Data Communication and

Computer Networks

By
Dr. Nagresh Kumar
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 Syllabus
Module I: Introduction
Introduction to computer networks, evolution of computer networks and its uses, reference models, example networks
The physical layer: Theoretical basis for data communication, transmission media, wireless transmission, telecom
infrastructure, PSTN, communication satellites, mobile telephone system

Module II: The data link layer

Data link layer design issues, error detection and correction, data link protocols, sliding window protocols, example of
data link protocols- HDLC, PPP Access

Module III: Medium access layer

Channel allocation problem, multiple access protocols, ALOHA, CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA, IEEE Standard 802 for LAN and
MAN, Bridges, Wireless LANs. Introduction to wireless WANs: Cellular Telephone and Satellite Networks, SONETISDH,
Virtual-Circuit Networks: Frame Relay and ATM.

Module IV: The network layer

Network layer concepts, design issues, static and dynamic routing algorithms, shortest path
routing, flooding, distance vector routing, link state routing, distance vector routing, multicast
routing, congestion controland quality of service, internetworking, Ipv4
Module V: The transport layer
The transport services, elements of transport protocols, TCP and UDP
The application layer: Brief introduction to presentation and session layer, DNS,E-mail, WWW

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 Text Books

1. Behrouz Forouzan, “Data Communication and Networking”, McGraw Hill

2. Andrew Tanenbaum “Computer Networks”, Prentice Hall.

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 Course Contents

Module-1
Introduction to computer networks, evolution of
computer networks and its uses, reference
models, example networks.
The physical layer: Theoretical basis for data
communication, transmission media, wireless
transmission, telecom infrastructure, PSTN,
communication satellites, mobile telephone
system

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 Definition: Data Communication and
Computer Networks
Data Communication- Data communication is an exchange of data/information between two
devices over communication media.
Computer Network- A computer network is a interconnection of autonomous computing devices
that exchange data and resources with each other. The network connection may be wired or
wireless.

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 Transmission Vs Communication
Communication Transmission
• Communication means the full • Transmission is a kind of one-way data
exchange of information between two transfer.
communication media.
• Transmission means the transfer of
• Communication is a two-way data from the source to the destination
interactive process in which all the
participants actively share their data.

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 Types of Data Transmission
Transmission Mode

Simplex Mode Half Duplex Mode Full Duplex Mode

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 Simplex Mode
In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional. Only one of the two devices on a link can
transmit, the other can only receive. The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the
channel to send data in one direction.

Example: Keyboard and traditional monitors. The keyboard can only introduce input, the
monitor can only give the output.

Advantages:
• Simplex mode is the easiest and most reliable mode of communication.
• It is the most cost-effective mode, as it only requires one communication channel.
• There is no need for coordination between the transmitting and receiving devices,
which simplifies the communication process.
• Simplex mode is particularly useful in situations where feedback or response is not
required.

Drawbacks:
• Only one-way communication is possible.
• There is no way to verify if the transmitted data has been received correctly.
• Simplex mode is not suitable for applications that require bidirectional
communication.
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 Half-Duplex Mode
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When one
device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice-versa.
Example: Walkie-talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages are sent in both
directions.
Advantages:
• Half-duplex mode allows for bidirectional communication,
which is useful in situations where devices need to send and
receive data.
• It is a more efficient mode of communication than simplex
mode, as the channel can be used for both transmission and
reception.
• Half-duplex mode is less expensive than full-duplex mode, as
it only requires one communication channel.

Drawbacks:
• Half-duplex mode is less reliable than Full-Duplex mode, as both devices cannot transmit at the
same time.
• There is a delay between transmission and reception, which can cause problems in some
applications.
• There is a need for coordination between the transmitting and receiving devices, which can
complicate the communication process.

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 Full-Duplex Mode
• In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. In full-duplex mode,
signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link with signals going in another direction.
• Full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all the time.
Example: Telephone Network in which there is communication between two persons by a
telephone line, through which both can talk and listen at the same time.

Advantages:
• Full-duplex mode allows for simultaneous bidirectional communication, which is ideal for
real-time applications such as video conferencing or online gaming.
• It is the most efficient mode of communication, as both devices can transmit and receive data
simultaneously.
• Full-duplex mode provides a high level of reliability and accuracy, as there is no need for error
correction mechanisms.
Drawbacks:
• Full-duplex mode is the most expensive mode, as it requires two communication channels.
• It is more complex than simplex and half-duplex modes, as it requires two physically separate
transmission paths or a division of channel capacity.
• Full-duplex mode may not be suitable for all applications, as it requires a high level of bandwidth
and may not be necessary for some types of communication.

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 Unicast, Broadcast, and Multicast in
Computer Networks
Casting in computer networks means transmitting data (stream of packets) over a network. Following are the
different types of casting used in networking −
• Unicast transmission
• Broadcast transmission
• Multicast transmission

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 Unicast Transmission (One-to-One)
• In Unicast transmission, the data is transferred from a single sender (or a
single source host) to a single receiver (or a single destination host).

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 Broadcast Transmission (One-to-All)
In Broadcast transmission, the data is transmitted from
one or more senders to all the receivers within the
same network or in other networks.

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 Multicast Transmission (One-to-Many)
• When the data is transmitted from a single source host to a specific group of
hosts having the interest to receive the data, it is known as multicast
transmission.

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 Evolution of computer Networks
• In 1957, when SPUTNIK Satellite was launched by Russia. An
agency named ADVANCED RESEARCH PROJECT AGENCY
(ARPA) was started by American, and its first satellite was
launched within 18 months after establishment. Then they
used ARPANET to share the information on another
computer. America's Dr. LIED LIEDER has this all
responsibility. Then, ARPANET came to India in 1969, and its
name changed from Indian to NETWORK.
• For the United States Department of Defense(DoD), the
funding of the design of the Advanced Research Projects
Agency Network (ARPANET) was began by ARPA. In 1969,
the network began to develop on the basis of the developed
designs in the 1960s. The below table contains a complete
history of computer networking:

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 Evolution of computer Networks
Year Event
1961 In this year, Leonard Kleinrock proposed the earliest computer networks, which was the idea of
ARPANET.

1965 In 1965, Donald Davies coined the term "packet" to describe how to send data between
computers on a network.

1969 Although In 1966, the development of ARPANET began, officially started ARPANET in 1969. It was
considered one of the first computer networks in which first two nodes, UCLA and SRI (Stanford
Research Institute) were connected, and to use packet switching.

To provide and define information about network protocols, procedures, and computer
communications, the first RFC surfaced as a document in April 1969.

1969 On 29 August 1969, the first IMP and network switch were sent to UCLA. On ARPANET, the first
data transmission was sent by using it.

1970 NCP, stands for NetWare Core Protocol, released by Steve Crocker and a team at UCLA for use with
NetWare.

1971 In 1971, the first e-mail was sent to across a network to other users by Ray Tomlinson.
1973 While working at Xerox PARC, Robert Metcalfe developed the Ethernet in 1973. In the same year,
ARPA deployed the first international network connection, known as SATNET.

In 1973, VoIP technology and capabilities were officially introduced, which made a VoIP call.
However, until 1995, the software was not available for users that could make VoIP calls.
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 Evolution of computer Networks….
Year Event
1974 In this year, the use of first router was began, but they were not considered true IP routers.
1976 Originally called a gateway, Ginny Strazisar develop the first true IP router.
1978 In 1978, the TCP/IP protocol was developed and invented by Bob Kahn for networks; it was
developed with help from Vint Cerf.
1981 In the United States, between IBM mainframe systems, BITNET was created in 1981 as a network.
The U.S. National Science Foundation developed the CSNET (Computer Science Network) in the
same year 1981.
1983 For using TCP/IP, ARPANET finished the transition. The first DNS implement by Jon Postel and Paul
Mockapetris in 1983.
1986 This is the year in which a backbone for ARPANET, the National Science Foundation Network was
came online, which finally took the place of ARPANET in 1990s. In the same year, with the original
BITNET, BITNET II was introduced to deal with bandwidth issues.

1988 In 1988, the first T1 backbone was included with ARPANET. AT&T, Lucent, and NCR introduced the
WaveLAN network technology in 1988.
In 1988, for the first time, the explanation of network firewall technology was published. In the
same year, Digital Equipment Corporation developed it. This paper had the detail about the first
firewall, known as a packet filter firewall.

1990 The first network switch was developed and introduced by a U.S. network hardware company
named Kalpana in 1990.
1996 In 1996, an IPv6 was introduced as an improvement over IPv4, as well as embedded encryption,
improved routing.
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 Evolution of computer Networks…..
Year Event
1997 In June 1997, the 802.11 standards, containing transmission speeds up to 2 Mbps, for
Wi-Fi were introduced.
1999 The 802.11a standard, containing transmission speeds up to 25 Mbps to use the 5 GHz
band, was officially made in 1999. Another standard 802.11b was available to use for the
public in mid-1999, which offered transmission speeds up to 11 Mbps. In September 1999,
for use with 802.11b, the WEP encryption protocol was released.

2003 802.11g devices, contained transmission speeds up to 20 Mbps, were available to the
public in January 2003. In the same year, for use with 802.11g, the WPA encryption
protocol is released.

2004 In 2004, as a replacement for WPA, the WPA2 encryption protocol was introduced. By
2006, WPA2 certification was compulsory for all Wi-Fi devices.

2009 The 802.11n standard can operate on the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bandwidths and offers higher
transfer speeds over 802.11a and 802.11g. Officially, it was made in 2009.

2018 In January 2018, WPA3 encryption was released by the Wi-Fi Alliance, which comprises
security enhancements over WPA2.

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 Network Topology
• Network Topology defines the structure of the
network, and how these components are
interconnected to each other. Nodes usually
include devices such as switches, routers and
software with switch and router features.
Network topologies are often represented as a
graph.
• Types of Topologies are-
(i)Bus Topology(ii)Ring Topology (iii)Mesh Topology (iv)Star
Topology (v)Tree Topology (vi) Hybrid Topology

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 Bus Topology

The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are
connected through a single cable known as a backbone cable. Each
node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or
directly connected to the backbone cable. When a node wants to
send a message over the network, it puts a message over the
network. All the stations available in the network will receive the
message whether it has been addressed or not. Only intended station
will receive it.
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 Advantages and Drawbacks of Bus Topology
Advantages of Bus Topology
• If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of
cables required to connect them is 1, known as backbone cable, and N drop
lines are required.
• Coaxial cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that support up to 10
Mbps.
• Bus topology is familiar technology as installation and troubleshooting
techniques are well known.
• CSMA is the most common method for this type of topology.

Drawbacks of Bus Topology

• A bus topology is quite simpler, but coaxial cable is too expensive.
• If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
• If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network.
• Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
• Security is very low.

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 Ring Topology
Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends. The node that receives the
message from the previous computer will retransmit to the next node. The data flows in one
direction, i.e., it is unidirectional. It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other
node and having no termination point. The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.
– Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is passed from one node to
another node.
– Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
Working of Token passing
A token moves around the network, and it is passed from computer to computer until it reaches
the destination. The sender modifies the token by putting the address along with the data. The
data is passed from one device to another device until the destination address matches. Once the
token received by the destination device, then it sends the acknowledgment to the sender.

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 Advantages and Drawbacks of Ring
Topology
Advantages of Ring topology:
• Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the network without
bringing the network down.
• Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available. Therefore, the
installation cost is very low.
• Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication system is not
dependent on the single host computer.
Drawbacks of Ring topology:
• Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the
cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication
for all the nodes.
• Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall network.
• Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the
network.
• Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of nodes. Adding
new devices increases the communication delay.

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 Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a particular channel .

• Suppose, the N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology, the total
number of ports that are required by each device is N-1. In above Figure, there are 5 devices
connected to each other, hence the total number of ports required by each device is 4. The total
number of ports required = N * (N-1).
• Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology, then the total
number of dedicated links required to connect them is NC2 i.e. N(N-1)/2. In Figure 1, there are 5
devices connected to each other, hence the total number of links required is 5*4/2 = 10.

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 Advantages and Drawbacks of Mesh
Topology
Advantages of Mesh Topology
• Communication is very fast between the nodes.
• Mesh Topology is robust.
• The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is
transferred among the devices through dedicated channels
or links.
• Provides security and privacy.
Drawbacks of Mesh Topology
• Installation and configuration are difficult.
• The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence
suitable for less number of devices.
• The cost of maintenance is high.

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 Star Topology

In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable.
This hub is the central node and all other nodes are connected to the central
node. The hub can be passive in nature i.e., not an intelligent hub such as
broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can be intelligent known as an
active hub. Active hubs have repeaters in them. Coaxial cables or RJ-45 cables
are used to connect the computers.

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 Advantages and Drawbacks of Star
Topology
Advantages of Star Topology
• If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the
number of cables required to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
• Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the
total number of ports required is N.
• It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than
that.
• Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
• Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
Drawbacks of Star Topology
• If the hub on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole system will
crash down.
• The cost of installation is high.
• Performance is based on the single hub.

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 Tree Topology

Tree topology is the variation of the Star topology. This

topology has a hierarchical flow of data. In this, the
various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub
which contains the repeater. This data flow from top to
bottom i.e. from the central hub to the secondary and
then to the devices or from bottom to top i.e. devices to
the secondary hub and then to the central hub. It is a
multi-point connection and a non-robust topology
because if the backbone fails the topology crashes.
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 Advantages and Drawbacks of Tree
Topology
Advantages of Tree Topology :
• This topology provides a hierarchical as well as central data arrangement of the nodes.
• As the leaf nodes can add one or more nodes in the hierarchical chain, this topology provides
high scalability.
• The other nodes in a network are not affected if one of their nodes gets damaged or does not
work.
• Tree topology provides easy maintenance and easy fault identification can be done.
• Tree Topology is highly secure.
• It is used in WAN.
• Tree Topology is reliable.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology :
• The length of a segment is limited & the limit of the segment depends on the type of cabling
used.
• Due to the presence of a large number of nodes, the network performance of tree topology
becomes a bit slow.
• If the computer on the first level is erroneous, the next-level computer will also go under
problems.
• Requires a large number of cables compared to star and ring topology.
• As the data needs to travel from the central cable this creates dense network traffic.

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 Hybrid Topology
This topological technology is the combination of all the various types of
topologies we have studied above. Hybrid Topology is used when the nodes
are free to take any form.

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 Advantages and Drawbacks of Hybrid
Topology
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
• This topology is very flexible.
• The size of the network can be easily expanded
by adding new devices.
Drawbacks of Hybrid Topology
• It is challenging to design the architecture of the
Hybrid Network.
• Hubs used in this topology are very expensive.
• The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid
network requires a lot of cabling and network
devices.
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 Types of Network
• Personal Area Network (PAN)
• Local Area Network (LAN)
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• Wide Area Network (WAN)

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 Personal Area Network (PAN)
PAN is a personal area network having an interconnection of personal technology devices to
communicate over a short distance. It covers only less than 10 meters or 33 feet of area. PAN has
fewer users as compared to other networks such as LAN, WAN, etc. PAN typically uses some form of
wireless technology. PAN involves the transmission of data between information devices such as
smartphones, personal computers, tablet computers, etc.

Advantages:
• Allows for easy communication between personal devices in close proximity.
• Can be set up easily and quickly.
• Generally uses wireless technology, which eliminates the need for wires and cables.
• PANs are designed to be energy efficient, which means that devices can communicate with each
other without draining their batteries quickly.
• PANs are typically secured using encryption and authentication protocols, which helps to prevent
unauthorized access to data and resources.
Drawbacks:
• Limited coverage area.
• May not be suitable for large-scale data transfer or communication. PANs typically have limited
bandwidth, which means that they may not be able to handle large amounts of data or high-speed
communication.
• May experience interference from other wireless devices.

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PAN

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 Local Area Network (LAN)
• LAN or Local Area Network connects network devices in such a way that personal computers and
workstations can share data, tools, and programs. The group of computers and devices are
connected together by a switch, or stack of switches, using a private addressing scheme as defined
by the TCP/IP protocol. Private addresses are unique in relation to other computers on the local
network.
• LANs cover a smaller geographical area (Size is limited to a few kilometres) and are privately
owned. One can use it for an office building, home, hospital, school, etc. LAN is easy to design and
maintain. A Communication medium used for LAN has twisted-pair cables and coaxial cables. It
covers a short distance, and so the error and noise are minimized.
• Early LANs had data rates in the 4 to 16 Mbps range. Today, speeds are normally 100 or 1000
Mbps. Propagation delay is very short in a LAN. The smallest LAN may only use two computers,
while larger LANs can accommodate thousands of computers. LAN has a range up to 2km. A LAN
typically relies mostly on wired connections for increased speed and security, but wireless
connections can also be part of a LAN. The fault tolerance of a LAN is more and there is less
congestion in this network. For example A bunch of students playing Counter-Strike in the same
room (without internet).
Advantages:
• Provides fast data transfer rates and high-speed communication.
• Easy to set up and manage.
• Can be used to share peripheral devices such as printers and scanners.
• Provides increased security and fault tolerance compared to WANs.
Drawbacks:
• Limited geographical coverage.
• Limited scalability and may require significant infrastructure upgrades to accommodate growth.
• May experience congestion and network performance issues with increased usage.
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LAN

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 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• MAN or Metropolitan area Network covers a larger area than that covered by a LAN
and a smaller area as compared to WAN. MAN has a range of 5-50km. It connects
two or more computers that are apart but reside in the same or different cities. It
covers a large geographical area and may serve as an ISP (Internet Service Provider).
MAN is designed for customers who need high-speed connectivity. Speeds of MAN
range in terms of Mbps. It’s hard to design and maintain a Metropolitan Area
Network.
• The fault tolerance of a MAN is less and also there is more congestion in the
network. It is costly and may or may not be owned by a single organization. The data
transfer rate and the propagation delay of MAN are moderate. Devices used for
transmission of data through MAN are Modem and Wire/Cable. Examples of a MAN
are part of the telephone company network that can provide a high-speed DSL line
to the customer or the cable TV network in a city.
Advantages:
• Provides high-speed connectivity over a larger geographical area than LAN.
• Can be used as an ISP for multiple customers.
• Offers higher data transfer rates than WAN in some cases.
Drawbacks:
• Can be expensive to set up and maintain.
• May experience congestion and network performance issues with increased usage.
• May have limited fault tolerance and security compared to LANs.

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39
 Wide Area Network (WAN)
• WAN or Wide Area Network is a computer network that extends over a large
geographical area, although it might be confined within the bounds of a state or
country. WAN has a range of above 50 km. A WAN could be a connection of LAN
connecting to other LANs via telephone lines and radio waves and may be limited to
an enterprise (a corporation or an organization) or accessible to the public. The
technology is high-speed and relatively expensive.
• WAN’s data rate is slow about a 10th LAN’s speed since it involves increased distance
and increased number of servers and terminals etc. The speed of WAN ranges from a
few kilobits per second (Kbps) to megabits per second (Mbps). Propagation delay is
one of the biggest problems faced here. Devices used for the transmission of data
through WAN are Optic wires, Microwaves, and Satellites.
Advantages:
• Covers large geographical areas and can connect remote locations.
• Provides connectivity to the internet.
• Offers remote access to resources and applications.
• Can be used to support multiple users and applications simultaneously.
Drawbacks:
• Can be expensive to set up and maintain.
• Offers slower data transfer rates than LAN or MAN.
• May experience higher latency and longer propagation delays due to longer
distances and multiple network hops.
• May have lower fault tolerance and security compared to LANs.

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WAN

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 Reference Model
• In computer networks, reference models give a
conceptual framework of layered architecture that
standardizes communication between heterogeneous
networks.
• Reference models define which functions should be
performed at each layer of the model and thus they
promote standardization.

The two popular reference models are −

• OSI Model
• TCP/IP Protocol Suite

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 OSI Model
To ensure national and worldwide data
communication ISO (International Organization
of Standardization) developed this model.
• This is called a model for open system
interconnection (OSI) and is normally called
an OSI model.
• OSI model architecture consists of seven
layers. It defines seven layers or levels in a
complete communication system.

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OSI Model…

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OSI Layers

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 Function and
Responsibilities
of
OSI Layers

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 Physical Layers
Physical Layer- The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from
one hop (node) to the next.
The physical layer is also concerned with the following:
• Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium -The physical layer defines the
characteristics of the interface between the devices and the transmission medium. It
also defines the type of transmission medium.
• Representation of bits- The physical layer data consists of a stream of bits
(sequence of 0s or 1s) with no interpretation. To be transmitted, bits must be
encoded into signals--electrical or optical. The physical layer defines the type of
encoding (how 0s and 1s are changed to signals).
• Data rate- The transmission rate-the number of bits sent each second-is also defined
by the physical layer.
• Synchronization of bits- The sender and receiver not only must use the same bit rate
but also must be synchronized at the bit level.
• Line configuration- The physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices to
the media. In a point-to-point configuration, two devices are connected through a
dedicated link. In a multipoint configuration, a link is shared among several devices.
• Physical topology- The physical topology defines how devices are connected to make
a network. Devices can be connected by using a mesh topology, a star topology ,a
ring topology , a bus topology or a hybrid topology .
• Transmission mode. The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission
between two devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.

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 Data Link Layer
The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a reliable
link. It makes the physical layer appear error-free to the upper layer (network layer).
Responsibilities of the data link layer include the following:

• Framing- The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network
layer into manageable data units called frames. O
• Physical addressing- If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the
network, the data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender and/or
receiver of the frame. If the frame is intended for a system outside the sender's
network, the receiver address is the address of the device that connects the network
to the next one.
• Flow control- If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than
the rate at which data are produced in the sender, the data link layer imposes a flow
control mechanism to avoid overwhelming the receiver.
• Error control- The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding
mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also uses a
mechanism to recognize duplicate frames. Error control is normally achieved through
a trailer added to the end of the frame.
• Access control- When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data
link layer protocols are necessary to determine which device has control over the link
at any given time.

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 Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets
from the source host to the destination host.
Other responsibilities of the network layer include the following:
• Logical addressing- The physical addressing implemented by the
data link layer handles the addressing problem locally. If a packet
passes the network boundary, we need another addressing system
to help distinguish the source and destination systems. The
network layer adds a header to the packet coming from the upper
layer that, among other things, includes the logical addresses of
the sender and receiver.
• Routing- When independent networks or links are connected to
create internetworks (network of networks) or a large network,
the connecting devices (called routers or switches) route or switch
the packets to their final destination. One of the functions of the
network layer is to provide this mechanism

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 Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one process to another.
Responsibilities of the transport layer include the following:
Service-point addressing- Computers often run several programs at the same time. For this reason,
source-to-destination delivery means delivery not only from one computer to the next but also from a specific
process (running program) on one computer to a specific process (running program) on the other. The transport
layer header must therefore include a type of address called a service-point address (or port address). The
network layer gets each packet to the correct computer; the transport layer gets the entire message to the
correct process on that computer.
Segmentation and reassembly- A message is divided into transmittable segments, with each segment
containing a sequence number. These numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble the message correctly
upon arriving at the destination and to identify and replace packets that were lost in transmission.
Connection control- The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection oriented. A connectionless
transport layer treats each segment as an independent packet and delivers it to the transport layer at the
destination machine. A connection oriented transport layer makes a connection with the transport layer at the
destination machine first before delivering the packets. After all the data are transferred, the connection is
terminated.
Flow control- Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for flow control. However, flow control
at this layer is performed end to end rather than across a single link.
Error control- Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for error control. However, error control
at this layer is performed process-to-process rather than across a single link. The sending transport layer makes
sure that the entire message arrives at the receiving transport layer without error (damage, loss, or
duplication). Error correction is usually achieved through retransmission

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 Session Layer
The session layer is responsible for dialog control and synchronization.
Responsibilities of the session layer include the following:
• Dialog control- The session layer allows two systems to enter into a
dialog. It allows the communication between two processes to take place
in either half-duplex (one way at a time) or full-duplex (two ways at a time)
mode.
• Synchronization- The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints, or
synchronization points, to a stream of data. For example, if a system is
sending a file of 2000 pages, it is advisable to insert checkpoints after
every 100 pages to ensure that each 100-page unit is received and
acknowledged independently. In this case, if a crash happens during the
transmission of page 523, the only pages that need to be resent after
system recovery are pages 501 to 523. Pages previous to 501 need not be
resent. Figure 2.12 illustrates the relationship of the session layer to the
transport and presentation layers

51
 Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression, and encryption.
responsibilities of the presentation layer include the following:
Translation- The processes (running programs) in two systems are usually exchanging
information in the form of character strings, numbers, and so on. The information must
be changed to bit streams before being transmitted. Because different computers use
different encoding systems, the presentation layer is responsible for interoperability
between these different encoding methods. The presentation layer at the sender
changes the information from its sender-dependent format into a common format. The
presentation layer at the receiving machine changes the common format into its
receiver-dependent format.
Encryption- To carry sensitive information, a system must be able to ensure privacy.
Encryption means that the sender transforms the original information to another form
and sends the resulting message out over the network. Decryption reverses the original
process to transform the message back to its original form.
Compression- Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the
information. Data compression becomes particularly important in the transmission of
multimedia such as text, audio, and video.

52
 Application Layer
The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.
Network virtual terminal- A network virtual terminal is a software
version of a physical terminal, and it allows a user to log on to a
remote host. To do so, the application creates a software emulation
of a terminal at the remote host. The user's computer talks to the
software terminal which, in turn, talks to the host, and vice versa. The
remote host believes it is communicating with one of its own
terminals and allows the user to log on.
File transfer, access, and management- This application allows a user
to access files in a remote host (to make changes or read data), to
retrieve files from a remote computer for use in the local computer,
and to manage or control files in a remote computer locally. O
Mail services- This application provides the basis for e-mail
forwarding and storage.

53
 TCP/IP Reference model
TCP/IP Reference Model is a four-layered suite of communication protocols. It
was developed by the DoD (Department of Defence) in the 1960s. It is named
after the two main protocols that are used in the model, namely, TCP and
IP. TCP stands for "Transmission Control Protocol" and IP stands for "Internet
Protocol".

54
 TCP/IP Reference model

Application Layer − This is the topmost layer and defines the interface of host programs with the
transport layer services. This layer includes all high-level protocols like Telnet, DNS, HTTP, FTP, SMTP, etc.
Transport Layer − It is responsible for error-free end-to-end delivery of data. The protocols defined here
are Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
Internet Layer −It defines the protocols for logical transmission of data over the network. The main
protocol in this layer is Internet Protocol (IP) and it is supported by the protocols ICMP, IGMP, RARP,
and ARP.
Link Layer/Physical Layer −It is the lowest layer that is concerned with the physical transmission of data.
TCP/IP does not specifically define any protocol here but supports all the standard protocols.

55
 Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP
OSI Model TCP/IP Model
TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection.
Protocol.
It has 7 layers. It has 4 layers.
It is low in usage. It is mostly used.
Replacement of tools and changes can easily be done in
Replacing the tools is not easy as it is in OSI Model.
this model.
OSI model has been developed by ISO (International It was developed by ARPANET (Advanced Research Project
Standard Organization). Agency Network).
In the OSI model, the transport layer provides a guarantee The transport layer does not provide the surety for the
for the delivery of the packets. delivery of packets. But still, we can say that it is a reliable
model.
This model is based on a vertical approach. This model is based on a horizontal approach.

In this model, the session and presentation layers are In this model, the session and presentation layer are not
separated, i.e., both the layers are different. different layers. Both layers are included in the application
layer.
Protocols in the OSI model are hidden and can be easily In this model, the protocol cannot be easily replaced.
replaced when the technology changes.

OSI model defines the services, protocols, and interfaces as In the TCP/IP model, services, protocols, and interfaces are
well as provides a proper distinction between them. It is not properly separated. It is protocol dependent.
protocol independent.

56
Theoretical basis for data
communication

57
 Theoretical basis for data
communication
1. To be transmitted, data must be transformed to electromagnetic signals
2. Data can be analog or digital. Analog data are continuous and take
continuous values. Digital data have discrete states and take discrete
values.
3. Signals can be analog or digital. Analog signals can have an infinite
number of values in a range; digital signals can have only a limited
number of values.
4. Analog signal can be identified with frequency, phase and wavelength.

58
 TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT

Transmission impairment occurs when the received signal is different from

the transmitted signal.

Impairment
causes

Attenuation Distortion Noise

59
 Attenuation
Attenuation means a loss of energy. When a signal, simple or composite, travels through a medium, it
loses some of its energy in overcoming the resistance of the medium. That is why a wire carrying electric
signals gets warm, if not hot, after a while. Some of the electrical energy in the signal is converted to
heat.

Decibel
To show that a signal has lost or gained strength, engineers use the unit of the decibel. The decibel (dB)
measures the relative strengths of two signals or one signal at two different points. Note that the
decibel is negative if a signal is attenuated and positive if a signal is amplified. Variables PI and P2 are
the powers of a signal at points 1 and 2, respectively
60
 Distortion
Distortion means that the signal changes its form or shape. Distortion can
occur in a composite signal made of different frequencies. Each signal
component has its own propagation speed (see the next section) through a
medium and, therefore, its own delay in arriving at the final destination.

61
 Noise
Noise is another cause of impairment. Several types of noise, such as thermal
noise, induced noise, crosstalk, and impulse noise, may corrupt the signal.
Thermal noise is the random motion of electrons in a wire which creates an
extra signal not originally sent by the transmitter. Induced noise comes from
sources such as motors and appliances. These devices act as a sending
antenna, and the transmission medium acts as the receiving antenna.
Crosstalk is the effect of one wire on the other. One wire acts as a sending
antenna and the other as the receiving antenna. Impulse noise is a spike (a
signal with high energy in a very short time) that comes from power lines,
lightning, and so on.

62
 Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)
• Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) -The signal-to-noise ratio is defined as
SNR =average signal power /average noise power
• We need to consider the average signal power and the average
noise power because these may change with time.
• SNR is actually the ratio of what is wanted (signal) to what is not
wanted (noise).
• A high SNR means the signal is less corrupted by noise; a low SNR
means the signal is more corrupted by noise.
• Because SNR is the ratio of two powers, it is often described in
decibel units, SNRdB, defined as
SNRdB = 10log10 SNR
Example; The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of the noise
is 1 µW; what are the values of SNR and SNRdB?
The values of SNR and SNRdB can be calculated as follows:
SNR = 10 mW /1µW = 10 000
SNRdB = 10 log10 10,000 = 40

63
 Nyquist Theorem
• The theoretical maximum bit rate for a
noiseless channel is determined by the
Nyquist bit rate formula:
BitRate = 2 * Bandwidth * log2(L) bits/s
Example: Consider a noiseless channel with a
bandwidth of 3000 Hz transmitting a signal with
two signal levels. What can be the maximum bit
rate?
Ans- BitRate = 2 * 3000 * log2(2) = 6000bps

64
 Shannon’s theorem
• Shannon’s theorem gives the capacity of a system in the presence of noise.
C = B log2(1 + SNR)
Example: Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value of the signal-to-noise
ratio is almost zero. In other words, the noise is so strong that the signal is faint.
For this channel the capacity C is calculated as

This means that the capacity of this channel is zero regardless of the bandwidth.
In other words, we cannot receive any data through this channel.

Example: A telephone line normally has a bandwidth of 3000. The signal-to-noise

ratio is usually 3162. Find the channel the capacity .

This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line is 34.860 kbps. If we
want to send data faster than this, we can either increase the bandwidth of
the line or improve the signal-to-noise ratio.

65
 Throughput
The throughput is a measure of how fast we can actually send data
through a network. Although, at first glance, bandwidth in bits per
second and throughput seem the same, they are different. A link may
have a bandwidth of B bps, but we can only send T bps through this
link with T always less than B. In other words, the bandwidth is a
potential measurement of a link; the throughput is an actual
measurement of how fast we can send data
Example: A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an
average of 12,000 frames per minute with each frame carrying an
average of 10,000 bits. What is the throughput of this network?
Solution
We can calculate the throughput as
Throughput= 12,000 x 10,000/60 =2 Mbps
The throughput is almost one-fifth of the bandwidth in this case

66
 Latency (Delay)
The latency or delay defines how long it takes
for an entire message to completely arrive at the
destination from the time the first bit is sent out
from the source. We can say that latency is
made of four components: propagation time,
transmission time, queuing time and processing
delay
Latency =propagation time +transmission time
+queuing time + processing delay

67
 Propagation Time
Propagation time measures the time required for a bit to
travel from the source to the destination. The
propagation time is calculated by dividing the distance by
the propagation speed.
Propagation time = Distance /Propagation speed
Example: What is the propagation time if the distance
between the two points is 12,000 km? Assume the
propagation speed to be 2.4 x 108 m/s in cable.
Solution
We can calculate the propagation time as ..
Propagation tIme = 12000 x 1000/2.4 x 108=50 ms

68
 Transmission Media
Guided − In guided media, transmitted data travels through cabling system
that has a fixed path. For example, copper wires, fibre optic wires, etc.
Unguided − In unguided media, transmitted data travels through free space in
form of electromagnetic signal. For example, radio waves, lasers, etc.

69
 Twisted Pair Cable
• A twisted pair cable is made of two plastic insulated copper wires twisted together
to form a single media. Out of these two wires, only one carries actual signal and
another is used for ground reference. The twists between wires are helpful in
reducing noise (electro-magnetic interference) and crosstalk.

Reason of Twisting
Parallel Wire Twisted Wire

70
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable
These are a pair of two insulated copper wires twisted together without any other insulation or
shielding and hence are called unshielded twisted pair cables. They reduce the external
interference due to the presence of insulation. Unshielded twisted pair cables are arranged in
pairs so that we can add a new connection whenever required.

• Advantages –
• These cables are cost-effective and easy to install owing to their compact size.
• They are generally used for short-distance transmission of both voice and data.
• It is less costly as compared to other types of cables.
• Disadvantages –
• The connection established using UTP is not secure.
• They are efficient only for a distance up to 100 meters and have to be installed in pieces of up
to 100 meters.
• These cables have limited bandwidth.

71
 Shielded Twisted Pair Cables (STP)
These types of cables have extra insulation or protective covering over the conductors in the form of a
copper braid covering. This covering provides strength to the overall structure of the cable. It also
reduces noise and signal interference in the cable. The shielding ensures that the induced signal can
be returned to the source via ground and only circulate around the shield without affecting the main
propagating signal.

Disadvantages –
• These cables are very expensive.
• They require a lot of maintenance which increases the cost more.
• These can be installed underground only.
• The length of the segment is similar to UTP for these cables.
Applications of Twisted pair cables :
• Twisted Pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide data and voice channels.
• The DSL lines make use of these cables.
• Local Area Networks (LAN) also make use of twisted pair cables.
• They can be used for both analog and digital transmission.
• RJ-45 is a very common application of twisted pair cables.

72
Category of twisted pair wire

73
 Optical Fiber
• Thin glass or plastic threads used to transmit data using light
waves are called optical fiber. Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
or Laser Diodes (LDs) emit light waves at the source, which
is read by a detector at the other end. Optical fiber
cable has a bundle of such threads or fibres bundled
together in a protective covering. Each fiber is made up of
these three layers, starting with the innermost layer −
• Core made of high quality silica glass or plastic
• Cladding made of high quality silica glass or plastic, with a
lower refractive index than the core
• Protective outer covering called buffer
• Note that both core and cladding are made of similar
material. However, as refractive index of the cladding is
lower, any stray light wave trying to escape the core is
reflected back due to total internal reflection.

74
Optical Fiber…

75
 Optical Fiber…
Optical fiber is rapidly replacing copper wires in telephone lines,
internet communication and even cable TV connections because
transmitted data can travel very long distances without
weakening. Single node fiber optic cable can have maximum segment
length of 2 kms and bandwidth of up to 100 Mbps. Multi-node fiber
optic cable can have maximum segment length of 100 kms and
bandwidth up to 2 Gbps.
Advantages of Optical Fiber
• Optical fiber is fast replacing copper wires because of these
advantages that it offers −
• High bandwidth
• Immune to electromagnetic interference
• Suitable for industrial and noisy areas
• Signals carrying data can travel long distances without weakening
Disadvantages of Optical Fiber
• Optical fiber cables are expensive
• Sophisticated technology required for manufacturing, installing
and maintaining optical fiber cables
76
 Coaxial Cable
• Coaxial cable has two wires of copper. The core wire lies in the center and
it is made of solid conductor. The core is enclosed in an insulating sheath.
The second wire is wrapped around over the sheath and that too in turn
encased by insulator sheath. This all is covered by plastic cover.

77
 Co-axial cable
Advantages of coaxial cable
• The cost of a coaxial cable is less.
• Highly resistant to physical damage.
• The transmission rate is high.
• It is less susceptible to noise interference compared to twisted pair.
• It allows a high transfer rate with coaxial cable having better shielding materials.
• Noise immunity due to a low error rate.
• It requires fewer repeaters than a twisted pair.
• It has been used for many years for many types of data communication, including
cable television.
Disadvantages of coaxial cable:
• It is expensive to install.
• Cost maintenance is also high.
• It is bulky.
• It does not support high-speed transmission.
• It must be grounded to prevent interference.
• In case of failure in one cable, the entire network will be down by using this wire.

78
 Unguided Media
• Radio wave Transmission
• Microwave Transmission
• Infrared Transmission

79
 Radio waves
• Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in all the
directions of free space.
• Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., the signals are propagated in all the
directions.
• The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3Khz to 1 khz.
• In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving antenna are not aligned, i.e.,
the wave sent by the sending antenna can be received by any receiving antenna.
• An example of the radio wave is FM radio.
Applications Of Radio waves:
• A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is one sender and many
receivers.
• An FM radio, television, cordless phones are examples of a radio wave.
Advantages Of Radio transmission:
• Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area networks and mobile cellular
phones.
• Radio waves cover a large area, and they can penetrate the walls.
• Radio transmission provides a higher transmission rate.

80
 Microwaves

Microwaves are of two types:

• Terrestrial microwave
• Satellite microwave communication.

81
 Terrestrial Microwave Transmission
• Terrestrial Microwave transmission is a technology that transmits the focused beam
of a radio signal from one ground-based microwave transmission antenna to
another.
• Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves having the frequency in the range from
1GHz to 1000 GHz.
• Terrestrial Microwave having the frequency in the range from 4GHz to 6 GHz.
• Microwaves are unidirectional as the sending and receiving antenna is to be aligned,
i.e., the waves sent by the sending antenna are narrowly focused.
• In this case, antennas are mounted on the towers to send a beam to another
antenna which is km away.
• It works on the line of sight transmission, i.e., the antennas mounted on the towers
are the direct sight of each other.

Characteristics of Microwave:
• Bandwidth: It supports the bandwidth from 1 to 10 Mbps.
• Short distance: It is inexpensive for short distance.
• Long distance: It is expensive as it requires a higher tower for a longer distance.

82
 Terrestrial Microwave Transmission
Advantages Of Microwave:
• Microwave transmission is cheaper than using cables.
• It is free from land acquisition as it does not require any land for the installation of cables.
• Communication over oceans can be achieved by using microwave transmission.

Disadvantages of Microwave transmission:

• Eavesdropping: An eavesdropping creates insecure communication. Any malicious user can
catch the signal in the air by using its own antenna.
• Out of phase signal: A signal can be moved out of phase by using microwave transmission.
• Susceptible to weather condition: A microwave transmission is susceptible to weather
condition. This means that any environmental change such as rain, wind can distort the
signal.
• Bandwidth limited: Allocation of bandwidth is limited in the case of microwave transmission.

83
 Satellite microwave communication
A satellite is a physical object that revolves around the earth at a known height.
• Satellite communication is more reliable nowadays as it offers more flexibility than cable and
fibre optic systems.
• Satellite Microwave having the frequency in the range from 11GHz to 14 GHz.
• We can communicate with any point on the globe by using satellite communication.
How Does Satellite work?
• The satellite accepts the signal that is transmitted from the earth station, and it amplifies the
signal. The amplified signal is retransmitted to another earth station.

84
 Satellite microwave communication
Advantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:
• The coverage area of a satellite microwave is more than the terrestrial
microwave.
• The transmission cost of the satellite is independent of the distance from
the centre of the coverage area.
• Satellite communication is used in mobile and wireless communication
applications.
• It is easy to install.
• It is used in a wide variety of applications such as weather forecasting,
radio/TV signal broadcasting, mobile communication, etc.
Disadvantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:
• Satellite designing and development requires more time and higher cost.
• The Satellite needs to be monitored and controlled on regular periods so
that it remains in orbit.
• The life of the satellite is about 12-15 years. Due to this reason, another
launch of the satellite has to be planned before it becomes non-functional.

85
 Terrestrial Microwave Vs Satellite
Microwave
Terrestrial Microwave Transmission System Satellite Microwave Transmission System

The frequency range used in this system is between 11 GHz to 14

1 The frequency range needed is from 4 GHz to 6 GHz.
GHz.

In terrestrial microwave transmission systems, signal In satellite microwave transmission systems, the installation of
3
requirements make installation moderately difficult. satellites is extremely tough.

Terrestrial microwaves are utilized for point-to-point

4 Satellite microwaves communicate with satellites in space.
communication.
It requires focused signals and line of sight as the physical
5 It requires the proper alignment of earth station antennas.
path.

In these systems, short-distance systems can be These systems are very expensive as the cost of building and
6
inexpensive but long-distance systems are almost costly. launching is very high.

7 Relay towers are used to extend the signals. Satellites are used for the expansion of signals.
The area coverage of Terrestrial microwave systems is less
The area coverage of Satellite microwave systems is wider than
9 compared to the terrestrial systems with fewer base
terrestrial systems with fewer base stations. Hence, less bandwidth.
stations.

86
 Infrared
• An infrared transmission is a wireless technology
used for communication over short ranges.
• The frequency of the infrared in the range from
300 GHz to 400 THz.
• It is used for short-range communication such as
data transfer between two cell phones, TV remote
operation, data transfer between a computer and
cell phone resides in the same closed area.

87
 Infrared
Characteristics Of Infrared:
• It supports high bandwidth, and hence the data rate will be very high.
• Infrared waves cannot penetrate the walls. Therefore, the infrared communication in
one room cannot be interrupted by the nearby rooms.
• An infrared communication provides better security with minimum interference.
• Infrared communication is unreliable outside the building because the sun rays will
interfere with the infrared waves.

88
 Network Devices
RJ45 Connector
RJ45 is the acronym for Registered Jack 45. RJ45
connector is an 8-pin jack used by devices to physically
connect to Ethernet based local area networks
(LANs). Ethernet is a technology that defines protocols for
establishing a LAN. The cable used for Ethernet LANs are
twisted pair ones and have RJ45 connector pins at both
ends. These pins go into the corresponding socket on devices
and connect the device to the network.

89
 Ethernet Card
Ethernet card, also known as network interface card (NIC), is a
hardware component used by computers to connect to Ethernet
LAN and communicate with other devices on the LAN. The
earliest Ethernet cards were external to the system and needed to be
installed manually. In modern computer systems, it is an internal
hardware component. The NIC has RJ45 socket where network cable is
physically plugged in.

90
 Router
A router is a network layer hardware device that transmits data from one LAN to another if both
networks support the same set of protocols. So a router is typically connected to at least two
LANs and the internet service provider (ISP). It receives its data in the form of packets, which
are data frames with their destination address added. Router also strengthens the signals before
transmitting them. That is why it is also called repeater.

91
 Switch
• Switch is a network device that connects other devices
to Ethernet networks through twisted pair cables. It uses packet
switching technique to receive, store and forward data packets on
the network. The switch maintains a list of network addresses of all
the devices connected to it.
• On receiving a packet, it checks the destination address and
transmits the packet to the correct port. Before forwarding, the
packets are checked for collision and other network errors. The data
is transmitted in full duplex mode

92
 Switch
Types of Switch
• Unmanaged switches: These switches have a simple
plug-and-play design and do not offer advanced
configuration options. They are suitable for small
networks or for use as an expansion to a larger
network.
• Managed switches: These switches offer advanced
configuration options such as VLANs, QoS, and link
aggregation. They are suitable for larger, more
complex networks and allow for centralized
management.
• Smart switches: These switches have features similar
to managed switches but are typically easier to set up
and manage. They are suitable for small- to
medium-sized networks.
93
 Bridge
A bridge operates at the data link layer. A bridge is a repeater,
with add on the functionality of filtering content by reading the
MAC addresses of the source and destination. It is also used for
interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol. It has a
single input and single output port, thus making it a 2 port
device.

94
 Repeater
A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job
is to regenerate the signal over the same
network before the signal becomes too weak or
corrupted to extend the length to which the
signal can be transmitted over the same
network. An important point to be noted about
repeaters is that they not only amplify the signal
but also regenerate it. When the signal becomes
weak, they copy it bit by bit and regenerate it. It
is a 2-port device.

95
 Gateway
Gateway is a network device used to connect two or more dissimilar networks. In networking
parlance, networks that use different protocols are dissimilar networks. A gateway usually is a
computer with multiple NICs connected to different networks. A gateway can also be configured
completely using software. As networks connect to a different network through gateways, these
gateways are usually hosts or end points of the network.

96
 Satellite communication
• If the communication takes place between any
two earth stations through a satellite, then it is
called as satellite communication.
• In this communication, electromagnetic waves
are used as carrier signals. These signals carry
the information such as voice, audio, video or
any other data between ground and space and
vice-versa.

97
 Satellite communication
Satellite communications use a combination of orbiting satellites
above the Earth and ground stations to transmit and relay
information using microwaves from one point on Earth to another.
There are three stages in the process:
(i)Uplink (ii)Transponder (iii)Downlink
• Take Live Television for example.
Step-1: A broadcaster will send out (or transmit) a signal to a
designated satellite via it's user terminal. This is referred to as an
“uplink.”
Step-2: Once received by the orbiting satellite, onboard amplifiers
boost the signal strength and change the frequency of the signal
before it is relayed back to a designated Earth station(s) on the
ground. This is also referred as the “transponder” stage.
Step-3: Finally, these transmitters send out one or multiple signals to
ground station(s) across the globe back on Earth. This is referred as
the “downlink.”

98
How Satellite Communication Works

One way Two way

99
 Types of satellites
• Geostationary Earth orbit (GEO)
• Low Earth orbit (LEO)
• Medium Earth orbit (MEO)
• Highly elliptical orbit (HEO)
GEO-Geostationary satellite, appear to be still.
This is because they revolve around the Earth at
the same speed as Earth's orbit. They are also
the furthest away from Earth.

100
Types of satellites

101
Types of satellites

102
 GEOSTATIONARY EARTH ORBIT
Altitude 36,000km
• GEO satellites match the rotation of the Earth
as they travel, and so remain above the same
point on the ground. Hundreds of GEO
satellites are in orbit today, traditionally
delivering services such as weather data,
broadcast TV, and some low-speed data
communication.

103
 LOW EARTH ORBIT (LEO)
• Altitude 500 to 1,200km
• At a much lower altitude compared to other orbit
paths, LEO satellites benefit from a smaller field of
vision and low latency to accurately relay higher
levels of data, with much stronger signal strengths
at greater speeds. Because of this, they can be
used for several applications such as:
• Industrial IoT (Internet of Things)
• Maritime and tourism
• Government and tactical networks
• Emergency response and aid
• Telecommunications and mobile 5G broadband

104
 MEDIUM EARTH ORBIT (MEO)
Altitude 5,000 to 20,000km
• MEO has historically been used for GPS and other
navigation applications. More recently, HTS MEO
constellations have been deployed to deliver
low-latency, high-bandwidth data connectivity to
service providers, government agencies, and
commercial enterprises.
• MEO satellites bring fibre-like performance to
remote areas where laying fibre is not viable, such
as cruise, commercial maritime, aero, offshore
platforms, network backhaul in difficult terrain,
and humanitarian relief operations.

105
 HIGHLY ELLIPTICAL ORBIT (HEO)
• A highly elliptical orbit (HEO) satellite orbits the Earth on an
elliptical path with an altitude that varies from about 1,000 to
42,000 km above the Earth’s surface.
• A key feature of HEO is that these satellites move much faster when
it is close to the Earth than when it is farther away.
• To provide seamless connectivity, it requires two satellites in HEO
orbit. As a result of this, when in the apogee, over the North Pole,
satellites in HEO can provide better coverage, as it is visible for a
longer period.
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Telecom Infrastructure

107
 Public switched telephone network(PSTN)
• A public switched telephone network is a
combination of telephone networks used
worldwide, including telephone lines, fiber
optic cables, switching centers, cellular
networks, satellites and cable systems.
• A PSTN lets users make landline telephone
calls to one another

108
PSTN model

109
PSTN model

110
PSTN model

111
 PSTN architecture
• The traditional PSTN has a hierarchical
architecture and a star structure.
• The individual subscriber lines are connected to a
local exchange, which communicates with trunk
exchanges as well as main and central exchanges.
• The lines within a local exchange typically have
the same area code. A user who wants to call a
number outside the local exchange has to add an
area code. To make an international call, a user
has to dial the country code.

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 How PSTN Works?
1. You dial a number to indicate how you would like the call to be routed.
– Each section of a phone number serves a specific purpose. The first 3 digits are the area
code (the regional switching station), the next 3 digits are the exchange (the smallest
number of circuits on the same switch), and the last 4 digits represent your recipient's
unique phone ID, which is tied to a specific address and phone line.
2. Your telephone converts the sound from your voice into electrical signals that are
transmitted to the terminal via a cable.
3. The terminal transmits these signals to the central office (CO).
4. Depending on where you are and where the call is going, the CO will route your call
to a CO, tandem office, toll office, or international gateway.
(i)CO: If you're in the same neighborhood as your recipient, your call would go to the
local central office and connect directly to the recipient.
(ii)Tandem Office: If you're in another part of town in the same city as your recipient,
your call would go to your central office, then get routed to a tandem office, then routed
to the central office of your recipient, and then finally routed to your recipient.
(iii)Toll Office: If you're in another city or state from your recipient, then the tandem
office would connect to a toll office (which is responsible for national long-distance
switching), and the call would be switched from there.
(iv)International Gateway: If you're in a different country from your recipient, your call
will be routed to the international gateway to connect your long-distance call.
5. Once the call has been routed to the right destination, the electrical signals are routed
to the terminal and then sent to the right number.
6. The phone rings, and when the recipient picks up, the electrical signals are
transformed back into sound waves.

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 Voice-Over-Internet Protocol (VoIP)
• Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP), is a
technology that allows you to make voice calls
using a broadband Internet connection
instead of a regular (or analog) phone line.
• VoIP stands for Voice over Internet Protocol,
which is an open standard for establishing
calls through the Internet.
• Some may also refer to VoIP as Voice over IP

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 Key Features
• Voice-over-Internet protocol (VoIP) is a technology that lets users
make calls using a broadband Internet connection instead of a
standard phone line.
• VoIP technology converts the voice signal used in traditional
phone calls into a digital signal that travels via the Internet rather
than analog phone lines.
• Because calls are being made over the Internet, they are
essentially free when made wherever the Internet is available.
• The traditional telephone industry was hit hard by the VoIP boom,
with many users abandoning it as some of its services have
become nearly obsolete.
• During the COVID-19 pandemic, VoIP became essential to modern
workplaces as telecommuting replaced the office.

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 How VoIP works?
Converting your voice: When you speak into a VoIP phone, microphone, or
computer, your voice signal is captured and converted into a digital format
using analog-to-digital conversion (ADC).
Digital data packets: This digital data is then broken down into small packets,
similar to how files are sent over the internet. These packets are tagged with
information like who’s calling and who’s receiving the call.
Traveling over the internet: The data packets then ride the waves of your
internet connection and travel to the VoIP provider’s servers.
Routing and codecs: The VoIP provider acts as a switchboard, figuring out
where to send your call based on the recipient’s number. Here, specialized
software called codecs may compress the data to save bandwidth and ensure
smooth call quality.
Converting back to voice: At the recipient’s end, whether it’s another VoIP
device, a traditional phone, or a mobile phone, the data packets are
reassembled and converted back into an analog signal using a
digital-to-analog converter (DAC).
Hearing the other person: Finally, the recipient hears your voice through their
handset, speaker, or headset, and voila! You’re having a VoIP conversation.

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 Difference between PSTN and VoIP
S.No. VoIP PSTN

Voice over Internet Protocol uses packet Public Switched Telephone Network uses
01.
switching. circuit switching.

In VoIP, only an internet connection is In PSTN, dedicated lines required from

02.
required. telecom company.

No dedicated path required between Dedicated path required between sender

03.
sender and receiver. and receiver.

04. One VoIP lines require 100 kbps. One link typically supports 64 kbps.

In VoIP, Cost is not dependent on In PSTN, Cost is based on distance and

05.
distance and time. time.

VoIP provides consistent voice quality but

06. PSTN provides consistent voice quality.
depends on bandwidth.

Scalability and upgrades requires Scalability and upgrades requires

7.
improved internet bandwidth. substantial hardware additions.
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 Switching techniques
Switching is the process of transferring data from one
device to another in a network, or from one network to
another, using specific devices called switches.

118
 Circuit Switching
Communication through circuit switching has 3 phases:
• Circuit establishment
• Data transfer
• Circuit Disconnect

119
 Advantages/Disadvantages Of Circuit
Switching:
Advantages Of Circuit Switching:
• In the case of Circuit Switching technique, the communication channel is
dedicated.
• It has fixed bandwidth.
Disadvantages Of Circuit Switching:
• Once the dedicated path is established, the only delay occurs in the speed
of data transmission.
• It takes a long time to establish a connection approx 10 seconds during
which no data can be transmitted.
• It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a dedicated path is
required for each connection.
• It is inefficient to use because once the path is established and no data is
transferred, then the capacity of the path is wasted.
• In this case, the connection is dedicated therefore no other data can be
transferred even if the channel is free.

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 Packet Switching
• The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is sent in one go, but it
is divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent individually.
• The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are given a unique
number to identify their order at the receiving end.
• Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source address, destination
address and sequence number.
• Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.
• All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
• If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to resend the message.
• If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment message will be
sent.

121
 Advantages/Disadvantages Of Packet
Switching
Advantages Of Packet Switching:
• Cost-effective: Packet switching technique is a cost-effective technique.
• Reliable: If any node is busy, then the packets can be rerouted. This
ensures that the Packet Switching technique provides reliable
communication.
• Efficient: Packet Switching is an efficient technique. It does not require any
established path prior to the transmission, and many users can use the
same communication channel simultaneously, hence makes use of
available bandwidth very efficiently.
Disadvantages Of Packet Switching:
• Packet Switching technique cannot be implemented in those applications
that require low delay and high-quality services.
• The protocols used in a packet switching technique are very complex and
requires high implementation cost.
• If the network is overloaded or corrupted, then it requires retransmission
of lost packets. It can also lead to the loss of critical information if errors
are nor recovered.

122
 Packet Switching
There are two approaches to Packet Switching:
• Datagram Packet switching
• Virtual Circuit Switching

123
 Datagram Packet switching
• It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a datagram, is
considered as an independent entity. Each packet contains the information about
the destination and switch uses this information to forward the packet to the
correct destination.
• The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
• In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.
• Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the packets.
• Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless switching.

124
 Virtual Circuit Switching
• Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-oriented switching.
• In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned route is established before the
messages are sent.
• Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the connection between
sender and receiver.
• In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection.

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Differences b/w Datagram approach and Virtual
Circuit approach
Datagram approach Virtual Circuit approach

Node takes routing decisions to forward Node does not take any routing
the packets. decision.

Congestion cannot occur as all the Congestion can occur when the node is
packets travel in different directions. busy, and it does not allow other
packets to pass through.

It is more flexible as all the packets are It is not very flexible.

treated as an independent entity.

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 Message Switching
• Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is
transferred as a complete unit and routed through intermediate
nodes at which it is stored and forwarded.
• In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a
dedicated path between the sender and receiver.
• The destination address is appended to the message. Message
Switching provides a dynamic routing as the message is routed
through the intermediate nodes based on the information
available in the message.
• Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can
provide the most efficient routes.
• Each and every node stores the entire message and then forward
it to the next node. This type of network is known as store and
forward network.
• Message switching treats each message as an independent entity.

127
Message Switching

128
 Advantages/Disadvantages Of
Message Switching
Advantages Of Message Switching
• Data channels are shared among the communicating devices that
improve the efficiency of using available bandwidth.
• Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is
temporarily stored in the nodes.
• Message priority can be used to manage the network.
• The size of the message which is sent over the network can be
varied. Therefore, it supports the data of unlimited size.
Disadvantages Of Message Switching
• The message switches must be equipped with sufficient storage to
enable them to store the messages until the message is
forwarded.
• The Long delay can occur due to the storing and forwarding facility
provided by the message switching technique.

129
 ISDN Services
Bearer Services:
• This type of services is used to transfer information such as voice,
data, and video between the users without manipulating the
content of the network information. It belongs to the first 3 layers
of the OSI reference model.
Tele Services:
• In these types of services, the network may change the contents of
the data. It belongs to the last 4 layers of the OSI reference model.
It includes telephony, telefax, and teleconferencing etc.
Supplementary Services:
• It provides additional functionality to the bearer services and
teleservices. Some of the examples of supplementary services are
reverse charging, call waiting, and message handling.

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 Integrated Services Digital Network(ISDN)
• ISDN is a set of protocols that is based on high-speed fully digitized telephone service. The
main aim of ISDN is to provide a fully integrated digital service to the users.
• In ISDN there are following three types of ISDN services:

Supplementary
Services

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 ISDN CHANNELS:
• ISDN structure have a central ISDN office in which all the users are linked to this through a
digital pipe. This digital pipe have different capacities and have a different data transfer rates
and these are organized into multiple channels of different sizes.
• ISDN standard have the following three types of channels:

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 ISDN CHANNELS:
B Channel:
• It stands for Bearer channel. It has a 64 kbps standard data rate. It is a basic user
channel and can carry any digital information in full-duplex mode. In this
transmission rate does not exceed 64 kbps. It can carry digital voice, digital data, and
any other low data rate information.
D Channel:
• It stands for Data Channel. This channel carry control signal for bearer services. This
channel is required for signaling or packet-switched data and all-controlling signals
such as establishing calls, ringing, call interrupt, etc.
H Channel:
• It stands for Hybrid Channel. It provides user information at higher bit rates.
• There are 3 types of Hybrid Channel depending on the data rates. Following are the
hybrid channels types:
• Hybrid Channel 0 with 384 kbps data rate.
• Hybrid Channel 11 with 1536 kbps data rate.
• Hybrid Channel 12 with 1920 kbps data rate.

133
 ISDN SERVICES:
• Following are the two types of services
associated with ISDN:

134
 Basic Rate Interface:
• In the Basic Rate Interface digital pipe consists of 2 B channels and a 1 D channel. Therefore it
is denoted as "2B + 1 D". These two B channels have a data rate of 64 kbps each, and the D
channel have a data rate of 16 kbps. It has also a usable bandwidth of 144 kbps.
• Basic Rate Interface allows the concurrent use of voice and various data applications such as
packet-switched access, a link to a central alarm service, video, tax, etc. The signaling
information for the two channels is sent onto the D channel. The two B channels can be used
for one 128 kbps connection or two independent connections on the two channels.
The following figure shows the basi
c structure of the frame in the Basic Rate Interface is:

135
 Basic Rate Interface:
• This service is used to meet the needs of most individual users, including
residential and small offices. In this case, the two B channels and the D
channel are multiplexed with overhead bits in the form of the frame
structure. The overhead bits include framing, DC balancing, and other bits.
The 48 bit frame consists of
• 16 bits of B1 Channel
• 16 bits of B2 Channel
• 4 bits of D channel
• 12 overhead bits
• The frame is transmitted in 250 µsec, which results in the following bit
rates:
• In frame each B channel = 16 / 250 µsec = 64 kbps
• In frame D channel = 4 / 250 µsec = 16 kbps
• In frame Overhead Bits = 12 / 250 µsec = 48 kbps
• In frame Overall Bit rate = 48 / 250 µsec = 192 kbps

136
 Primary Rate Interface:
• Primary Rate Interface consists of either 23 B channels or 30 B channels and a one 64
Kbps D channel. In North America and the Japan, 23 B channels and one D channel are
used. It is also denoted by '23 B + 1 D'. In addition, the Primary Rate Interface service
itself uses 8 kbps of overhead. Therefore 23D + 1D requires a data rate of 1.544 Mbps.
In the case of 30 B channels and one D channel, the total bit rate is 2.048 Mbps.
• The following figure shows the basic structure of the frame in the Primary Rate
Interface is:

137
 ISDN Devices:
Following are the types of ISDN devices:
• TE1:Terminal equipment type (TE1) are specialized ISDN terminals.
It includes digital telephone instruments such as FAX, or data
terminal equipment. All these devices have an S-bus ISDN
interface.
• TE2:Terminal equipment type (TE2) is Non-ISDN compatible is
connected through a Terminal Adapter. It includes analog phones
and 3270 terminal Fax.
• TA:It stands for Terminal Adapter. This device acts as an
intermediary device for non-ISDN terminal devices. It converts the
non-ISDN interface of these devices to the ISDN interface.
• NT1: It stands for Network termination type 1. It provides a line
termination at the customer's premise. They can also provide line
monitoring, power feeding, error statistics, and proper timing.
• NT2:It stands for Network termination type 2. It provides a
switching, multiplexing, concentrating, or distributing information
for the customer's premises.

138
 ISDN Reference Points:
• It specifies the number of reference points that provide interfaces between the adjacent devices.
• Following Figure displays the working of ISDN reference points:

In the above figure it shows an ISDN configuration in which 3 devices attached to an ISDN switch at the
central office. In which 2 devices are ISDN compatible and they are attached through the S reference
point to Network termination type 2 devices. Out of these third device is a standard non-ISDN
telephone and is attached to a Terminal Adapter through an R reference point.
139