TCP/IP model

o The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.

o The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
o The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer,
transport layer, network layer, data link layer and physical layer.
o The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface,
internetworking, and transport functions that correspond to the
first four layers of the OSI model and these four layers are
represented in TCP/IP model by a single layer called the
application layer.
o TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules,
and each of them provides specific functionality.

The four layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite are −

 Host-to- Network Layer −It is the lowest layer that is concerned
with the physical transmission of data. TCP/IP does not specifically
define any protocol here but supports all the standard protocols.
 Internet Layer −It defines the protocols for logical transmission of
data over the network. The main protocol in this layer is Internet
Protocol (IP) and it is supported by the protocols ICMP, IGMP,
RARP, and ARP.
 Transport Layer − It is responsible for error-free end-to-end
delivery of data. The protocols defined here are Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
 Application Layer − this is the topmost layer and defines the
interface of host programs with the transport layer services. This
layer includes all high-level protocols like Telnet, DNS, HTTP, FTP,
SMTP, etc.
The following diagram shows the layers and the protocols in each of
the layers −
Host to Network Layer
o A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.

o A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data

Link layer defined in the OSI reference model.
o It defines how the data should be sent physically through the
network.
o This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data
between two devices on the same network.
o The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP
datagram into frames transmitted by the network and mapping of
IP addresses into physical addresses.
o The protocols used by this layer are Ethernet, token ring, FDDI,
X.25, frame relay.
Internet Layer
o An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.

o An internet layer is also known as the network layer.

o The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets

from any network, and they arrive at the destination irrespective
of the route they take.

Following are the protocols used in this layer are:

IP Protocol: IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most

significant part of the entire TCP/IP suite.

Following are the responsibilities of this protocol:

o IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host addresses

known as IP addresses. The IP addresses are used by the internet
and higher layers to identify the device and to provide
internetwork routing.
o Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through
which the data is to be transmitted.
o Data Encapsulation and Formatting: An IP protocol accepts the
data from the transport layer protocol. An IP protocol ensures
that the data is sent and received securely, it encapsulates the
data into message known as IP datagram.
o Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size of
the IP datagram by data link layer protocol is known as Maximum
Transmission unit (MTU). If the size of IP datagram is greater than
the MTU unit, then the IP protocol splits the datagram into
smaller units so that they can travel over the local network.
Fragmentation can be done by the sender or intermediate router.
At the receiver side, all the fragments are reassembled to form an
original message.
 o Routing: When IP datagram is sent over the same local network
such as LAN, MAN, WAN, it is known as direct delivery. When
source and destination are on the distant network, then the IP
datagram is sent indirectly. This can be accomplished by routing
the IP datagram through various devices such as routers.

ARP Protocol

o ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.

o ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to find the physical
address from the IP address.
o The two terms are mainly associated with the ARP Protocol:
o ARP request: When a sender wants to know the physical
address of the device, it broadcasts the ARP request to the
network.
o ARP reply: Every device attached to the network will accept
the ARP request and process the request, but only recipient
recognize the IP address and send back its physical address
in the form of ARP reply. The recipient adds the physical
address both to its cache memory and to the datagram
header

ICMP Protocol

o ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.

o It is a mechanism used by the hosts or routers to send
notifications regarding datagram problems back to the sender.
o A datagram travels from router-to-router until it reaches its
destination. If a router is unable to route the data because of
some unusual conditions such as disabled links, a device is on fire
or network congestion, then the ICMP protocol is used to inform
the sender that the datagram is undeliverable.
o An ICMP protocol mainly uses two terms:
 o ICMP Test: ICMP Test is used to test whether the destination
is reachable or not.
o ICMP Reply: ICMP Reply is used to check whether the
destination device is responding or not.
o The core responsibility of the ICMP protocol is to report the
problems, not correct them. The responsibility of the correction
lies with the sender.
o ICMP can send the messages only to the source, but not to the
intermediate routers because the IP datagram carries the
addresses of the source and destination but not of the router that
it is passed to.

Transport Layer

The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and
correction of data which is being sent over the network.

The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram
protocol and Transmission control protocol.

o User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

o It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of
transmission.
o It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not
specify the error.
o User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP
protocol reports the error to the sender that user datagram
has been damaged.
o UDP consists of the following fields:
Source port address: The source port address is the address
of the application program that has created the message.
 Destination port address: The destination port address is
the address of the application program that receives the
message.
Total length: It defines the total number of bytes of the user
datagram in bytes.
Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field used in error
detection.
o UDP does not specify which packet is lost. UDP contains only
checksum; it does not contain any ID of a data segment.

o Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

o It provides a full transport layer services to applications.

o It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver,

and it is active for the duration of the transmission.
o TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and
retransmits the damaged frames. Therefore, it ensures all
the segments must be received and acknowledged before
the transmission is considered to be completed and a virtual
circuit is discarded.
o At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into
smaller units known as segment, and each segment contains
 a sequence number which is required for reordering the
frames to form an original message.
o At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and
reorders them based on sequence numbers.

Application Layer
o An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.

o It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of

representation.
o This layer allows the user to interact with the application.

o When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with

another application layer, it forwards its data to the transport
layer.
o There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer. Every
application cannot be placed inside the application layer except
those who interact with the communication system. For example:
text editor cannot be considered in application layer while web
browser using HTTP protocol to interact with the network
where HTTP protocol is an application layer protocol.

Following are the main protocols used in the application layer:

o HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol
allows us to access the data over the World Wide Web. It
transfers the data in the form of plain text, audio, video. It is
known as a Hypertext transfer protocol as it has the efficiency to
use in a hypertext environment where there are rapid jumps from
one document to another.
o SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It
is a framework used for managing the devices on the internet by
using the TCP/IP protocol suite.
 o SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP
protocol that supports the e-mail is known as a Simple mail
transfer protocol. This protocol is used to send the data to
another e-mail address.
o DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used
to identify the connection of a host to the internet uniquely. But,
people prefer to use the names instead of addresses. Therefore,
the system that maps the name to the address is known as
Domain Name System.
o TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes
the connection between the local computer and remote
computer in such a way that the local terminal appears to be a
terminal at the remote system.
o FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard
internet protocol used for transmitting the files from one
computer to another computer.

Difference between OSI Model and TCP/IP Model

Parameters OSI Model TCP/IP Model

TCP/IP stands for

OSI stands for Open Transmission Control
Full Form
Systems Interconnection. Protocol/Internet
Protocol.

Layers It has 7 layers. It has 4 layers.

Usage It is low in usage. It is mostly used.

 Parameters OSI Model TCP/IP Model

It is horizontally
Approach It is vertically approached.
approached.

Delivery of the package is

Delivery of the package is
Delivery not guaranteed in TCP/IP
guaranteed in OSI Model.
Model.

Replacement of tools and

Replacemen Replacing the tools is not
changes can easily be
t easy as it is in OSI Model.
done in this model.

It is less reliable than It is more reliable than OSI

Reliability
TCP/IP Model. Model.

TCP/IP Applications
 DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
 DNS (Domain Name System)
 HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
 NBNS (NetBIOS Name Service)
 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
 SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)
 SNTP (Simple Network Time Protocol)
 Telnet (Bi-directional serial text communication)
 TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol)
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
The dynamic host configuration protocol (DHCP) is the application
responsible for requesting and offering IP addresses. A
DHCP client automatically requests an IP address from a
DHCP server when a network is detected. A DHCP server typically runs
in a router and offers IP addresses to DHCP clients.

DNS (Domain Name System):-A Domain Name System (DNS) enables us

to browse to a website by providing the website or domain name
instead of the website’s IP address.
It maps domain names to IP addresses. A network host needs the IP
address (not the domain or host name) of the web server to generate a
Packet.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP):-The Hypertext Transfer Protocol
(HTTP) is the most commonly used TCP/IP application as it transfers
web pages from a web server to a web browser. Web pages are written
using HTML, which stands for Hypertext Markup Language. In other
words, the HTTP is used to transfer HTML files.

NetBIOS Name Service (NBNS):-NBNS stands for NetBIOS Name

Service. It is used to translate host names on a local network to local IP
addresses. This is similar to what DNS does on the Internet.
In this example, the name “Board A” has been assigned to a network
host. NBNS allows us to access this host by typing its host name into a
browser instead of typing its IP address. It maps host names to IP
addresses.

(SMTP)
Your embedded device can be configured to send emails. SMTP would
be used for this.

Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)

SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol which
manages network devices. It is primarily used to monitor network
devices for conditions that may need a user's attention.
Simple Network Time Protocol (SNTP)
SNTP stands for Simple Network Time Protocol, which is a service that
provides the time of day to network devices. Typical accuracy is in the
range of hundreds of milliseconds.

Telnet (Bi-directional serial text communication)

Telnet is an application that enables bi-directional text communication
via a terminal application like Hyper Term or Tear Term.

Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)

TFTP is used to transfer files on a local network. It can be used to
update firmware on an embedded device with a boot loader.
TFTP is a stripped down version of FTP. TFTP has no provisions for
security, so it is only used on local networks. Files are transferred in
blocks of 512 bytes with a maximum file transfer size of 4 GB.

What is IP Address:-The address through which any computer

communicates with our computer is simply called an Internet Protocol
Address or IP address. For Example, if we want to load a web page or
we want to download something, we require the address for delivery of
that particular file or webpage. That address is called an IP Address.
Types of IP Address
1. IPv4 (Internet Protocol Version 4)
2. IPv6 (Internet Protocol Version 6)

IPv4 address consists of two things that are the network address and
the host address. It stands for Internet Protocol version four. It was
introduced in 1981 by DARPA and was the first deployed version in
1982 for production on SATNET and on the ARPANET in January 1983.
IPv4 addresses are 32-bit integers that have to be expressed in Decimal
Notation. It is represented by 4 numbers separated by dots in the range
of 0-255, which have to be converted to 0 and 1, to be understood by
Computers. For Example, An IPv4 Address can be written
as 189.123.123.90.

IPv4 Address Format

IPv4 Address Format is a 32-bit Address that comprises binary digits

separated by a dot (.).

IPv4 Address Format

IPv6 is based on IPv4 and stands for Internet Protocol version 6. It was
first introduced in December 1995 by Internet Engineering Task Force.
IP version 6 is the new version of Internet Protocol, which is way better
than IP version 4 in terms of complexity and efficiency. IPv6 is written
as a group of 8 hexadecimal numbers separated by colon (:). It can be
written as 128 bits of 0s and 1s.
IPv6 Address Format

IPv6 Address Format is a 128-bit IP Address, which is written in a group

of 8 hexadecimal numbers separated by colon (:).

IPv6 Address Format

Benefits of IPv6
The recent Version of IP IPv6 has a greater advantage over IPv4. Here
are some of the mentioned benefits:
 Larger Address Space: IPv6 has a greater address space than IPv4,
which is required for expanding the IP Connected Devices. IPv6 has
128 bit IP Address rather and IPv4 has a 32-bit Address.
 Improved Security: IPv6 has some improved security which is built in
with it. IPv6 offers security like Data Authentication, Data Encryption,
etc. Here, an Internet Connection is more secure.
 Simplified Header Format: As compared to IPv4, IPv6 has a simpler
and more effective header Structure, which is more cost-effective
and also increases the speed of Internet Connection.
 Prioritize: IPv6 contains stronger and more reliable support for QoS
features, which helps in increasing traffic over websites and
increases audio and video quality on pages.
 Improved Support for Mobile Devices: IPv6 has increased and better
support for Mobile Devices. It helps in making quick connections
over other Mobile Devices and in a safer way than IPv4.
For more, you can refer to, the Advantages of IPv6.
Difference between IPv4 and IPv6
IPv4 IPv6

IPv4 has a 32-bit

IPv6 has a 128-bit address length
address length

It Supports Manual
It supports Auto and renumbering address
and DHCP address
configuration
configuration

In IPv4 end to end,

In IPv6 end-to-end, connection integrity is
connection integrity
Achievable
is Unachievable

It can generate
The address space of IPv6 is quite large it can
4.29×109 address
produce 3.4×1038 address space
space

The Security feature IPSEC is an inbuilt security feature in the IPv6

is dependent on the
 IPv4 IPv6

application protocol

Address
Address Representation of IPv6 is in
representation of
hexadecimal
IPv4 is in decimal

Fragmentation
performed by Sender In IPv6 fragmentation is performed only by the
and forwarding sender
routers

In IPv4 Packet flow

In IPv6 packet flow identification are Available
identification is not
and uses the flow label field in the header
available

In IPv4 checksum field

In IPv6 checksum field is not available
is available

It has a broadcast
In IPv6 multicast and any cast message
Message
transmission scheme is available
Transmission Scheme

In IPv4 Encryption In IPv6 Encryption and Authentication are

 IPv4 IPv6

and Authentication provided

facility not provided

IPv4 has a header of IPv6 has a header of 40 bytes fixed

20-60 bytes.

IPv4 can be converted

Not all IPv6 can be converted to IPv4
to IPv6

IPv4 consists of 4
fields which are IPv6 consists of 8 fields, which are separated
separated by by a colon (:)
addresses dot (.)

IPv4’s IP addresses
are divided into five
IPv6 does not have any classes of the IP
different classes.
address.
Class A , Class B, Class
C, Class Da , Class E.

IPv4 supports VLSM

(Variable Length IPv6 does not support VLSM.
subnet mask).
 IPv4 IPv6

Example of IPv4: Example of IPv6:

66.94.29.13 2001:0000:3238:DFE1:0063:0000:0000:FEFB

TCP and UDP

Features of TCP

 TCP keeps track of the segments being transmitted or received by

assigning numbers to every single one of them.
 Flow control limits the rate at which a sender transfers data. This is
done to ensure reliable delivery.
 TCP implements an error control mechanism for reliable data
transfer.
 TCP takes into account the level of congestion in the network.

Advantages of TCP

 It is reliable for maintaining a connection between Sender and

Receiver.
 It is responsible for sending data in a particular sequence.
 Its operations are not dependent on OS.
 It allows and supports many routing protocols.
 It can reduce the speed of data based on the speed of the receiver.

Disadvantages of TCP

 It is slower than UDP and it takes more bandwidth.

 Slower upon starting of transfer of a file.
 Not suitable for LAN and PAN Networks.
 It does not have a multicast or broadcast category.
 It does not load the whole page if a single data of the page is
missing.
User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

Features of UDP

 Used for simple request-response communication when the size of

data is less and hence there is lesser concern about flow and error
control.
 It is a suitable protocol for multicasting as UDP supports packet
switching.
 UDP is used for some routing update protocols like RIP (Routing
Information Protocol).
 Normally used for real-time applications which cannot tolerate
uneven delays between sections of a received message?

Advantages of UDP

 It does not require any connection for sending or receiving data.

 Broadcast and Multicast are available in UDP.
 UDP can operate on a large range of networks.
 UDP has live and real-time data.
 UDP can deliver data if all the components of the data are not
complete.

Disadvantages of UDP

 We cannot have any way to acknowledge the successful transfer of

data.
 UDP cannot have the mechanism to track the sequence of data.
 UDP is connectionless, and due to this, it is unreliable to transfer
data.
 In case of a Collision, UDP packets are dropped by Routers in
comparison to TCP.
 UDP can drop packets in case of detection of errors.

Transmission Control User Datagram Protocol

Basis Protocol (TCP) (UDP)

UDP is the Datagram-

oriented protocol. This is
TCP is a connection-oriented
because
protocol. Connection
There is no overhead for
Orientation means that the
opening a connection,
Type of communicating devices
maintaining a
should establish a
Service connection, or
connection before
terminating a
transmitting data and should
connection. UDP is
close the connection after
efficient for broadcast
transmitting the data.
and multicast types of
network transmission.

TCP is reliable as it
The delivery of data to
guarantees the delivery of
Reliability the destination cannot
data to the destination
be guaranteed in UDP.
router.

Error TCP provides extensive UDP has only the basic

checking error-checking mechanisms. error-checking
 Transmission Control User Datagram Protocol
Basis Protocol (TCP) (UDP)

It is because it provides flow mechanism using

mechanism control and acknowledgment
checksums.
of data.

Acknowledg An acknowledgment No acknowledgment

ment segment is present. segment.

Sequencing of data is a There is no sequencing

feature of Transmission
of data in UDP. If the
Control
Sequence order is required, it has
Protocol (TCP). This means to be managed by the
that packets arrive in order
application layer.
at the receiver.

UDP is faster, simpler,

TCP is comparatively slower
Speed and more efficient than
than UDP.
TCP.

There is no
Retransmission of lost retransmission of lost
Retransmiss
packets is possible in TCP, packets in the User
ion
but not in UDP. Datagram Protocol
(UDP).
 Transmission Control User Datagram Protocol
Basis Protocol (TCP) (UDP)

Header TCP has a (20-60) bytes UDP has an 8 bytes

Length variable length header. fixed-length header.

Weight TCP is heavy-weight. UDP is lightweight.

Handshakin It’s a connectionless

Uses handshakes such as
g protocol i.e. No
SYN, ACK, SYN-ACK
Techniques handshake

Broadcastin TCP doesn’t support UDP supports

g Broadcasting. Broadcasting.

UDP is used
TCP is used by HTTP,
by DNS, DHCP,
Protocols HTTPs, FTP, SMTP and Telnet
TFTP, SNMP, RIP,
.
and VoIP.

Stream The TCP connection is a byte UDP connection is a

Type stream. message stream.

Overhead Low but higher than UDP. Very low.

 Transmission Control User Datagram Protocol
Basis Protocol (TCP) (UDP)

This protocol is used in

This protocol is primarily situations where quick
utilized in situations when a communication is
safe and trustworthy necessary but where
Applications communication procedure is dependability is not a
necessary, such as in email, concern, such as VoIP,
on the web surfing, and game streaming, video,
in military services. and music streaming,
etc.