days afterward, your
skin will give off a pale golden glow” (Ibid, 7).

Tilo often reminisces about her past life in India and her family, which she left behind. In one
scene, she remembers her grandmother grinding spices in a stone mortar and pestle, which makes
her feel nostalgic. In another scene, Tilo uses spices to create a scent that reminds her of the jas-
mine flowers she used to wear in her hair in India. Additionally, Tilo's customers often come to
her shop seeking spices that remind them of their homeland and the memories associated with
them, which further emphasizes the theme of memory and nostalgia in the novel. Tilo also hears
their stories of nostalgia and longing for their home countries. Additionally, her magical powers
are tied to her memories and ability to recall them. Thus, the novel portrays memory and nostalgia
as powerful forces that shape identity and connect individuals to their cultural and personal histo-
ries.

However, In Americanah the element of memory and nostalgia is depicted through Ifemelu's
recollections of her life in Nigeria and her longing for home. She often thinks back to her childhood
in Nigeria, reminiscing about the food, music, and cultural traditions she grew up with. For exam-
ple, she recalls the scent of jollof rice and fried plantains, and the feeling of wearing traditional
Nigerian clothing.

Ifemelu also experiences nostalgia in her relationships, particularly with her ex-boyfriend,
Obinze. She remembers their time together in Nigeria with fondness and regrets the way their
relationship ended, which is why she e-mails him as soon as she decides to return to Nigeria.
Additionally, Ifemelu's experiences with racial discrimination and marginalization in America
make her long for the sense of belonging she felt in Nigeria. This is reflected in her decision to
eventually return to Nigeria after spending years in the United States.
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 113
II.6.3. Inner Conflict:
Both Divakaruni and Adichie explore the inner conflicts of their main characters in different
ways. In The Mistress of Spices, Tilo struggles with the conflict between her duty as a Mistress of
Spices, bound by the rules and regulations of her society, and her desire to lead a more personal
and individual life. She grapples with the choice between following her heart and breaking the
rules that she has always adhered to. Tilo's internal conflict is further exacerbated by her love for
the American man, Raven, and her realization that she cannot be with him and remain true to her
role as a Mistress of Spices. She agonizes when speaking to herself,

Ah my American, waiting part in dread and part in desire I said to myself, Perhaps now I
will see that he is only ordinary after all. Standing outside in stillness, did he feel me too?
Pillar of ice frozen on the other side of the door, and inside me all the old voices clamoring
Don’t answer. Clamoring Have you forgotten, today is the day consecrated to the First Mother,
when you must speak to no one else? (Divakaruni, p.97)

On the other hand, in Americanah, the protagonist, Ifemelu, struggles with a different set of
inner conflicts. She is torn between her Nigerian identity and her new life in America. As a Nige-
rian immigrant in the United States, Ifemelu faces challenges such as racism, discrimination, and
cultural differences. Adichie writes,

If they asked what she did, she would say vaguely, “I write a lifestyle blog,” because saying
“I write an anonymous blog called Raceteenth or Various Observations About American
Blacks (Those Formerly Known as Negroes) by a Non-American Black” would make them
uncomfortable (p.10)

She also writes:

Aunty Uju had said, when she finally accepted that Ifemelu was serious about moving
back—Will you be able to cope?—and the suggestion, that she was somehow irrevocably al-
tered by America, had grown thorns on her skin. Her parents, too, seemed to think that she
might not be able to “cope” with Nigeria. (Ibid, p.23)

Her inner conflict arises from the constant questioning of her own identity, and she finds herself
struggling to reconcile the two parts of her life. Because once she comes back to Nigeria she faces
some issues as well. This inner conflict is evident enough in these quotations, “Perhaps she was
being too American about it” (Adichie, p.401). “Oh, no, Ifem, you’re not fat. You’re being very
American about that. What Americans consider fat can just be normal” (Adichie, p.426)
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 114
She is also caught between her love for two men, Obinze and Curt, and has to decide which one
to choose, leading to a personal and emotional conflict within herself.

In both novels, the main characters' inner conflicts center around their sense of identity and
their desire for personal fulfillment. Tilo and Ifemelu both struggle with the balance between per-
sonal freedom and societal expectations. However, the nature of their inner conflicts is distinct,
with Tilo being caught between the old world and the new, while Ifemelu is caught between two
different countries.

II.6.4. Diasporic Sensibility:

Both The Mistress of Spices by Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni and Americanah by Chimamanda
Ngozi Adichie portray diasporic sensibility in their respective works but in different ways.

In The Mistress of Spices, diasporic sensibility is portrayed through the character of Tilo, who
is an Indian immigrant living in the United States and working as a spice seller. Tilo's experiences
of displacement, cultural conflict, and longing for home are some of the key ways in which di-
asporic sensibility is portrayed in the novel. For example, Tilo is torn between her loyalty to her
Indian heritage and her desire to assimilate into American culture. She also feels a deep sense of
longing for India, and frequently reminisces about her childhood and her memories of home.

In contrast, Americanah portrays diasporic sensibility through the experiences of the main char-
acter, Ifemelu, who is a Nigerian immigrant living in the United States. Ifemelu's experiences of
race, identity, and cultural differences are some of the key ways in which diasporic sensibility is
portrayed in the novel. For example, Ifemelu struggles to adapt to American culture and frequently
feels like an outsider due to her race and nationality. She also grapples with issues of identity and
belonging and often finds herself caught between her Nigerian roots and her American experi-
ences.

Both novels depict the complex and multifaceted experiences of diaspora, but they do so in
different ways. The Mistress of Spices focuses more on cultural conflict and the struggle to recon-
cile one's past with one's present, while Americanah focuses more on issues of race and identity in
the context of the American experience.

II.6.5. Immigration:
Immigrants may face a cultural dilemma when their cultural practices are ridiculed, leading to
a threat to their ethnic and cultural identity. The Mistress of Spices by Divakaruni portrays the
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 115
experiences of both voluntary and involuntary immigrants who face cultural conflicts in America,
a country characterized by multiculturalism that often comes as a shock to them. The Unwilling
immigrants undergo a 'double trauma' of being away from their home country and adapting to a
foreign culture, which can be challenging. Willing immigrants who desire to shed their native
cultural obligations and start afresh in a new country often end up facing similar predicaments that
they hoped to escape. This internal conflict between their aspirations and the reality they encounter
can create a dilemma for them.

Divakaruni started writing to share her personal experiences of immigration and the conflicts
she faced during her settlement in a foreign land. She believed that her experiences were universal
and could appeal to a wider audience. In an interview with Neila C. Seshadri in 2001, she explained
her motivations for writing Asserting:

About what was importance in my life, and one of the big things was the act of immigration
and the ways in which it had changed me, the ways in which it had really made me see the
world differently and see my place as a woman in the world differently, the ways in which it
had made me appreciate my own culture as well as question of my own culture, and my life in
India, and all that was very important to me.

Divakaruni writes about the challenges and struggles of Indian women in America, drawing on
her own experiences as an immigrant woman. Her writing is a way for her to connect emotionally
and physically with her immigrant status. She explores the power of Indian traditions and the dif-
ficulties faced by immigrants in a new country.

Migration can be a shock to the system as it involves confronting a new land and its culture.
The dominant culture in the new location can challenge the identities of immigrants, just as it did
for Jagjit, a Punjabi child in the novel. Jagjit faced a clash of cultures and was humiliated by his
classmates for wearing a turban, a traditional Punjabi garment. His mother was more concerned
about his radical behavior at home, unable to tolerate the trauma. She narrates this experience to
Tilo, the healer. Tilo foresees that Jagjit will experience racial humiliation at school. The immi-
gration of Jagjit's parents has caused upheaval in their identities, culture, social values, and behav-
ior, ultimately leading Jagjit to become a victim. The new land can pose a threat to immigrants'
old identity, leaving them in a dilemma. The consequences of cultural conflict depend on whether
immigrants accept or reject the changes that come with moving to a new geographic location.

Likewise, in Americanah, Adichie examines the theme of immigration through the experiences
of the characters. It can be deduced that in the case of Obinze and Ifemelu, their migration is not
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 116
caused by common reasons, but was due to their need to experience more options and choices
elsewhere. However, Adichie portrays Africans who choose to immigrate because they desire
more opportunities and options, challenging the common belief that African immigration is solely
a response to poor living conditions.

Through Obinze’s and Ifemelu's stories, Adichie sheds light on the broader issues surrounding
immigration, such as xenophobia, discrimination, and the complexities of the immigration process.
The novel also explores the concept of "reverse migration," as Ifemelu and Obinze choose to return
to Nigeria after years in the United States and England. This decision reflects the experiences of
many immigrants who struggle to reconcile their new lives with the homes they left behind.

Considering everything, immigration plays a central role in Americanah and The Mistress of
Spices allowing Adichie and Chitra to engage in the importance of social and political issues and
explore the complexities of the immigrant experience.

II.6.6. Documenting Diaspora Experiences:

The impact of immigration on individuals goes beyond just behavioral changes, but can also
affect their psychological well-being. The characters in the novels serve as representations of all
African and South Asian immigrants who experience mental colonization and carry the burdens
and complexes of the historical eras of slavery and colonialism.

On the first hand, Adichie's Americanah may be categorized as a work of fiction, but it effec-
tively portrays the reality of race in modern America through the character of Ifemelu. When
Ifemelu moves from Nigeria to America, she discovers that black people are subject to racial stig-
matization. There is a prevalent negative and prejudiced perception of black people and Africans
in particular. In Western countries, particularly in America, black people face all kinds of discrim-
ination solely based on their skin color. To some Americans, being black is seen as something
abominable or insignificant. Racism is prevalent not only in American society, but also in other
Western societies, and this is evident in employment practices. Even among black people, partic-
ularly African Americans, there is a discriminatory attitude towards those with darker skin, and
they may not be fully accepted within their own community. Tyon (2007) brought shed on this
situation in his critical theory today in the chapter ‘African American Criticism’: “Internalized
racism often results in intra-racial racism, which refers to discrimination within the black commu-
nity against those with darker skin and more African features ”. (p. 362). The notion of white
superiority over black people is referred to as "Internalized racism." Due to their identity and skin
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 117
color, non-American black individuals had difficulty finding employment. Ifemelu and her aunt
experienced this struggle and represent the challenges faced by African immigrants when they
move to Western countries, particularly the United States. The Nigerian novelist uses these char-
acters to highlight the flaws of American society. It also explains how the American way of life
can influence many African immigrants to conform, distort their identity, or become mentally col-
onized.

Analogous to, The Mistress of Spices, a novel that scrutinizes several social commentaries, in-
cluding racism. One example of social commentary in the novel is the portrayal of gender roles
and expectations. Divakaruni uses Tilo's character to explore the ways in which gender roles are
constructed and enforced both in Indian culture and in Western society. Tilo's experiences with
men in both cultures highlight the patriarchal attitudes and expectations that limit women's agency
and freedom. Additionally, the novel analyses the exploitation of labour in the global economy.
The character of Haroun represents the harsh realities faced by workers in the spice trade, and
Tilo's efforts to help him and other workers suggest that there is a need for greater awareness and
action to address these issues.

II.6.7. Cultural Clash:

Cultural clash is a common theme in diasporic literature and is often experienced by immigrants
during their settlement in a foreign land. In The Mistress of Spices, a clash of Indian-American
culture is depicted through the relationship between Geeta and her grandfather. Geeta's grandfather
is saddened by her lifestyle, which is quite different from his Indian culture and traditions. This
clash of cultures is evident in their conversations, where Geeta's grandfather complains “That
Geeta, how much makeup she is using all the time. Uff in my days only the English and the pros-
titutes were doing that. Good Indian girls were not ashamed of the face God has given them….”
(Divakaruni, p.56). Geeta's grandfather is shocked to see her with short hair, as he believes that
long hair is a crucial aspect of womanhood in Indian culture. Geeta responds to her grandfather's
comment s “Oh Grandpa I needed a new look” (Divakaruni, p.55).

Geeta openly expresses her love for Jaun Candero, who is Chicano, to her parents, which causes
her grandfather to become saddened and unable to tolerate his presence in the house. Eventually,
her grandfather decides to return to India. This situation illustrates how cultural clash can change
the dynamics of relationships, as individuals may feel the need to prove that their beliefs and values
are correct causing generational conflicts as a result.
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 118
Among others, Daksha’s Mother-in-law wishes Daksha to behave like a typical Indian daugh-
ter-in-law. She doesn’t wish to eat morning food and yells at Daksha for fresh food. The mother-
in-law says “.... old food from the fridge is good only for servants or dogs...” (Divakaruni, p.51).
The collision of different cultures results in a distressing realization of their inability to return to
their desired world, which worsens the emotional distress. As an example, a woman named Mrs.
Ahuja, who relies on her husband, frequently visits Tilo's store according to the author, "Ahuja's
wife has of course a name. Lalita... I would like to call her by it, but how can I while she thinks of
herself only as a wife" (Divakaruni, p. 8). Lalita is facing a dual form of marginalization. Her
husband, Mr. Ahuja, works as a security guard in the United States. He deceives her by presenting
a younger photograph of himself and marries her in India before bringing her to the United States.
Her husband takes advantage of her physically, sexually, and mentally. When Tilo learns about
Lalita's suffering at the hands of her abusive husband, Lalita shares her experiences with Tilo and
mentions her interest in sewing clothes. Tilo inquires further, asking: “Why don't you work in this
country?” (Ibid, p. 9).

In the same way, in Americanah, Ifemelu is a Nigerian woman who moves to the United States
for college and experiences a culture clash between her Nigerian upbringing and the American
culture. She finds herself struggling to fit in with the new culture, as she is faced with discrimina-
tion and racial issues that she had never encountered before. Ifemelu's identity is constantly shift-
ing as she tries to reconcile her Nigerian heritage with her new American identity. Both novels
show the complexities of navigating multiple cultural identities and the difficulties of trying to
hold onto one's cultural heritage while adapting to a new environment. Tilo and Ifemelu's experi-
ences illustrate how cultural clashes can create tension and conflict in personal relationships, and
how cultural differences can challenge one's sense of self. The novels also highlight the importance
of embracing cultural differences and the benefits of cultural exchange, as characters in both sto-
ries learn from and appreciate each other's diverse backgrounds.

II.6.8. Negotiating Women’s Power and Issues:

The portrayal of women in The Mistress of Spices by Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni and Ameri-
canah by Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie differs in several ways. In The Mistress of Spices, women
are portrayed as strong, independent, and capable. Tilo, the protagonist is portrayed as a strong
and independent woman who has the ability to connect with people on a deep level through her
knowledge of spices and their magical powers. She is depicted as a powerful figure who can heal
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 119
people's physical and emotional ailments with her spices. Despite her mystical powers, Tilo strug-
gles with her own desires and emotions as a woman, especially when it comes to the man she
loves, Raven. She is also depicted as a woman who is caught between two worlds - the world of
the spices and the world of humans. She struggles to balance her duties as a Mistress of Spices
with her desires and aspirations. Through Tilo's character, the author portrays the complexity and
beauty of women and their ability to navigate the challenges of life with grace and strength.

Other female characters in the novel, such as Haroun's mother and the elderly women in the
community, are also depicted as strong and capable, with a deep understanding of the world around
them. However, Traditional Indian women’s struggle is portrayed in Mrs. Ahuja's story-one of
Tilo’s customers- as one of being deprived of possessions. She was obligated to give up her stable
and comfortable lifestyle at her father's residence when she married a violent alcoholic who sub-
jected her to abuse. The author makes it clear when Tilo says,

Ahuja’s wife has of course a name. Lalita, La-li-ta, three liquid syllables perfect-suited to
her soft beauty. I would like to call her by it, but how can I while she thinks of herself only as
a wife. (Divakaruni, p.8).

Unhappy in her domestic life, she wishes to start afresh in America, but the societal expectations
of women instilled in her since childhood continue to plague her thoughts. The voices of her con-
ditioning, Mrs. Ahuja says:

I knew better, but still I hoped as women do. For what else is there for us? Here in America
maybe we could start again, away from those eyes, those mouths always telling us how a man
should act, what is a woman’s duty. But ah the voices, we carried them all the way inside our
heads. (Divakaruni, p.74).

The Mistress possesses the ability to break down Mrs. Ahuja's home, but only when she is
prepared to confront the challenge. The Mistress aids Mrs. Ahuja in her transformation into Lalita,
enabling her to rebel against the oppressive structures that burdened her and led to her being raped
repeatedly by her husband. Lalita ultimately leaves her abusive partner and seeks refuge at a bat-
tered women's shelter.

Another customer named Hameeda also endures a great deal of suffering from her husband in
the story. However, paradoxically, she begins a new life with the help of her husband's brother.
This is a sharp reminder of the inherent paradoxes that women face in this story.
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 120
It is not that different in Americanah which also portrays women in a complex and nuanced
way. While some of the female characters, such as Ifemelu, her friend Obinze's mother and wife
Kosi, are portrayed as strong and capable, others are depicted as vulnerable and struggling to find
their place in the world. For example, Ifemelu's Aunt Uju, who is a single mother and an undocu-
mented immigrant, is shown as being trapped in a cycle of poverty and exploitation. She adopts a
different persona and accent when speaking with white Americans, which highlights the double
consciousness that pervades her personhood due to systemic racism. Aunty Uju's lack of immedi-
ate success in America as a trained physician may have led her to believe that she is not "American
enough," causing her to become self-conscious and hesitant.

Other female characters, such as Ifemelu's white American roommate and her boss at the mag-
azine where she works, are shown as being blind to their own privilege and insensitive to the
experiences of others.

Both novels portray women in complex and nuanced ways, with The Mistress of Spices empha-
sizing the strength and resilience of some women despite all difficulties and others that are troubled
by the patriarchy imposed on them, as well as Americanah exploring the diversity of women's
experiences in different contexts.

II.6.9. Return (back home):

Diaspora's "return" refers to the desire or longing of individuals or communities living outside
their ancestral homeland to go back or reconnect with their place of origin. This concept of return
can manifest in various forms, ranging from a symbolic and emotional attachment to actively seek-
ing physical repatriation. In this context Safran (1991) asserts, “for diaspora people, their home-
land is their ideal home where they or their descendants should eventually return.” (p. 84)

Tilo’s story is marked by a spiritual journey that allows her to confront her past and reconcile
with her present. While she doesn't physically return to India, she breaks away from the limitations
imposed on her as a "mistress of spices" and becomes a new person instead “Maya”. It is however
different for Ifemelu. In Americanah, the element of return is portrayed as a complex and multi-
faceted experience. While Ifemelu returns to Nigeria after living in America for years, she strug-
gles to reconcile her past and present selves. She experiences a sense of displacement and aliena-
tion as she confronts the changes in her homeland and the challenges of readjusting to Nigerian
culture.
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 121
Since Americanah is a two-perspective novel both “Ifemelu” and “Obinze” are immigrants who
try to overcome their sense of unbelonging and choose a physical return to their homeland.
Ifemelu: “decided to stop faking an American accent on a sunlit day in July” (Adichie, p. 170) and
finally decides to return to Nigeria. She says to Dike, “maybe you could come and visit me”
(Adichie, p. 370). Obinze when he was arrested by the police, easily accepts to come back. His
lawyer offers help to keep him more in England but he says, “I’m willing to go back to Nigeria”
(Adichie, p. 275). They consider return as a way of revival since it can put an end to their sense of
unbelonging.

When considering the diasporic experiences of Tilo and Ifemelu, it becomes apparent that one
of them established a sense of belonging in America while the other concluded that this country
could never be her home, leading her to return to her homeland.

II.7. Postcolonial and Diaspora Experiences Narrating:

The narrative styles of Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni's The Mistress of Spices and Chimamanda
Ngozi Adichie's Americanah differ in several ways. For instance, The Mistress of Spices is written
in a lyrical, almost poetic style. Divakaruni uses rich, sensory language to create vivid descriptions
of the spices, their properties, and their effects on people. The novel is also structured as a series
of vignettes, with each chapter focusing on a different customer who visits the spice shop. The
story is told in third-person omniscient point of view, allowing readers to see into the thoughts and
emotions of both the protagonist, Tilo, and the customers she serves.

Divakaruni is an incredibly skilled storyteller who has utilized various narratives in her writ-
ings, with one of the most prominent being myths. India is a country rich in myths and legendary
tales, and being an Indian herself, Divakaruni has not simply used myths as mere stories, but as a
teacher to impart the importance of traditional Indian life. Myths provide strength in the face of
life's challenges. Across her seven novels, Divakaruni has utilized myths with the intention of
revealing the truth behind these mythological stories, to demonstrate how they can help overcome
personal and social problems faced by both immigrants and native people. Through her protago-
nists, Divakaruni highlights the sufferings of immigrants, who are able to overcome them with the
aid of motivating morals drawn from myths. Most myths illustrate the rituals and customs of soci-
ety, which guide social and cultural norms for human beings. The study of mythology should not
be regarded as an escape from reality, but as a search for a deeper understanding of the human
mental condition. Tilo narrates the experience of rejection as a girl:
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 122
They named me Nayan Tara, Star of the Eye, but my parents’ faces were heavy with fallen
hope at another girl child, and this one coloured like mud. Wrap her in old cloth, lay her face
down on the floor. What does she bring to the family except a dowry debt. Three days it
took the villages to put out the fire in the marketplace. And my mother lying fevered all the
while, and the cows run dry and I screaming until they fed me milk from a white ass. (Di-
vakaruni, p. 7)

The article also discusses various narrative techniques used by Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni in
her novel The Mistress of Spices. Divakaruni uses descriptive language to evoke the five human
senses and make her scenes come alive for the readers. She also incorporates elements of poetry,
such as similes, to create thoughtfulness in the reader's mind. The novel also incorporates myth to
trace out the beautiful qualities of women through the character of Tilo. Divakaruni portrays Tilo
as confident, brave, and intelligent, and urges women to claim their space under the sun. The novel
also portrays humanness through its characters and their relationships with each other. (Devi &
Vijayanand, 2023, p.232-234).

Some narrative poetic lines in The Mistress of Spices:

“O Haroun, in your entreating eyes I see that joy does not become until you share it with
someone dear”. (Divakaruni, p.19)

“Too light, too hot, too damp. My hands freckled as the back of a golden plover.
Palms where at midnight thorn-purple blood wort would burst into bloom.” (Divakaruni, p.22).

Smooth the paste over neck and cheekbone, the hollow under the eye. Into my hair I rub
soaked ritha pulp, pile the grey into a mass on my head. Night passes, each minute dripping
like wash water from the hung-up clothes. Neem dust dries and pulls at my skin, my scalp
itches. Spikes of Rita hair pock at my face. (Divakaruni, p.123)

Tilo, the protagonist of the novel, has magical powers that allow her to communicate with
spices, and she uses these powers to help other immigrants in their struggles to adjust to life in
America. The magical elements of the novel are woven seamlessly into the story, creating a sense
of wonder and enchantment that is both captivating and poignant.

We note the use of symbolism, Spices are a recurring symbol throughout the novel, representing
the diverse cultures and traditions of the diaspora community. Each spice has its unique properties
and powers, and Tilo must use them carefully to help her clients overcome their challenges. For
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 123
example, chili powder symbolizes passion and intensity, while cinnamon represents warmth and
comfort.

The novel includes flashbacks to Tilo's childhood in India, where she learned about the power
of spices from her grandmother. These flashbacks help to contextualize Tilo's experiences in
America and to illustrate the ways in which her cultural identity has been shaped by her upbring-
ing.

Divakaruni's use of sensory imagery helps to create a vivid and evocative portrayal of the dias-
pora experience. For example, when Tilo first arrives in America, she is struck by the "metallic
taste of the air" and the "grayness of the sky," which contrasts sharply with the colorful and vibrant
world of spices that she left behind in India.

The characters in the novel are complex and multi-dimensional, reflecting the challenges faced
by immigrants as they try to navigate multiple cultural identities. For example, Haroun, one of
Tilo's clients, struggles with his Muslim identity in the wake of the 9/11 attacks, while Geeta,
another client, feels torn between her Indian heritage and her desire to assimilate into American
culture.

Early in the novel, Tilo receives a warning from the spices that she must be careful not to be-
come too attached to the immigrants she helps, as she may lose her powers as a result. This fore-
shadows the conflicts and challenges that Tilo will face as she becomes increasingly involved in
the lives of her clients.

In contrast, Americanah is written in a more straightforward, realistic style. Adichie's writing

is characterized by its sharp social commentary and wit, and the novel is structured as a conven-
tional linear narrative. The story is told from multiple points of view, with each chapter alternating
between the perspectives of the two main characters, Ifemelu and Obinze. Adichie's writing is
more direct and less flowery than Divakaruni's, but still manages to evoke strong emotions and
provide insight into the immigrant experience.

Adichie uses a range of narrative techniques in her novel Americanah, including untranslated
words, code-switching, and vernacular transcription to explore issues such as migration and iden-
tity reconstruction. Igboanusi (2002:56ff.) identified seven linguistic categories that occur in Ni-
gerian novels, including loan-words and colloquialisms. Adichie's narrative employs linguistic po-
sitioning, narrative framing, and discourse implicature, with the latter being particularly important
in decoding the meaning of the indigenous communicative code and ethnic identity. Overall,
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 124
Adichie's narrative style weaves together a complex tapestry of place and context that requires the
reader's co-creation. (Kozieł, 2015).

Untranslated words were used extensively, for instance: “Ifem, I don't know what got into me. Ndo.” [I
am sorry] (Adichie, p.79)

“Darling, kedu ebe I no? Where are you?” [where are you?] (Adichie, p.19)

“He reminded her of Obinze's expression for people he liked. Obi ocha. A clean heart.” [clean heart]
(Adichie, p.347)

An example of Code-switching in Adichie's Americanah can be seen in the dialogue between

Ifemelu and her Aunty. When Aunty Uju’s United States Medical Licensing Examination result
came. Ifemelu was carrying the envelope and when Aunty Uju asked her impatiently “is it thick?
Is it thick” (Adichie, p. 252), Ifemelu replied with another question “What? Gini?” Ifemelu asked.”
(Ibid, p.252). Here, the spontaneous switch to Pidgin when surprised emphasizes Ifemelu's Nige-
rian identity and her attempt to maintain her cultural roots whenever she had a chance. Which is
why Ifemelu considers quitting speaking in an American accent as she thinks to herself, “If she
were in a panic, or terrified, or jerked awake during a fire, she would not remember how to produce
those American sounds.” (Ibid, p. 170)

Ifemelu's use of the term "American-American" to distinguish between African Americans and
Black Americans who were native to the United States is an instance of Discourse Implicature.
This requires the reader to infer the meaning and comprehend the subtleties of this differentiation
and how it impacts the characters' experiences and identities.

Adichie uses flashbacks to provide insight into the characters' past experiences and how they
have shaped their present struggles. For example, Ifemelu's childhood experiences in Nigeria and
Obinze's struggles with immigration in the UK are explored through flashbacks. The novel shifts
between different perspectives, including Ifemelu's and Obinze's, to show how their experiences
differ based on their gender, race, and immigration status. For example, Ifemelu experiences rac-
ism in the US, while Obinze faces challenges with immigration in the UK.

In conclusion, the narrative style of The Mistress of Spices is more experimental and poetic,
while in Americanah is more straightforward and grounded in reality. However, both novels are
able to effectively convey complex themes and emotions associated with diaspora and postcoloni-
alism through their unique styles. Both writers use flashbacks, and characterization to explore the
diaspora experience. However, Divakaruni's use of sensory imagery and foreshadowing differs
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 125
from Adichie's use of code-switching, interlanguage, vernacular transcription, and multiple per-
spectives. In addition, Divakaruni's use of magical realism, symbolism, and sensory imagery helps
to create a vivid and evocative portrayal of the diaspora experience, while Adichie's use of code-
switching, interlanguage, and vernacular transcription highlights the challenges of navigating mul-
tiple linguistic and cultural contexts. Also, Adichie's use of multiple perspectives allows for a more
nuanced exploration of the diaspora experience from different perspectives.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, this chapter has conducted a rigorous comparative analysis of Chitra Banerjee
Divakaruni's The Mistress of Spices (1997) and Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie's Americanah (2013).
It has meticulously examined various aspects including identity, historical context, themes, style,
language, and intended audience to highlight the profound influence of the writers' diasporic ex-
periences on their respective works.

The chapter has provided a comprehensive exploration of the representation of diasporic iden-
tities and the intricate process of identity formation within these novels, taking into account their
distinctive differences. It has also illuminated the commonalities shared between the two works in
terms of postcolonial themes such as alienation, hybridity, race, gender, language, and displace-
ment.

By delving into concepts like in-betweenness, unhomeliness, mimicry, otherness, and ambiva-
lence, this chapter has offered a valuable postcolonial perspective on the novels, unraveling the
intricate complexities inherent in the experiences of various characters, not solely limited to the
protagonists. Furthermore, it has contextualized the Bildungsroman genre within the realms of
diaspora, race, and gender, providing a close examination of the journeys undertaken by the central
characters, Tilo and Ifemelu, within the contemporary world. This exploration has revealed strik-
ing similarities in their diasporic struggles despite their distinct circumstances. Moreover, the
chapter has explored the conflicts confronted by diasporas in both novels, encompassing themes
such as home and belonging, memory and nostalgia, inner turmoil, and the sensibilities specific to
diasporic experiences. Additionally, shared elements such as immigration, social commentary, and
cultural issues have been examined, underscoring the resonance between the two works.

By analyzing and comparing the works of Divakaruni and Adichie, this chapter has contributed
to a deeper understanding of the complexities of diasporic experiences and the multifaceted nature
 A Comparative Study Between The Mistress of Spices and Americanah | 126
of postcolonial literature, shedding light on the enduring relevance of these works within the
broader literary discourse.
General conclusion
 General conclusion
| 128

In conclusion, this research has explored the multifaceted nature of postcolonial diaspora
literature through a comprehensive analysis of Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni's The Mistress of
Spices and Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie's Americanah. It provided a holistic understanding of
the concepts of postcolonialism, diaspora, and related terms, as well as the significant themes
and major attributes of diasporic writings portrayed in the selected novels.

The first chapter laid a solid theoretical foundation by examining postcolonialism, neocolo-
nialism, and key concepts such as alienation, identity, hybridity, mimicry, ambivalence, assim-
ilation, and diaspora. The chapter also highlighted the representation of women in postcolonial
literature, which enhanced our understanding of the workings of postcolonialism and the un-
derlying principles of diaspora. By introducing the African and Indian diasporas, defining di-
aspora literature, and exploring the authors' backgrounds and literary styles, the chapter set the
stage for an initial comprehensive analysis of The Mistress of Spices and Americanah in relation
to diasporic experiences.

The second chapter provided a rigorous comparative analysis of the two novels, stating the
difference between both authors in terms of identity, historical context, themes, style, language,
and intended audience and therefore, the reflection of their personal life and experiences on
their studied works. It examined the representation of diasporic identities and the intricate pro-
cess of identity formation within the novels, while also highlighting commonalities such as
alienation, hybridity, race, gender, language, and displacement in both novels’ characters. The
chapter contextualized the Bildungsroman genre within the realms of diaspora, race, and gen-
der, shedding light on the journeys undertaken by the central characters, Tilo and Ifemelu,
within the contemporary world. It further explored the similar conflicts confronted by diasporas
in both novels, encompassing themes of home and belonging, memory and nostalgia, inner
turmoil, and the unique sensibilities of diasporic experiences.

Through a comparative analysis of Divakaruni and Adichie's works, this research has en-
hanced our comprehension of the subject matter by providing a deeper understanding of the
complexities of diasporic experiences and emphasized the ongoing significance of postcolonial
literature. The selected novels have been examined as projections of the Indian and Nigerian
post-colonial diaspora, with a focus on the distinct struggles encountered by the characters. By
exploring the protagonists Tilo and Ifemelu, the research has demonstrated how their experi-
ences reflect the postcolonial diasporic journeys of Divakaruni and Adichie, highlighting the
 General conclusion
| 129

personal connections between the authors and their works. The research has uncovered common
experiences and challenges shared by diasporas from different nationalities, specifically Indians
and Nigerians, underscoring the universal nature of certain diasporic encounters. However, de-
spite some of their similar diasporic struggles, both writers had different styles in which they
tackled their characters’ experiences. Divakaruni's style in The Mistress of Spices is character-
ized by lyrical and poetic prose, infused with magical realism and cultural elements, while
Adichie's style in Americanah is marked by a contemporary and realistic tone, employing
straightforward language and incisive social commentary. This research demonstrates that the
divergence in writing styles between Divakaruni and Adichie can be attributed to factors such
as the generation gap between them, as well as their unique cultural backgrounds, life experi-
ences, and individual writing preferences.

In general, this thesis has successfully achieved a critical comprehensive analysis of the se-
lected novels through the lens of postcolonial diaspora literature. It has deepened our under-
standing of the concepts and themes explored in the novels, while also shedding light on the
personal experiences of the authors. By analyzing the works of Divakaruni and Adichie, this
research contributes to the broader literary discourse and emphasizes the enduring relevance of
postcolonial literature in portraying the complexities of diasporic experiences.
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