*Ethics – Definition and Characteristics:

Ethics is the study of morally appropriate behaviour and decisions, and examining what should

be done. Ethics helps to mould and shape human behaviour. It aids employees to perform their

roles. However, ethics cannot be instilled unless we ‘practice what we preach’. Otherwise, the

effect of preaching will last only as long as a house of cards.

“Ethics refer to a set of moral principles which should play a very significant role in guiding the

conduct of managers and employees in the operation of any enterprise.” — Dale S. Beach

“Ethics is that discipline which deals with what is good and bad and also deal with moral duty

and obligation. Ethics are set of moral principles or values.” — Carol Buchholtz

These definitions reveal the following characteristics of ethics:

(i) Ethics is a set of moral standards and values acceptable in a society. It is relevant in the

context of a society only.

(ii) Ethics guides human conduct or behaviour. If any member of the society behaves contrary to

the norms and customs, society disapproves it. Moral principles serve as a guide for personal and

professional conduct. Ethics checks people from taking decisions and actions which are harmful

to society.

(iii) Ethical principles are universal in nature. These prescribe obligations and virtues for
everybody in a society. Ethics is important not only in business and politics but in every human

endeavour.

(iv) Ethical standards differ from society to society. What is considered ethical behaviour in one

society might be considered unethical in another. For example, abortion and artificial birth

control is a taboo in most of the Islamic countries and catholic Christian communities. But these

practices are fully ethical in China, Russia, Japan and many other countries. Similarly,

euthanasia (mercy killing) is permitted in some countries but is strictly unethical in most

countries.

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(v) Ethical norms might not be legally binding. But these are more powerful than law because

these have the sanction of society. When a person’s behaviour is inconsistent with the prevailing

values and norms, it is called unethical. Ethics serves as a guide to law by highlighting its short

comings.

(vi) Ethics relates to the behaviour of individuals and groups. The ethical norms do not apply to

the behaviour of animals, birds, and insects. Only human beings have the capacity to guide and

regulate their behaviour.

(vii)There exist no sharp boundaries between ethical and non-ethical. Therefore, people often

face ethical dilemmas wherein a clear cut choice is very difficult.

(viii) Ethics aims at perfection in human conduct. It guides law makers in framing proper laws to

regulate the behaviour of all citizens.

(ix) The concepts of equity and justice are implicit in ethics. Fair and equitable treatment to all is

its primary aim.

The British Philosopher W.D. Gross has listed six basic duties of a person:

(i) Fidelity – doing no harm to others

(ii) Reparation – making amends to those we have hurt

(iii) Gratitude – repaying those who have helped us

(iv) Justice – treating people as they deserve

(v) Beneficence – helping others when we can

(vi) Self-improvement – bettering ourselves but not at the cost of others

Any decision or action that fulfils any of these duties may be treated as ethical.

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*Ethics – 6 Basic Ethical Principles: Beneficence, Least Harm, Autonomy, Non-Violence or
Peace, Justice and Truthfulness:

Principle # 1. Beneficence:

The beneficence principle enunciates a fundamental principle of ethical conduct. This essentially

means doing good to others. According to this principle, all our thoughts and actions must be

directed to ensure that others benefit from these thoughts and actions. This can be done without

much difficulty.

As an example, consider a person parking his/her motor vehicle, a car or a motor cycle. He/She

must park the vehicle in such a way that it does not block pedestrians walking on the road,

prevent smooth flow of traffic, or obstruct another person‘s parked vehicle. Many times, people

park their vehicle oil the road without caring about the inconvenience caused to others.

As another example, consider an unfortunate accident where a person has been hit by a vehicle

and the driver of that vehicle has fled. The person has been badly injured and requires urgent

help. What would you do? Here, doing good to others would mean mitigating the injured

person’s suffering by ensuring that he/she gets immediate medical help.

Principle # 2. Least Harm:

The second ethical principle to keep in mind is that our actions must result in the least harm to

others. There can be situations where, even if we intend to do good to others, our actions may

cause some harm to them. In such a situation, it is necessary to ensure that our actions are such

that we cause the least harm to others.

Let us consider the case of a train accident. One’s duty in such an event is to help the injured

passengers. He/She must get them out of the compartment; help the authorities take the injured to

the hospital, and so on. On the other hand, sometimes it is seen that people use such incidents as
an opportunity to steal the belongings of the injured people.

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This is what doing harm is. The least good one can do in such situations is to prevent people

from acting in such an unethical manner. Consider another example of a day-to-day occurrence.

Young people travelling in a city bus are often seen grabbing a seat as soon as it is vacant, while

a senior citizen or a woman accompanying a small child has to travel standing. It is your duty to

offer your seat to such people if you are sitting. If you are standing and a seat falls vacant, do not

jump to catch that seat, taking advantage of their inability to move fast. Allow them to occupy

that seat. This is the least that you can do.

Principle # 3. Autonomy:

This principle essentially states that we need to respect the autonomy of others for performing

actions. We should not impose our views on others. This principle assumes that every person

knows what is good for himself/herself. One can also look at it from the point of view of the

person performing the action, who decides that what he/she is going to do is good for

himself/herself.

As an example, consider your own case. As a student you may have opted for a course based on

your love for the subject. On the other hand, some of you may have taken up the course because

your parents took the decision for you. They have invaded your autonomy to take decisions

about yourself. This is a very common occurrence and many students end up pursuing a course

for which they have no aptitude or do not like.

Principle # 4. Non-Violence or Peace:

This principle has become very relevant today. Violence has now pervaded all sections of society

and has become its greatest bane. One of the basic ethical principles is to shun violence and to

not support those who resort to it. Unless we adhere to this principle, no substantial progress can

be made in ethical behaviour.

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Our greatest concern is that there is a tendency to resort to violence in cases where many other

options are available. There is also a nonchalant attitude to violence among people. This is a

major cause for concern.

In an incident, a person was killed by a group. The police could not even investigate the case

because in the violence that spread in the aftermath of this murder, many people were killed, a

large number of houses were burnt, and hundreds were injured. In this case, there was violence

for no particular reason.

In a case that was reported by the press, a group was collecting donations for a festival. The

group approached a small shopkeeper and demanded tk. 1000. The shopkeeper refused to pay

more than tk. 250. The group resorted to violence, beat him up, and ransacked his shop. It is to

be remembered that donations, by their very nature, are voluntary.

However, extortion of money in the name of religious festivals and, in case someone refuses to

pay, resorting to violence and causing bodily harm have become common nowadays. As a

society, we have become violence- prone and there is an urgent need to curb this to prevent

further damage.

Thus, commitment to peace and non-violence is a fundamental principle of ethics. There should

be a commitment to not resort to violence and explore other better options to solve a problem.

Principle # 5. Justice:

The principle of justice states that our actions must be such that they are fair to everyone

concerned. All ethical decisions must be based on the principle of fairness. There can be

situations where a deviation from past practice is required. All such cases must be analysed and

justified before a decision different from earlier decisions is made.

For example, consider the many development-induced displacements that make headlines in the

newspapers these days. The building of a dam, the requirement of a weapon-testing ground, the

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need for a nuclear power plant, or the need for an expressway might necessitate displacement of

a community to clear land for such a purpose.

If you take the specific case of a dam, it is a necessary part of infrastructure development as it

provides water for irrigation and electric power generation. The construction of a dam is, thus,

for the common good of a large section of the society. However, thousands of people are

displaced from their land and their means of livelihood threatened because of such a project.

It is generally found that the rehabilitation of people affected by such projects is shoddy. They

are left in the lurch at the end of the project with, in some cases, inadequate compensation and in

others, no compensation, land, or means to earn a living. Here, injustice is done to the thousands

affected. Similar examples can be seen in many developmental projects.

Principle # 6. Truthfulness:

Truthfulness is the quality of telling, adhering to, or upholding the truth. This appears to be a

universal principle. Truthfulness also leads to other values such as trustworthiness and honesty.

*Ethics – Factors Affecting Individual Ethics:

Individual ethics are determined by the following factors:

1. Family Influences – Individuals, as children, develop ethical standards if other family

members engage in ethical behavior.

2. Peer Group Influences – The children, when they grow up, are influenced by the behavior of

their friends and peer group.

3. Life Experience – The way an individual’s behavior is dealt with in real life situations also

affects his ethics. If his behavior (right or wrong) is reprimanded by his elders, he tends to avoid

repeating it in future thinking that it is unethical and vice-versa.

A person who speaks harshly, if, never objected to by his parents or elders, will form a habit of
speaking in that manner and will feel nothing unethical about it.

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4. Personal Values – Ethical standards change according to the priority accorded to different

behaviours being pursued by an individual. A person who believes in the material world will

have different ethical standards than the one who prioritizes religious or social norms.

5. Situational Factors – Sometimes, people are made to behave in a particular manner because of

the situational factors. An honest man may resort to stealing if he is left with no other choice for

meeting his financial requirements in crisis. Though wrong in content, the unethical behaviour

has been adopted as warranted by situational factors.

* Basic Approaches to Ethical Decision-Making:

The Rights Approach

An important approach to ethics has its roots in the philosophy of the 18th-century thinker
Immanuel Kant and others like him, who focused on the individual’s right to choose for herself
or himself. According to these philosophers, what makes human beings different from mere
things is that people have dignity based on their ability to choose freely what they will do with
their lives, and they have a fundamental moral right to have these choices respected. People are
not objects to be manipulated; it is a violation of human dignity to use people in ways they do
not freely choose.

The Utilitarian Approach

Utilitarianism was conceived in the 19th century by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill to
help legislators determine which laws were morally best. Both Bentham and Mill suggested that
ethical actions are those that provide the greatest balance of good over evil. To analyze an issue
using the utilitarian approach, we first identify the various courses of action available to us.
Second, we ask who will be affected by each action and what benefits or harms will be derived
from each. And third, we choose the action that will produce the greatest benefits and the least
harm. The ethical action is the one that provides the greatest good for the greatest number.

The Fairness (or Justice) Approach

The fairness or justice approach to ethics has its roots in the teachings of the ancient Greek
philosopher Aristotle, who said that “equals should be treated equally and unequals unequally.”
The basic moral question in this approach is: How fair is an action? Does it treat everyone in the
same way, or does it show favoritism and discrimination? Favoritism gives benefits to some
people without a justifiable reason for singling them out; discrimination imposes burdens on
people who are no different from those on whom burdens are not imposed. Both favoritism and
discrimination are unjust and wrong.

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*Ethics – Code of Ethics:

A code is a statement of policies, principles, or rules that guide behavior. Certainly, codes of

ethics do not apply only to business enterprises; they should guide the behavior of persons in all

organizations and in everyday life. Code of ethics specifies how an organization expects its

employees to behave while on the job.

Developing code of ethics can be a useful way to promote ethical behavior and clarify company

expectations of employee conduct in various situations and makes clear that the company

expects its people to recognize the ethical dimensions in decisions and actions.

*Ethics – Ethical Dilemma:

An ethical dilemma is a complex situation that often involve a mental conflict between two

things that is moral and imperative. Ethical Dilemmas arise due to conflict of interest or due to

ignorance of what is the correct thing to do in a given situation. Both, the individual and the

community face dilemmas.

In many situations, the right action may be evident. However, there may be many tricky

situations where it may not be possible to decide the right actions. Ethical theories help us win
over such situations.

A major reason for ethical dilemmas is the conflict of moral principles. As we decide to take

action based on one or more moral principles that apply in a given situation, we come to know

that it conflicts with other moral principles that need to be followed. For example, telling a lie or

hiding the truth is against moral principles.

However, there can be situations where telling a lie or hiding the truth may be the correct thing

to do according to some ethical theory. Dilemmas generally occur because of such conflicts

among moral principles. We face a dilemma when our moral beliefs, such as – duty, rights,
principle, and values, come into conflict in a given situation.

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 Another reason for ethical dilemma is the lack of clarity in a given situation. It may not be clear

whether a particular act is immoral or not. In addition, the professional may not be able to decide

whether it is ethical or not. Such situations frequently arise due to vagueness of the particular act.

Yet another reason for dilemmas can be situations where there is no agreement on what is the

right course of action. There is no vagueness about the situation but many people feel differently

about the right thing to be done.

*Professional ethics:
Professional ethics are principles that govern the behaviour of a person or group in a business
environment. Like values, professional ethics provide rules on how a person should act towards
other people and institutions in such an environment.
Professional ethics is the set of standards adopted by professional in so far as they view
themselves acting as professionals.Every profession has its professional ethics-medicines,law
etc.

*Importance of professional ethics:

Professional ethics are important because they serve to create organizations based on moral
standards of conduct.

Here are a number of reasons why professional ethics are important.

• Based on a set of rules, it can organize a group of professionals from the same profession.
• The organization formed contributes to the personal growth of the associated professional.
• Motivates teamwork and increases the bonds between colleagues.
• Creates a system for each profession, called a code of ethics; in which the duties to be fulfilled
by each professional are twinned.
• Provides personal and professional benefits by regulating the actions of a profession and
highlighting the virtues of the professional.

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 *Types of Professional ethics:
Professional ethics refers to principles and criteria that regulate the actions of a professional;
however, there are several types of professional ethics, each of which is related to a profession.
The following are the most relevant ones.

• Legal ethics. It has as its main characteristic professional secrecy and refers to the practice of
law.
• Medical ethics. It regulates the actions to be followed in a conflict between the morals of a
health professional and his or her professional duty.
• Engineering ethics. Refers to placing the best interests of communities above personal desires.
• Teaching ethics. As a guidance counselor and role model for children and young people, this
professional should observe the best of conduct.
• Military ethics. Indicates a series of criteria to limit their actions in relation to the use of force.
• Administrator ethics. Loyalty, honesty and legality, among others are basic aspects expected of
this professional.
• Ethics of the psychologist. Respect for the individual, confidentiality, honesty, and
responsibility are the most important aspects of this professional.

*Differences between ethics and moral:

Ground Of Difference Ethics Moral

Origin Ethics derive from Greek Derived from Latin word
word ‘ethos’ which mean ‘mos’ which means ‘way’.
character.
Meaning What is good or what is bad What is right or duties and
obligations.
Code Followed by group or wider Followed at personal level.
level.
Change Ethics of person can change Moral can not change in time.
with time.

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