2/17/2025

Internetworking – An Overview

CCC-697
Shiv Nadar Institute of Eminence (SNUIoE)
Spring Semester - 2025

The protocol is Domain Name System Protocol

And the server is called the DNS server

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DHCP Protocol Agenda for the next 2 Lectures DNS Protocol

How does a Given the name, how
system (client) does an application
receive its IP find the IP address of
address, the destination?
Netmask and
address of the How the packets are
5
router? 4 reassembled at layer 4
before they are received
Routing by the application layer
- Packet IP
IP - Brief statement
forwarding (L3)

ARP Protocol

Data Frame transmission (L2)–

Link How does the sender
Physical Layer learn the MAC address

DHCP Protocol L5 Protocol

To be on the network – The system needs to know its IP address, Netmask and the
system to which it should forward the packet to reach another network - router
DNS Protocol L5 Protocol

To connect to a server, if one knows the name and domain of the server, How to find
its IP address. Layer 3 uses IP address of the destination.
Packet Routing L3 Protocol

To be able to route a packet towards destination – the system uses network

address - Discussed
ARP Protocol / Frame Transmission L2 Protocol

To forward the packet to a device on the same network, MAC address is to be put in
the frame. How does a system learn MAC address on the network - Wednesday
TCP Protocol L4 Protocol
Packet assembly, flow control, packet sequencing – brief statement

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Bit of History
In 1970 all host names were maintained in file HOSTS.TXT and made available from
the Stanford Research Institute (SRI) Network Information Center (NIC).

A single file, HOSTS.TXT , contained a name-to-address mapping for every host

connected to the ARPANET.

Administrators would inform SRI of any changes / addition

The file would be updated once /twice per week

Each site would ftp it from SRI

He was the network's primary

administrator:
• overseeing the RFCs -- the
documents that define the
operation of the internet

• the Internet Assigned Numbers

Authority, or IANA, the
organization that handled the
net's naming system from the late
Jon Postel @ UCLA 1980s through the late '90s.

Crocker

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Traffic and load

The toll on SRI-NIC, in terms of the network traffic and processor load
involved in distributing the file, was becoming unbearable.

Name collisions
No two hosts in HOSTS.TXT could have the same name. However, while the
NIC could assign addresses in a way that guaranteed uniqueness, it had no
authority over hostnames. ...

As ARPANET grew – traffic load – transfer , Name Collision, inconsistency in database

By the 1980s, this system became too inefficient to maintain.

In 1983, the domain name system was created to distribute what was initially one
centralized file with every address in it across multiple servers and locations.

In 1986, IETF listed DNS as one of the original internet standards. Result:
Publication of two documents -- RFC 1034 and RFC 1035

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Question 1: Structure of database

Question 2: Consistent structure across the Internet – flat, hierarchical

Question 3: Who would maintain it

Question 4: Should the complete database be transferred while answering a

query – Protocol Design

Question 5: Should answer query for multiple protocols

DNS is a hierarchical distributed database that stores mappings between

domain names and IP addresses.

To accommodate expanding set of names -

Decentralize the naming mechanism by delegating authority for parts of the

namespace

Distribute responsibility for mapping names and addresses for the namespace

Partitioning the namespace must guarantee autonomous control of name assignment

e.g. Flow of authority / Chain of command in an organization

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1. Chancellor

2. Vice Chancellor

3. Dean + Associate Deans + ED

4. Departments (HoD)

5. Faculty + Staff + Students + Labs + Office

neeru.SoE.snu.edu.in Domain – snu.edu.in /

neeru.ee.SoE.snu.ncr.in Domain – SoE.snu.edu.in
neeru.chhabra.ee.SoE.snu.ncr.in Sub-domain – ee.SoE.snu.edu.in
neeru.chhabra1.ee.SoE.snu.ncr.in User – neeru (@) / system / server

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Domain Namespace
www.snu.edu .in Fully Qualified Domain Name - FQDN

Labels
A FQDN is Part of a hierarchy - tree
www
snu

edu www – Name of the server running the www service (Name in dns
database)
in domain- snu.edu.in

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Internet Corporation for

Assigned Names and Numbers

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Top Level Domains - TLD

Root Domain
.
net info com org edu gov mil int arpa Country
code
cisco

snu.edu.in – domain ee.snu.edu.in -sub domain edu

site name authorized Part of the name controlled
by central authority by site
snu
. org top-level domain stands for “organization” and is primarily used for
nonprofit websites such as NGOs, open source projects, charitable
organizations and educational platforms
ee

.info for websites that provide educational or informational content.

https://www.icann.org Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers
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Role of IANA

The Root Zone Database represents the delegation details of top-level domains,
.com, and country-code TLDs such as .uk.

As the manager of the DNS root zone, IANA is responsible for coordinating these
delegations in accordance with exisitng policies and procedures.

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In TCP/IP internet hierarchical machine names are assigned according to the

structure of the organization that obtain authority for part of the namespace and
not necessarily according to the structure of the physical network connection

One cannot distinguish the names of the subdomains from the names of the
individual objects or the type of an object using only the domain name syntax

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The Domain Name System is a distributed database.

Its structure allows local control of the segments of the overall database. Data in
each segment is available across the entire network through a client/server
scheme.

Robustness and adequate performance are achieved through replication and

caching

Programs called nameservers constitute the server half of DNS’s client/server mechanism.

Nameservers contain information about segments of the database and make that
information available to clients, called resolvers.

Resolvers create queries and send them across a network to a nameserver.

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The structure of the DNS database is similar to the structure of the Unix filesystem.

Each node is also the root of a new

subtree of the overall tree.

Each domain can be further divided

into additional partitions, called
subdomains in DNS, like a filesystem’s
subdirectories.

Every domain has a unique name

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EDUCAUSE – registrar (.edu) EDUCAUSE delegates responsibility for

berkeley.edu subdomain to U.C.
Berkeley

Berkeley.edu is a zone, an
autonomously administered piece of
the namespace.

zone berkeley.edu is independent from edu

and contains all domain names that end in
berkeley.edu.
berkeley.edu may be further divided into subdomains, such as cs.berkeley.eduas
Domain names are used as indexes into the DNS database. List of systems in a domain and
their IP address
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Each domain name is just a path in a large inverted tree, called the domain namespace

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Domain names at the leaves of the tree generally represent individual hosts, and they
may point to IP addresses, hardware information, and mail-routing information.

hp.com is both the name of the Hewlett-Packard Company’s domain and a domain name
that refers to the hosts that run HP’s main web server

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Objects in the DNS database – Resource Records – Type

The data associated with domain names is contained in resource records
Type Meaning Contents
A Host Address 32-bit IP Address
MX Mail Exchanger name of the host acting as mail
exchanger for the domain
NS Name Server Name of authoritative server for
domain
SoA Start of Authority Multiple fields that specify
which parts of the naming hierarchy a server
implements
CNAME Canonical Name Canonical Domain Name for an alias
HINFO CPU & OS Name of CPU and OS
PTR Pointer Domain Name

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$ORIGIN example.com.
$TTL 86400
@ IN SOA dns1.example.com. hostmaster.example.com. (
2001062501 ; serial
21600 ; refresh after 6 hours
3600 ; retry after 1 hour
604800 ; expire after 1 week
86400 ) ; minimum TTL of 1 day
IN NS dns1.example.com.
IN NS dns2.example.com. x
IN MX 10 mail.example.com.
IN MX 20 mail2.example.com.
dns1 IN A 10.0.1.1
dns2 IN A 10.0.1.2
server1 IN A 10.0.1.5
server2 IN A 10.0.1.6
ftp IN A 10.0.1.3
IN A 10.0.1.4
Authoritative for domain example.com
mail IN CNAME server1
mail2 IN CNAME server2
www IN CNAME server1 Zone example.com – SOA resource record

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refresh: The amount of time secondary servers should wait before checking
the primary server if the zone was updated.

retry: The amount of time after that a secondary server retries to query
the primary server after a failed attempt.

expire: The amount of time after that a secondary server stops querying
the primary server, if all previous attempts failed.

minimum: to determine how long to cache.

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Name resolution

Query – Is it for local domain / sub domain Contact authoritative name server
snulinks.enu.edu.in ipconfig/all

Cache (System / Server)

Caching Server

Forward to another DNS server Recursively query - go up the tree

Nameservers to be setup / configured for the same

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5
4

Routing
- Packet IP Destination
forwarding (L3) IP address

Data
Link

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DHCP Server

The DHCP server is a device on the network with a pool of IP addresses at its
disposal to automatically assign to clients as they join the network.

The DHCP server does the following:

• Assigns IP address to the client system as it joins the network from its pool of
available IP addresses - dynamic
• subnet mask
• IP address of default gateway for the network
• IP address of Primary DNS server
• IP address of Secondary DNS server

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DHCP Service – How does it work

To automate the process of assigning IP addresses to client devices in an
organization, the protocol is:
Step 1
DHCP Discover sent by client machine as
it connects to the network.
Source MAC Address: 45:A7:03:b7:89:21
Source IP Address: 0.0.0.0
Destination MAC Address: ff:ff:ff:ff:ff:ff
Client knows its MAC address, Destination IP Address: 255.255.255.255
but has no IP address
Source Port No: UDP/68
Destination Port No: UDP/67

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Step 2: from server(s)

Server X
Send IP to the client in OFFER message

Reserve A.B.C.D
You can have A.B.C.D
Server Y
Servers look in address
pool and find available You can have P.Q.R.S
IP and reserves it
Reserve P.Q.R.S

Client receives two OFFER messages in our example

Client gets to know the server IP
address. But the offer message is
broadcast from server as client still
does NOT have an IP address
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Step 3: from Client

Client accepts one IP in case multiple DHCP server are running
Broadcasts a REQUEST message, formally asking for the selected IP

Step 4: from Server

Server send ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

message – Officially allocating the IP
address and hence updating its available
pool of addresses

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We have discussed the message exchange

Server
Client

as broadcast, but some implementations

may use unicast for offer, request and ack.
This is done by using a flag in messages sent
by the client.

DORA

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DHCP Relay

Router

DHCP server
DISCOVER ?

Routers donot forward broadcast packets

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Summary

DNS server for Name to IP address mapping

DHCP server
• to assign IP address to client system
• netmask
• IP address of the router
• IP address of the DNS server(s)

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