What is Nationalism?

Understanding nationalism as a notion has always been difficult. Its definition varies in complexity
among scholars striving to convey its development, relevance, and evolution. The true challenge,
however, is determining how to make the underlying concept of this applicable to the traditional majority
as well as the Filipino identity itself. To begin with, according to Anderson (2003), nation is an imagined
political community and imagined as both inherently limited and sovereign. It is imagined because
members of even the smallest nation may never know, meet, or even hear most of their fellow members,
but the idea of their relationship lives on in each of their thoughts. However, it is limited since even the
largest of them, encompassing maybe a billion living human beings, has finite, if elastic, borders beyond
which other nations were. The notion is thus considered to be sovereign since it was born during a period
when the Enlightenment and Revolution were eroding the legitimacy of the divinely ordained, hierarchal
dynastic world. Finally, it is an imagined community because the nation is always viewed as a deep,
horizontal solidarity, whatever the actual inequality and exploitation that may exist in each. He added
that nationalism is not the awakening of nations to self-consciousness: it invents nations where they do
not exist. Hence, this ‘invention’ can only materialize when group of people finally realized they share
common feelings and history. Thus, this definition by Agoncillo (1977) is used—Nationalism is a
feeling developed in a people living within a contiguous geographic area, a sentiment forged by a
common history, language and literature, customs, and traditions and even by a common religion.
To put it simply, a nation is a group of people who share a language, history, culture, and (typically)
geographic region. A state, on the other hand, is a group of people distinguished by formal institutions
of government, such as laws, permanent territorial boundaries, and sovereignty (political independence).
(Brittanica) Therefore a fusion of both is what we call as nation-states today. However, this concept of
nation and nationalism existed in the Philippines prior to the arrival of conquerors. According to Salah
Jubair (1999), the Moro nation was born centuries before the Filipinos in the north. Thus the Moro Wars
were the indicator of the Moro people's nationalistic feelings demonstrated against the Spaniards.
Though it only reasserted its identity after the arrival of the Americans, it clearly exhibited national
identity and the establishment of Bangsa (Malay word means nation). Hence the beginnings of the
Bangsamoro that we know today has long existed either as a social construct or as a political entity.
On the other hand, it took about 300 years for converted Filipinos to develop their nationalistic
views and ideals. It was during the nineteenth century Philippines' fundamental transformations that
caused Filipinos to develop a feeling of national consciousness, which ultimately transformed Philippine
history.

Contributing Factors in the Emergence of Filipino National Consciousness

Opening of the Philippines to International Trade or World Commerce. Following the failure of the
Galleon Trade in the nineteenth century, Spain was forced to reopen the Philippines to international
trade. In 1834, the natives of the Philippines experienced the flourishing economic opportunities mostly
by the Spanish and Chinese mestizo. Coupled with the Suez Canal's inauguration in 1869, made the West
more accessible for trade and travel. As a result, Filipino involvement rose, encouraging them to study
overseas.
Rise of the Middle Class. The prevailing social order was altered when Filipinos took an important role
in commercial activity in the nineteenth century. The middle or upper middle class was born and
attempted to change the status quo. They mainly consist of either Spanish or Chinese mestizo and they
are categorized into two groups: Principalia (Propertied Class) and Ilustrados (Enlightened Ones). The
former refers to the natives who owns properties and latter as the Filipinos who were educated in the
Philippines or abroad. This provided middle class Filipinos platform and opportunities to be seen and
heard. Ilustrados brought and championed ideas of freedom and equality while Principalia is seen as
vital part of economic activities.
Impact of European Liberalism and Carlos Ma. Dela Torre. The Philippines' economic stability in
the nineteenth century brought with it intellectual advancements. The appointment of liberal
administrators and rulers in colony set the stage for the advancement of liberal principles. Take, for
example, Carlos Maria dela Torre’s liberal regime. From 1869 to 1871, Dela Torre fostered nationalistic
aspirations by encouraging freedom of expression, abolishing censorship, and proposing the concept of
equality among the natives. Furthermore, the Ilustrados who developed and spread liberal ideas played
an important part in the intellectual development of Filipinos.
Secularization Controversy and Cavite Mutiny. The infamous ecclesiastical conflict reaches a climax
in the nineteenth century. The Spanish priests' long unwillingness to relinquish the administration
position of the Parishes to the Filipino clergy raised the issue of racial discrimination against the latter.
The secularization of the Church was accelerated under the leadership of Father Pedro Pelaez, albeit
after his tragic death in 1863, his successor, Father Jose Burgos, carried on the fight. However, when the
Cavite Mutiny occurred on January 20, 1872, Jose Burgos, Father Mariano Gomez, and Jacinto Zamora
were imprisoned as the mutiny's instigators. On February 17, 1872, they were publicly executed by
garrote. The execution of three Filipino martyred priests demonstrated the height of injustice and opened
the minds of Filipinos. It helped them realize the long-standing discrimination they had faced for almost
300 years. That even so-called "men of God" are not spared to bias and prejudice.
Racial Discrimination. The Spaniards insultingly referred to the natives of the Philippines as Indios,
implying that they belonged to the lowest social classes. Even the term Filipino was confined to the
Spaniards born in the Philippines, known as the Insulares. The Spaniards stripped the natives their rights
and identity. Hence, the maltreatment and inequality at the hands of the Spaniards became an amplifier
that linked the archipelago's diverse Filipinos. By identifying their abuser and their enemy—the
Spaniards—this became a source of power and contributed to the awakening of Filipino national
consciousness.
The contributing causes were critical in the gradual change of Filipino national consciousness.
Although it took generations for them to understand the meaning of nationhood and national identity, it
was never too late. The first manifestation of the awakening of Filipino national consciousness was the
Propaganda Movement led by the middle class. They aimed to make Philippines as province of Spain,
however it was a failure. Nevertheless, propagandist like Jose Rizal, Marcel H. del Pilar and Graciano
Lopez Jaena paved the way of disseminating and forging the sentiments of the Filipinos. When the
propaganda lost its momentum, then on July 7, 1892 Katipunan was founded by Andres Bonifacio. This
radical group goal is Philippine independence, a complete freedom from its colonial masters.

Social Stratification

The Philippine society felt the impact of the developing economy. As a result, social
relations underwent redefinitions and the changing dynamics brought about a renegotiation of
social stratification. With the growing relevance of the mestizo population, new lines were drawn
with the following social strata.
 Peninsulares Pure-blooded Spaniards born in the Iberian Peninsula (Spain)

Insulares Pure-blooded Spaniards born in the Philippines (term Filipino

used to refer to this class)
Mestizo Born of mixed parentage, a mestizo can be:
Spanish mestizo- one parent is Spanish, the other is a native;
or
Chinese mestizo- one parent is Chinese, the other is a native

Principalia Wealthy pure-blooded native supposedly descended from

the kadatoan class

Indio Pure-blooded native in the Philippines

Chino infiel Non-Catholic pure-blooded Chinese

As the Spaniards lost economic power in the nineteenth century, they asserted dominance
by virtue of their race. This issue brought complications with the rising principalia and mestizo
populations who realized their indispensable position in society as movers and facilitators of the
economy. The renegotiation continued throughout the century as the mestizos and principalia
elite eventually demanded social recognition that the pure-blooded Spaniards had consistently
denied them.
These wealthy mestizos and members of the principalia continued to amass economic and
cultural capital. They also availed themselves of the opportunity to obtain higher degrees of
education not only in the Philippines but also in Europe. These activities augmented their
relevance in society as it was from these ranks that articulation of nationalism would emergence.

Political Strata

Governor-General Representative of the King in a Colony

Alcalde Mayor Head of Province
Gobernadorcillo Head of Municipality
Cabeza de Barangay Head of Barangay
Highlights during the American-Japanese Era
Mock Battle of Manila- the staged battle between the Americans and Spaniards as a means of
defeat the Spaniards to the Americans
Treaty of Paris- an agreement where the Philippines was sold for 20,000,000 dollars from Spain to
America
Benevolent Assimilation Proclamation Policy by President William Mckinley on 1898- became the
core basis of the policies by the Americans in the Philippines. It states that the Americans are not
here to colonize but to civilize, educate and teach Filipinos the science of self-governance.
February 4, 1899- Start of the Filipino American War
Military Governors during the Filipino American War:
1. Wesley Meritt
2. Elwell Otis
3. Arthur Mc Arthur
William Howard Taft- Establishment of Civil Government on 1901
Jones of Law of 1916-the first law that promise independence of the Philippines from America
Filipinization Policy- the gradual transfer of government positions from the Americans to the
Filipinos
Tydings McDuffie Law- signed by the US government promising to give independence on July 4,
1946 after ten years transitional government called the Commonwealth
December 7, 1941- bombing of Pearl Harbor and start of WW II

December 8, 1941- the coming of the Japanese in the Philippines

April 9, 1942- the Fall of Bataan and the start of the “Death March”

Death March- from April 9-17, 1942, more than 70,000 USAFFE (United States Arm Forces of the Far
East ) soldiers forced to walk for more than 100 kilometers from Bataan-Tarlac and killing more or less
20,000 soldiers due to act of brutalities of the Japanese Imperial Army. This was considered as one of
the major atrocities in mankind’s history.

Masaharu Homma- Japanese Commander in the Philippines. He was executed because of his war crimes
on 1946.
Comfort Women- sex slaves of the Japanese soldiers during the World War II.
HUKBALAHAP- Hukbo ng Bayan Laban sa Hapon is a guerilla group that fought against the Japanese
from 1942-1945
October 20, 1944- Douglas McArthur returned to the Philippines
August 6 and 9, 1945- Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki forced Japan to surrender
September 2, 1945- official liberation of the Philippines from Japan
Philippine Presidents
1. Emilio Aguinaldo (1869-1964-)- January 1899- April 1901
Notable Facts:
First and last president of the 1st Republic under the Malolos Constitution of 1899.
Youngest president at age 28
Fought during the 1896 Revolution and Filipino-American War

2. Manuel L. Quezon (1878-1944)- November 1935-August 1944

Notable Facts:
First President of the Commonwealth under the 1935 Constitution.
Initiated Women’s Suffrage
Ama ng Wikang Filipino
Popularized the slogan “Mindanao the Land of Promised”

3. Jose P. Laurel (1891-1959)- October 1933- August 1945

Notable Facts:
First and last president of the 2nd Republic under the 1943 Constitution
Known as “The Puppet President”
Organized KALIBAPI (Kapisanan sa Paglilingkod sa Bagong Pilipinas)

4. Sergio Osmeña (1878-1961)- August 1944- May 1946

Notable Facts:
2nd president of the Commonwealth under the 1935 Constitution
First Visayan President
Rehabilitation of Philippine National Bank and Philippines joining the International
Monetary Fund

5. Manuel Roxas (1892-1948)- May 1946- April 1948)

Notable Facts:
First president of the 3rd Republic under 1935 Constitution
Philippine Rehabilitation Act and Philippine Trade Act Laws were implemented

6. Elpidio Quirino (1890-1956)- April 1948- December 1953

Notable Facts:
3rd Republic under 1935 Constitution
The Father of Foreign Affairs
Created the Social Security Commission
Signed Mutual Defense Treaty with America
7. Ramon Magsaysay (1907-1957)- December 1953- March 1957
Notable Facts:
3rd Republic under 1935 Constitution
Quelled the Hukbalahap Movement
First president sworn into office wearing Barong Tagalog
Establishment of National Resettlement and Rehabilitation Program (NARRA) for agrarian
reforms

8. Carlos P. Garcia (1896-1971)- March 1957- December 1961

Notable Facts:
3rd Republic under 1935 Constitution
Known for Filipino First Policy
First President buried in Libingan ng mga Bayani

9. Diosdado Macapagal (1910-1997)- December 1961- December 1965

Notable Facts:
3rd Republic under 1935 Constitution
Established the first Land Reform Law
Placed the Philippine peso on the currency market
Created the Philippie Veterans Bank
Change the celebration of Philippine Independence from July 4 to June 12

10. Ferdinand Marcos (1917-1989)- December 1965- February 1986

Notable Facts:
First and last president of the 4th Republic under the 1973 Constitution
Declared Martial Law on September 21, 1972
Ousted in power through People Power Revolution
Built numerous infrastructures
Philippines became one of the most indebted countries in Asia

11. Corazon Aquino (1933-2009)- February 1986- June 1992

Notable Facts:
First president of the 5th Republic under the 1987 Constitution
Dubbed as the “Mother of Philippine Democracy”
First woman president in Asian countries
Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program was created for land reforms
12. Fidel V. Ramos (1928-2022)- June 1992- June 1998
Notable Facts:
5th Republic under the 1987 Constitution
Vision Philippines as an Industrialized Country
Signed Peace Agreement with the MNLF (Moro National Liberation Front)

13. Joseph Estrada (1937-)- June 1998- January 2001

Notable Facts:
5th Republic under the 1987 Constitution
Declared All-Out War with the MILF (Moro International Liberation Front)
First Impeach President in Asia

14. Gloria Macapagal Arroyo (1947-)- January 2001- June 2010

Notable Facts:
5th Republic under the 1987 Constitution
eVAT Law was implemented
OakWood Mutiny Occurrence
Received a negative rating in her presidency

15. Benigno Aquino III (1960-2021)- June 2010-June 2016

Notable Facts:
5th Republic under the 1987 Constitution
First Bachelor President
Quirino-Grandstand Hostage Crisis
Initiated K-12 education
Oversaw growth of Philippine economy on 2012

16. Rodrigo Duterte (1945-)- June 2016-June 2022

Notable Facts:
the 5th Republic under the 1987 Constitution
First Mindanaoan President
TRAIN Law was implemented
Build, Build, Build Program
EJK and War on Drugs Controversies

17. Ferdinand Marcos Jr. (1957-)- June 30- present

Notable Facts:
the 5th Republic under the 1987 Constitution
Appointed himself as Secretary of Agriculture
Rising Tension in West Philippine Sea with China
References:

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Anderson, B. (2006). Imagined communities: Reflections on the origin and
spread of nationalism. Verso Books. Arcilla, J.S. (2008). An Introduction to
Philippine History. Ateneo De Manila University Press.

David, P. A. (1975). Technical choice innovation and economic growth: essays on American
and British experience in the nineteenth century. Cambridge University Press.
De Viana, A.V. et al. (2011). Jose Rizal:
Social Reformer and Patriot. Rex
Bookstore. De Viana, A.V. (2011). The
Philippines: A Story of a Nation. Rex
Bookstore.
Drezner, D. W., & Wolf, M. (2005). Why Globalization Works. International Journal,
60(2), 586. doi:10.2307/40204315 Obias, R.W. et al. (2018). The Life and Works of
Jose Rizal. C&E Publishing, Inc.
Pudney, J. (1969). Suez; De Lesseps' Canal. Praeger.
Tan, A. S. (1986). The Chinese mestizos and the formation of the Filipino nationality. Archipel,
32(1), 141-162.

John Schumacher, A New Approach. Philippine Studies, Vol 48, No.4 (4th Quarter 2000) Ateneo
de Manila University Press

Floro Quiboyen, Rizal and Filipino Nationalism: Critical Issues, Philippine Studies, Vol 50. N.o.2
(2nd Quarter 2002), pp. 193-229. Ateneo de Manila University Press

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Publishing, 1990 (pp. 184-185)

Anderson, Benedict. 2003. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread
of Nationalism. Pasig: Anvil Publishing, Inc.

Salah Jubair. A Nation Under Endless Tyranny. 1999

Brittanica Encyclopedia Online. See on Nation vs. State