INFORMATION SHEET 1.

Learning Objectives
After reading this INFORMATION SHEET, STUDENT(S) MUST be able to:

 History of camera.
 Camera parts and functions.
 Types of cameras.
 Camera metering and exposure
Camera is an optical instrument used to record images. At their
most basic, cameras are sealed boxes (the camera body) with a
small hole (the aperture) that let light in to capture an image on a
light-sensitive surface (usually photographic film or a digital
sensor). Cameras have various mechanisms to control how the
light falls onto the light-sensitive surface. Lenses focus the light
entering the camera, the size of the aperture can be widened or
narrowed to let more or less light into the camera, and
a shutter mechanism determines the amount of time the photo-
sensitive surface is exposed to the light.
The still image camera is the main instrument in the art of
photography and captured images may be reproduced later as a
part of the process of photography, digital imaging, photographic printing. The similar
artistic fields in the moving image camera domain are film, videography,
and cinematography.
The word camera comes from camera obscura, which means "dark chamber" and is
the Latin name of the original device for projecting an image of external reality onto a
flat surface. The modern photographic camera evolved from the camera obscura. The
functioning of the camera is very similar to the functioning of the human eye. The first
permanent photograph was made in 1825 by Joseph Nicéphore Niépce.

Camera Obscura
A box with a small pinhole and photosensitive paper; when pinhole is open,
paper is exposed to light
Versions of camera obscura used as early as the 16th century; telescopes
would project images onto walls in darkrooms
1816: Joseph Niépce first to combine camera obscura
with photosensitive paper and glass
1826/27: ‘View from the Window at Le Gras’

Daguerreotype
1838: Invented by Louis Dageurre
Chemically-treated steel/copper plate that would react when exposed
to light
Would take approximately 10 minutes to develop/process an
image
Kodak & Film
1884: George Eastman, developed dry gel on paper, or film, to replace the
photographic plate; the first film roll
Portable, low in cost, and for the masses!
1901: Introduction of the Brownie portable camera

35mm Film

1934: Kodak introduced 35mm (a.k.a. 135mm)

film catridges
This became the standard for photography and motion pictures
Also known as full-frame

SLR
SLR = Single lens reflex
Uses penta-prism mirror to allow photographer to see exactly what the lens
sees. We’ll see how this works this later…
1959: Nikon F is world’s first SLR camera

Point & Shoot (Digital Camera)

1975: First digital camera, invented by Steve Sasson; worked at Kodak
Small, compact, lightweight, user-friendly
(not that one à, obviously!)
Non-interchangeable lens Limited functionality
Small sensors (lower quality image

Bridge/Prosumer
More functionality than typical P&S
Typically, non-interchangeable lens Small sensors (lower quality image)
A combo of P&S user-friendliness with more advanced manual features of a DSLR

DSLR
Crop Frame Full Frame
1991: First commercial DSLR; Kodak DCS 100

DSLR = Digital single lens reflex

Works identically to the manual SLR Replaces film
with a digital sensor Advanced functionality

Full frame & Crop-frame (full-sized sensor vs. smaller, more compact
sensor)
Mirrorless
MILC: Mirrorless Interchangeable-lens Camera
2004: Leica M, first MILC

Advantages;

More accurate representation of final image

Gets rid of the penta-prism mirror = Lighter, smaller
Less parts, less expensive

Smartphone

2000: First camera phone; J-Phone

Initially, very limited; Low quality
Low focus range Extremely small
sensor
Now, camera phones rival point & shoots!

How does the D/SLR work?

Viewing Shooting
CAMERA EXPOSURE
How to Shoot in Manual Mode for Beginners
The “Manual Photography Cheat Sheet-Reloaded” by The London School of Photography is a clean-cut, visual
way of showing you how to step-up your photography game from automatic to manual shooting. Not only does
shooting in Manual Mode enable you to produce sharp well-composed imagery – but you’ll also gain a stronger
understanding of the inner workings of your camera and just how all those curious settings work in synch with
each other.
By shooting in Manual Mode you have full control of your shutter speed, ISO, and aperture, among an array of
other settings that can further fine-tune your images. Manually controlling the aperture, for example, can help
you achieve those beautiful portraits with blurred bokeh backgrounds. It’s also highly useful for changing
shutter speeds, enabling you to achieve amazing shots of those fast-moving subjects like cars or cyclists in
crystal clear motion without sacrificing quality.
You may often find yourself in a tricky lighting situation where everything appears far too dark, too light, or
very grainy. Unfortunately, automatic mode can’t always hack these extreme conditions and often activates
your camera’s flash at the smallest hint of darkness (making some photos appear positively awful). This is
where learning to shoot in Manual Mode can be a lifesaver.

ISO
One of the most talked about settings on a camera is the ISO; a numerical value on your camera that controls
light sensitivity. Your camera’s ISO allows you to adjust its light-sensitivity and allows it to pick up more light.
Or on the flip side, to reduce your exposure on those bright sunny days for a well-balanced result.

I highly encourage experimenting with different lighting conditions to find your ideal ISO. But be wary of
making your ISO too high in dark conditions as this will increase the amount of noise in your final images.
Aperture

Another common term you may have come across is aperture. This is essentially an opening in the lens that
affects your exposure. It is also responsible for controlling the depth of field.
Generally, the lower the number (or f-stop), the larger the opening of the lens will be which will result in less
depth of field – ideal for those blurry backgrounds. On the other hand, the higher your aperture the sharper the
background will be – making it great for capturing all the tiny details in your scene (great for landscapes).
Shutter Speed

Shutter speed is another key player that determines your image’s final outcome. It is essentially the exposure
time of the camera’s inner shutter that stays open to allow light to enter and hit the sensor.
Generally, if you’re after blurred shots that illustrate an object’s motion (for example a racing car or cyclist)
then a slow shutter speed will keep the shutter open for longer, allowing for a longer exposure time. A faster
shutter speed, however, is perfect for a pristine action shot with no motion blurs.
White Balance

Another setting on your camera which also directly affects your images is your White Balance (WB). The
process of setting your White Balance involves removing unrealistic color casts and ultimately using a setting
that produces more naturally toned images.
It is especially useful in removing harsh yellow tones or redness on the skin. Alternatively, White Balance can
be used in unconventional ways to refine your photographic style. For example, for edgier photos, the Tungsten
White Balance preset can be used in an overcast setting to produce blue hues and enhance contrasts. With this in
mind, it’s highly beneficial to experiment with the various White Balance modes to achieve your desired results.
Things to note for shooting in Manual Mode
Keep in mind that when you’re ready to shoot in Manual Mode your settings will not adjust to your shooting
conditions. You have to adjust them, manually. By keeping this in mind you’ll ensure your exposures are
consistent throughout a shoot. The process of changing your settings may sound tedious at first, but it will
actually ensure your images are consistent.
This is what shooting in an automatic mode lacks, as it calculates how much light is being measured through
your camera’s light meter. As good as this might sound to you, you’ll probably find that as you adjust your
shooting position, the subject moves, or the lighting condition changes to overcast – you’ll eventually have a set
of very inconsistently exposed images.

Other shooting modes

As much as I love to shoot manual, don’t forget about the other letters on your mode dial that are sparking your
curiosity. In fact, I even recommend shooting in these semi-automatic modes as practice to help you understand
exposure compensation.
 Program mode (P) is a great transition mode when stepping out of the auto-shooting world. It governs similar shooting
to auto but allows you to adjust the exposure by controlling compensation through a dial. If any of your photos appear
dark, then using this simple feature can increase the brightness.

 Aperture priority is another great transitional mode to shoot in that allows you control over aperture as well as the ISO.
It gives you control over your depth of field as well as the exposure compensation to control brightness.

If you think you’ve mastered these settings then you’re ready to go manual!

Finally
In addition to camera settings, we highly recommend the following tips that will further enhance your
experience of migrating to manual shooting; such as the use of a tripod, golden hours, and the top photographic
golden rules to keep in mind for capturing stunning imagery time and time again.
DSLR Basics: Understanding Camera Metering Modes
Have you ever thought about our situation if there were no metering sensors in the Camera?

Camera metering modes do the most critical job of the image making process, yet ignored by many.

The camera metering measures the brightness of the scene to make (or to aid in making)
an exposure!

Before getting into Camera metering modes, it is very important to understand the basics of light metering. It
will give you a glimpse about the light meters and their usage.

All the modern Digital Cameras use the built-in light metering sensor.

Light metering sensor, measure the brightness of a given scene and chooses the required Aperture, Shutter
Speed and ISO values to make a proper exposure.

Light Meters
Light meters generally fall into two categories:

1. Incident-light meter
2. Reflectance-light meter
Incident-light meter measures the brightness of the subject based on how much light is falling on the subject.
It gives accurate exposure since the incident light will be the same no matter the reflectance of the subject.
However, the measurement is taken by placing the incident light meter in place of the subject, which makes it
impractical to use in the camera.

The reflectance-light meter measures the brightness of the subject based on reflected light by the subject.
Because it measures the reflected light, it is possible to measure the brightness from a distance.
Camera Metering Uses Reflectance-light
All the camera metering sensors use the reflectance-light meter. Reflected light meters are calibrated to
calculate the proper exposure for normal subjects of average brightness.
The metering sensors are generally tuned based on 18% reflectance theory. As we all know, pure white reflects
100% of the light and pure black reflects 0% light. But the mid-gray reflects 18% of the light.

So, the camera metering sensors are tuned to this average reflectance value.

For most of the lighting conditions and scenes, the camera metering is tuned to give proper exposure
measurements. However, the exposure calculations can go wrong when there is a very bright (Egret) or very
dark (Common Raven) subject filling the frame considerably.

Camera Metering Modes

Camera Metering modes are probably the most neglected ones. Mostly because the default camera metering
mode does a very good job.
Understanding them will definitely help you to make better images under all circumstances.
An image is divided into multiple portions (or zones) to find out the brightness in the entire scene. Based on the
metering mode chosen by the user, metering sensors will either use a small number of portions (or zones) or all
the portions/zones to measure the brightness.

In order to make it easier for the user to expose properly for all the different lighting conditions, Camera
manufacturer provides few metering mode options like:

 Spot Metering Mode

 Partial Metering Mode (only in Canon)
 Center-Weighted Average Metering Mode
 Evaluative (Canon) or Matrix (Nikon) Metering Mode

Image showing various Metering modes supported by Canon and Nikon Cameras
Spot Metering Mode
As the name suggests, the brightness is measured only in one spot (or one zone) in the entire image. Depending
on the camera make and model, it may be just 3 to 5% of the image area.

Image showing Spot metering mode. Only 3 to 5% of the entire image area is measured for brightness. Some Canon Cameras
measure only in the center. Otherwise, Nikon and high-end Canon cameras measure it around the active focus point
Spot metering mode is useful in many scenarios like:

 Getting precise exposure on the main subject only

 A bright subject in the dark background (ex: Great Egret with shaded background)
 A dark subject in the bright background (ex: Common Raven with a bright sky in the background)
 Measuring the brightness in different parts of a landscape scene to achieve perfect exposure using the zone system
Spot Metering mode on Nikon DSLRs is based on focus point selection. Which means you can expose properly
for the main subject of interest which you are focusing on.

It seems that spot metering based on focus point is available only on Canon 1DX series DSLRs. All other
models will meter only the center of the frame, no matter where the focus point is set.
You may have to check how it works on your DSLR and use it accordingly.

Partial Metering Mode

Partial Metering mode measures a slightly larger area than the spot metering mode. It meters
approximately 10% of the image area in the center. It is only available in Canon cameras.

Partial Metering mode covers a slightly larger area than Spot Metering mode. It covers approximately 10% of the image area in
the center.
This mode is available only in Canon models
The partial metering mode could be used in similar scenarios to that of Spot metering like:

 Getting precise exposure on the main subject only

 A bright subject in the dark background (ex: Great Egret with shaded background)
 A dark subject in the bright background (ex: Common Raven with a bright sky in the background)
You can choose either Spot metering or Partial metering mode depending on how big is your subject in the
frame.

Center-Weighted Average Metering Mode

In center-weighted average metering mode, the metering sensor calculates the average brightness of the entire
scene but gives maximum weight to the center as opposed to rest of the image area.
Basically, the center-weighted average always measures the brightness of the entire scene no matter what the
scene is. Center area and the weight factor may vary for different make and model.

Center-Weighted average metering measures the brightness of the entire image area no matter which focuses point is selected. It
is suitable for scenarios where the light is evenly distributed
Center-Weighted Average metering mode is useful for scenarios like:

 The scene where the light is well distributed and diffused, like cloudy days
 The scene where the main subject of interest is framed in the center, like portraits
Matrix Metering (Nikon) or Evaluative Metering (Canon) Mode
Matrix or Evaluative metering mode is an intelligent way of knowing what a scene is composed of, based on
heuristics (or prior patterns). It measures the brightness of the scene at multiple points (or zones) in the image
and evaluates the optimum exposure that is needed to make an image.
Matrix or Evaluative metering is linked directly to the active autofocus point. Camera meter measures the
brightness of the area around the autofocus point and compares it with the rest of the scene to come up with
appropriate exposure.

It also takes into account the subject brightness, contrast, color information, etc to make an accurate
measurement of light for a given scene.

Evaluative metering (for Canon) or Matrix metering (for Nikon) mode measures light around the active focus point and
compares it against the brightness of rest of the photograph to come up with accurate exposure.
This is the default metering mode in Canon and Nikon cameras
Due to above said qualities, Matrix or Evaluative metering mode is the default metering mode in the digital
cameras.

You can use it in all the situations except the one described in Spot or Partial metering mode.

Conclusion
Camera metering mode is the most important aspect of a Digital Camera. We set the exposure based on the
camera light meter’s reading.

Imagine a situation if you were to carry a light meter on your own!

As always, try to use each of these metering modes and get to know how the meter behaves in different lighting
conditions. Since there are only 3 or 4 modes, it is easier to understand their effects thoroughly.

Good photography always starts with getting the perfect exposure in the field. It doesn’t matter how much you
are proficient in Exposure Triangle—Aperture, Shutter Speed, & ISO—it all boils down to a simple question:
“Can you get the perfect exposure in the field, every single time?”
Standing Up
Since holding my camera properly, I’ve been able to reduce the shutter speed. I can hold
it still for longer in low light situations.
It’s all to do with the grip you use and the point of your centre of gravity. This determines
camera shake and balance.
When you have your arm out (like in the image on the left) you’re barely supporting the
camera. And you’re moving your center of gravity away from your body.
This may look unusual but it’s something we all do without even realising it.
It’s especially common when it comes to taking portrait photos.
You want to try to keep your elbows close together. This provides stability and keeps
your center of gravity nice and low.
The same is true when you’re shooting in portrait. Don’t allow your left arm to separate
from your right.
You’ll notice that the second photo is still wrong though. The second hand isn’t being
used to correctly support the camera. By placing the left hand under the lens, you’re
spreading out the task of stabilizing the camera and keeping any stray fingers away from
the end of the lens.
  Keep your elbows together, against your chest
 Keep your left hand under the lens, rather than on the side
 Lean slightly into camera, holding it tight against the forehead
 Keep your legs open
 Same for shooting portrait, no excuses.

I’ve already spoken about the center of gravity. That’s what it ultimately comes down to.
The lower your center of gravity, the less likely you are to move about. The closer the
camera is to the core of your body, the easier it will be to hold still.
Below is something we’ve all seen time and time again, replicated the world over by
tourists and art students.
Leaning in and out with your camera might seem like a good idea. In reality, it’s much
easier just to take a step back or forth – don’t be lazy!
Think of it as a game of Jenga with all the bricks leaning to one side: you’re much more
likely to shake and topple over. Keep everything straight and aligned for the best results.
If you’re still struggling to keep everything still, here’s an extra technique I’d like to
share with you.
There are different variations of this technique, usually differing in what to do with the
left hand. This is the way that works best for me.
Use your left arm as a support by placing your left hand on your right shoulder. Then rest
your camera on the top half of the arm.
You can then use your camera as normal, just turning to the side of your subject, rather
than being straight on.
Try it out for yourself and see what works best for you.
This isn’t a stance I use all that often because it can be a little awkward and I like to be
able to zoom. But I have resorted to it in the past when needs must.

Sitting Down
No surprises here – sitting down lowers your center of gravity and increases your
balance. There is still a right and wrong way to do it.
By stretching your legs out, you’re really only partially supporting your body. And by not
leaning in, your balance is going to rock back and forth.
Simply lifting up your legs means you have somewhere to put your elbows. And by
leaning in, you create a solid core that you can rest your camera on top of.
Having your legs open will stop you rocking from side to side. And it will allow you to
take sharper photos at slower speeds.
And yes, I realise that her left hand is not the right way around – oops!

Finally, if you have space to lean on the ground and face forward, this is the best position
to be in.
Without wanting to repeat myself too much, you can see what you’re supposed to be
doing here.
The position of your legs no longer matters because all of your weight is pushed onto the
front of your body. This makes your arms especially important.
In the first photo, the left hand on the outside of the camera pushes the camera down. In
the photo on the right, however, it’s supporting the camera from any downward action.
And providing a firm platform for it to stand on.
Your arms still need to stay close together but not as much as before. They are now
acting like legs and need a slightly wider gap to remain supportive.