BASIC CIVIL & MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

I Year-I Semester

(Common to CE, ME, IT, CSE, CSE(DS), CSE(CS), CSE(AI) )

PART B: BASIC MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

COURSE OBJECTIVES: The students after completing the course are expected to

• Get familiarized with the scope and importance of Mechanical Engineering in different
sectors and industries.
• Explain different engineering materials and different manufacturing processes.
• Provide an overview of different thermal and mechanical transmission systems and
introduce basics of robotics and its applications.

Course Outcomes: On completion of the course, the student should be able to

CO1: Understand the different manufacturing processes.
CO2: Explain the basics of thermal engineering and its applications.
CO3: Describe the working of different mechanical power transmission systems and power
plants
CO4: Describe the basics of robotics and its applications.

UNIT I
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering: Role of Mechanical Engineering in Industries
and Society- Technologies in different sectors such as Energy, Manufacturing, Automotive,
Aerospace, and Marine sectors.
Engineering Materials - Metals-Ferrous and Non-ferrous, Ceramics, Composites, Smart
materials.

UNIT II
Manufacturing Processes: Principles of Casting, Forming, joining processes, Machining,
Introduction to CNC machines, 3D printing, and Smart manufacturing.
Thermal Engineering – working principle of Boilers, Otto cycle, Diesel cycle, Refrigeration
and air-conditioning cycles, IC engines, 2-Stroke and 4-Stroke engines, SI/CI Engines,
Components of Electric and Hybrid Vehicles.

UNIT III
Power plants – working principle of Steam, Diesel, Hydro, Nuclear power plants.
Mechanical Power Transmission - Belt Drives, Chain, Rope drives, Gear Drives and their
applications.
Introduction to Robotics - Joints & links, configurations, and applications of robotics.

(Note: The subject covers only the basic principles of Civil and Mechanical Engineering
systems. The evaluation shall be intended to test only the fundamentals of the subject)
Textbooks:

1. Internal Combustion Engines by V. Ganesan, By Tata McGraw Hill

publications(India)Pvt. Ltd.
2. A Tear book of Theory of Machines by S.S. Rattan, Tata McGraw Hill
Publications,(India) Pvt. Ltd.
3. An introduction to Mechanical Engg by Jonathan Wicker and Kemper Lewis,
Cengage learning India Pvt. Ltd.

Reference Books:

1. Appuu Kuttan KK, Robotics, I.K. International Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. Volume-
I
2. 3D printing & Additive Manufacturing Technology- L. Jyothish Kumar, Pulak M
Pandey, Springer publications
3. Thermal Engineering by Mahesh M Rathore Tata McGraw Hill publications
(India)Pvt. Ltd.
4. G. Shanmugam and M.S. Palanisamy, Basic Civil and the Mechanical Engineering,
Tata McGraw Hill publications (India) Pvt. Ltd.
 UNIT 1

1.1 Mechanical Engineering

Definition: It is the branch of science or branch of engineering that deals with design,
manufacturing and testing of physical systems that may undergo forces in stationary or
moving condition.
Mechanical engineering the creation and development of mechanical systems for all of
humankind concern with principles of force, energy and motion.
Mechanical engineering involves design, manufacturing, inspection and maintenance of
machinery, equipment and control systems and instruments for monitoring their status and
performance.

Ex: Vehicles, construction, farm machinery, industrial installations and wide variety of tools
and devices.

Duties of Mechanical Engineering:

STEP 1: Problem statement

STEP 2: Analyze the problem
STEP 3: Create the design by using software
STEP 4: Bring solutions to the problem.
STEP 5: Analyze every solution
STEP 6: Test the solution
STEP 7: Manufacturing
 Design:
Process of arriving at the dimensions and shape of the object by considering the forces
acting on it.
 Manufacturing:
Process involved in converting raw materials into finished products
 Testing:
Analysing the performance of the mechanical system in terms of forces, strength,
motion, velocity, acceleration etc and also its dimensional accuracy to meet the
specific requirement
It has 3 sub-branches or sub-roles broadly classified:

1. Design Engineering (analysis of forces involved and fixing the geometric dimensions and
shape)
2. Thermal and Fluid Engineering (Analyzing the quantity of heat energy absorbed or
released and managing it for power generation, mobility, heating and cooling)
3. Materials and Manufacturing (processing materials from raw material stage to finished
product stage)
1.2 Role of Mechanical Engineering or Applications of Mechanical Engineering

Mechanical engineering plays a crucial role in various industries, contributing to the design,
development, manufacturing, and maintenance of mechanical systems and devices.

1. Product Design and Development:

Mechanical engineers are involved in the conception and design of products, ensuring
functionality, efficiency, and safety.
They use CAD (Computer-Aided Design) software to create detailed plans and blueprints for
manufacturing.

2. Manufacturing Processes:

Mechanical engineers are responsible for optimizing manufacturing processes to ensure cost-
effectiveness and efficiency.

They work on improving production methods, reducing waste, and enhancing quality control.

3. Materials and Metallurgy:

Mechanical engineers are involved in selecting appropriate materials for specific

applications, considering factors such as strength, durability, and cost.

They work on improving material properties through processes like heat treatment and
alloying.

4. Thermal Systems and HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning):

Mechanical engineers design and optimize thermal systems for heating and cooling
applications, including HVAC systems in buildings and industrial facilities.
They work on improving energy efficiency and environmental sustainability in these systems.
1.3 Roles of mechanical engineering in different industries:

1. Automotive Industry:
Mechanical engineers contribute significantly to the design and manufacturing of
vehicles, ensuring safety, performance, and fuel efficiency. They work on innovations in
areas like engine design, aerodynamics, and vehicle dynamics. The two factors responsible
for growth of automotive technology have been high power, light weight engines and
efficient processes for mass manufacturing. Some of newer technologies include hybrid gas
electric vehicles, antilock brakes, run flat tires, air bags, widespread use of composite
materials, computer control of fuel injection systems, satellite-based navigation systems
and fuel cells.

2. Aerospace Industry:

Mechanical engineers play a crucial role in designing aircraft, spacecraft, and related
systems. They work on propulsion systems, aerodynamics, structural design, and materials
to ensure the safety and efficiency of aerospace vehicles. Designing structural components
like wings, fuselages, and landing gear to withstand aerodynamic forces and stresses.
Developing engines, turbines, and rocket propulsion systems for aircraft and spacecraft.
They have also design of turbines, development of control systems, and discovery of
lightweight aerospace- grade materials, including titanium alloys and graphite fiber
reinforced epoxy composites.

3. Energy Sector:

Mechanical engineers work on the design and maintenance of energy systems. They
focus on optimizing energy production and reducing environmental impact. They will
become more involved in developing advanced power generation technologies, including
solar, ocean and wind power systems and energy storage systems.

4. Robotics and Automation:

Mechanical engineers are involved in the design and development of robotic systems used in
manufacturing, healthcare, and various other industries. They contribute to automation
processes to improve efficiency and reduce manual labor. Creating the structural framework
of robots, including arms, joints, and end effectors, ensuring durability, functionality, and
efficiency. Designing automated machinery and assembly lines to improve efficiency in
manufacturing and production processes.

5. Biomedical Engineering:

Mechanical engineers play a role in designing and developing medical devices and
equipment, such as prosthetics, implants, and diagnostic tools. They work on improving the
safety and effectiveness of medical technologies. and Developing devices like MRI
machines, CT scanners, and mechanical components in imaging technologies. Designing
functional and comfortable artificial limbs, Fitness trackers, smart prosthetics, and health-
monitoring devices, pacemakers, and stents.
 6. Railway sector:

Mechanical engineers play a critical role in the railway sector, contributing to the design,
maintenance, and advancement of railway systems. Their expertise ensures the safety,
efficiency, and sustainability of trains and related infrastructure. Design and analyze
wagons and coaches, design the braking and traction motors for the locomotives, selection
of suitable materials, manufacturing of the railway parts, testing for safety and
maintenance.

7. Marine Engineering:

They play a pivotal role in the marine industry, contributing to the design, construction,
maintenance, and optimization of vessels and marine structures. Their expertise ensures
the safety, efficiency, and sustainability of marine operations. Design and analyze ship hull
structure, manufacturing of the ship parts, testing for safety and maintenance. Designing
cargo ships, tankers, and bulk carriers for efficient transport. Design and maintenance of
submarines, aircraft carriers.

8. Agricultural industry:

Mechanical engineers have developed technologies to improve significantly the

efficiency in the agricultural industry. They contributing to the development, design, and
maintenance of machinery, equipment, and systems that enhance productivity and
sustainability in farming. Design and Development of Machinery like tractors, harvesters,
plows, seed drills, and irrigation systems to increase efficiency and reduce manual labor.
Development of water-saving technologies like drip irrigation and precision sprinklers.
Other Advances include Integration of GPS, sensors, and robotics in tractors and
equipment to optimize planting, fertilizing, and harvesting.
.
1.4 Engineering Materials: For proper design of engineering components the design
engineer must have good knowledge of the materials and their properties.

The design engineer makes a choice of the materials based on fabrication, service and
economic aspects. The selection of a proper material, for engineering purposes, is one of the
most difficult problem for the designer. The best material is one which serve the desired
objective at the minimum cost.
The material has to be chosen that

1. It is able to get shaped and joined easily with other materials.

2. It meets service requirements: the end product is suitable for working condition in
service. For that material should be strong, tough, heat resistant, corrosion resistant,
fatigue resistant and should retain dimensional accuracy.
3. It is easily available at low cost. This will ensure continuity of production with
minimum overall cost.

1.5 Properties of Materials:

There are several properties of materials such as physical properties, chemical properties,
mechanical properties, electrical properties, thermal properties and magnetic properties.

Materials used in engineering practice possess a wide range of properties that are essential
for their intended applications. These properties can vary significantly depending on the
specific material and its composition. Here are some of the key properties of materials used
in engineering:

1.5.1 Mechanical Properties:

1. Strength: It is the ability of a material to resist the externally applied forces without
breaking or yielding. The internal resistance offered by a part to an externally applied force
is called stress.

2. Stiffness: It is the ability of a material to resist deformation under stress. The modulus of
elasticity is the measure of stiffness.
3. Elasticity: It is the property of a material to regain its original shape after deformation
when the external forces are removed. This property is desirable for materials used in tools
and machines. It may be noted that steel is more elastic than rubber.

4. Plasticity: It is property of a material which retains the deformation produced under load

permanently. This property of the material is necessary for forgings, in stamping images on
coins and in ornamental work.

5. Ductility: It is the property of a material enabling it to be drawn into wire with the
application of a tensile force. The ductility is usually measured by the terms, percentage
elongation and percentage reduction in area. The ductile material commonly used in
engineering practice (in order of diminishing ductility) are mild steel, copper, aluminium,
nickel, zinc, tin and lead.
6. Brittleness: It is the property of a material opposite to ductility. It is the property of
breaking of a material with little permanent distortion. Brittle materials when subjected to
tensile loads, snap off without giving any sensible elongation. Cast iron is a brittle material.
7. Malleability: It is a special case of ductility which permits materials to be rolled or
hammered into thin sheets. The malleable materials commonly used in engineering practice
(in order of diminishing malleability) are lead, soft steel, wrought iron, copper and
aluminium.
8. Toughness: It is the property of a material to resist fracture due to high impact loads like
hammer blows. The toughness of the material decreases when it is heated. It is measured by
the amount of energy that a unit volume of the material has absorbed after being stressed upto
the point of fracture. This property is desirable in parts subjected to shock and impact loads.

9. Hardness: It is a very important property of the metals Hardness is the resistance of a

material to permanent deformation, such as indentation or scratching. It's a mechanical
property that can be measured in a number of ways, including indentation, scratch, and
rebound hardness measurements
10. Resilience. It is the property of a material to absorb energy and to resist shock and
impact loads. It is measured by the amount of energy absorbed per unit volume within
elastic limit. This property is essential for spring materials.
11. Creep: When a part is subjected to a constant stress at high temperature for a long period
of time, it will undergo a slow and permanent deformation called creep. This property is
considered in designing internal combustion engines, boilers and turbines.
12. Fatigue: When a material is subjected to repeated stresses, it fails at stresses below the
yield point stresses. Such type of failure of a material is known as fatigue. The failure is
caused by means of a progressive crack formation which are usually fine and of microscopic
size. This property is considered in designing shafts, connecting rods, springs, gears, etc.

13. Machinability: It is the property of a material which refers to a relative case with which
a material can be cut. The machinability of a material can be measured in a number of ways
such as comparing the tool life for cutting different materials or thrust required to remove the
material at some given rate or the energy required to remove a unit volume of the material. It
may be noted that brass can be easily machined than steel.
1.5.2. Thermal Properties:

a. Thermal Conductivity: The ability of a material to conduct heat.

b. Thermal Expansion: The extent to which a material expands or contracts with changes in
temperature.

c. Specific Heat Capacity: The amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a
unit mass of the material by a given amount.

1.5.3. Electrical Properties:

a. Electrical Conductivity: The ability of a material to conduct electrical current.

b. Electrical Resistivity: The reciprocal of conductivity, indicating a material's resistance to

electrical flow.
c. Dielectric Strength: The ability of an insulating material to withstand electric field stress
without breaking down.

1.5.4. Magnetic Properties:

a. Magnetization: The extent to which a material can be magnetized.

b. Permeability: A material's ability to allow magnetic lines of flux to pass through it.

1.5.5. Chemical Properties:

a. Corrosion Resistance: The ability of a material to resist deterioration due to chemical

reactions with its environment.
b. Oxidation Resistance: The resistance of a material to oxidizing agents or high-temperature
environments.

c.Density: The mass of a material per unit volume.

1.6. Classification of Materials used in Engineering Practice

Metals: They are mostly opaque, hard, heavy, ductile, lustre. They are good conductor of
heat and electricity.
Alloys are obtained by mixing or melting two or more metals in order to improve properties
of materials.

Non-Metals: They do not contain metal in their composition. They are less ductile. Poor
conductor of heat and electricity.
1.6.1 Ferrous Metals: The ferrous materials having iron as their main constituent are known
as ferrous materials. The ferrous metals commonly used in engineering practice are cast iron,
wrought iron, steels and alloy steels. The principal raw material for all ferrous metals is pig
iron which is obtained by smelting iron ore with coke and limestone, in the blast furnace.
Other composition like carbon, manganese, phosphorus, sulphur etc exist in various
proportions in small quantity.

Pure Iron has very low strength and hence it is alloyed with carbon to form steels and cast
irons
1. Steels (Carbon percentage <2%): Steel is an alloy of iron with low amounts of carbon.
It is an alloy of iron and carbon, with carbon content up to a maximum of 1.5%. The
carbon occurs in the form of iron carbide, because of its ability to increase the hardness
and strength of the steel. Other elements e.g. silicon, Sulphur, phosphorus and
manganese are also present to greater or lesser amount to impart certain desired
properties to it.

a. Carbon steel:

A carbon steel is defined as a steel which has its properties mainly due to its carbon content
and does not contain more than 0.5% of silicon and 1.5% of manganese. The plain carbon
steels varying from 0.06% carbon to 1.5% carbon are divided into the following types
depending upon the carbon content.
1. Low carbon or mild steel — 0.15% to 0.30% carbon

2. Medium carbon steel — 0.30% to 0.60% carbon

3. High carbon steel — 0.60% to 1.5% carbon

Carbon
Steel Type Percentage (%) Strength (MPa) Applications
Sheet metal, automobile
Low Carbon 400 (Yield
0.15 - 0.30 body panels, wires,
Steel (mild steel) Strength)
screws, ship hulls
Medium Carbon 400 - 500 (Yield Gears, shafts, structural
0.30 - 0.60
Steel Strength) components,
High Carbon 500 - 600 (Yield Springs, cutting tools,
0.60 – 1.5
Steel Strength) knives, railway tracks
.

b. Alloy Steel: An alloy steel may be defined as a steel to which elements other than
carbon are added in sufficient amount to produce an improvement in properties. The
alloying is done for specific purposes to increase wearing resistance, corrosion
resistance and to improve electrical and magnetic properties, which cannot be
obtained in plain carbon steels. The chief alloying elements used in steel are nickel,
chromium, molybdenum, cobalt, vanadium, manganese, silicon and tungsten. Each
of these elements confer certain qualities upon the steel to which it is added. These
elements may be used separately or in combination to produce the desired
characteristic in steel.
Steel Type Carbon Percentage (%) Applications
Automotive components,
Alloy Steel 0.2 - 2.5
machinery, tools
1.2% Carbon, 10% Cutlery, kitchen appliances,
Stainless Steel
Chromium chemical equipment
0.4 - 2.5 Carbon, 2.5 –
5.5% of chromium, Cutting tools, dies, molds,
Tool Steel-HSS, HCS
molybdenum, tungsten, machine components
and vanadium

c. Stainless steel: It is a family of iron-based alloys that contain a minimum of

approximately 11% chromium, that prevents the iron from rusting and providing heat
resistant properties. These steels have better corrosion resistant property and high
strength. These steels are used in house hold items, medical equipment, piping,
cutting tools and food processing equipment.
d. Tool steels: It is family of carbon and alloy steels having distinct characteristics such
as hardness, wear resistance, toughness and resistance to softening at elevated
temperature. Tool steels comprise carbide -forming elements such as chromium,
 vanadium, molybdenum and tungsten in different combinations. It is used to make
excellent cutting and drilling equipment for increasing heat resistance and durability.

2. Cast Irons:

The cast iron is obtained by re-melting pig iron with coke and limestone in a furnace known
as cupola. It is primarily an alloy of iron and carbon. The carbon contents in cast iron varies
from 2 percent to 4.5 percent. It also contains small amounts of silicon, manganese,
phosphorous and Sulphur. Cast iron exhibits either free carbon in the form of graphite or
combined carbon as cementite. It is not malleable due to its high carbon content. Cast iron
is recognized for having a lower melting point than steel.

Cast iron is widely used in engineering due to its following unique characteristics.

 Excellent casting properties

 Cost effective

 High compressive strength

 High wear resistance

The primary drawback of this metal lies in its brittleness and relatively low tensile strength,
making it unsuitable for components exposed to mechanical shocks.

a. Grey Cast Iron:

The grey colour is due to the fact that the carbon is present in the form of free graphite. It
has a low tensile strength, high compressive strength and no ductility. It can be easily
machined. A very good property of grey cast iron is that the free graphite in its structure acts
as a lubricant.
Microstructure: Contains graphite flakes in a ferrite and pearlite matrix, giving it a gray
appearance.

Carbon Content: Typically has a carbon content of 2.5% to 4%.

Properties: Good machinability, excellent damping capacity, and wear resistance.

Applications: Cylinder blocks, brake discs, pipe fittings, cookware.
b. White Cast Iron: The white colour is due to fact that it has no graphite and whole of
the carbon is in the form of carbide (known as cementite) which is the hardest
constituent of iron. The white cast iron has a high tensile strength and a low
compressive strength. Since it is hard, therefore, it cannot be machined with ordinary
cutting tools but requires grinding as shaping process.
Microstructure: Composed of hard cementite and pearlite, making it appear white.
Carbon Content: Contains more than 2% carbon.
Properties: High hardness, extreme wear resistance, but brittle and not ductile.

Applications: Grinding balls, mining equipment liners, machine tool parts requiring wear
resistance.
1.6.2 Non-Ferrous Metals: The non-ferrous metals are those which contain a metal other
than iron as their chief constituent. The non-ferrous metals are usually employed in industry
due to the following characteristics:
1. High corrosion resistance
2. Ease of fabrication (casting, rolling, forging, welding and machining)

3. Electrical and thermal conductivity

4. Weight.

The various non-ferrous metals used in engineering practice are aluminium, copper, lead, tin,
zinc, nickel, etc. and their alloys. We shall now discuss these non-ferrous metals and their
alloys in detail, in the following pages. Those metallic materials which do not contain iron as
their main constituents are known as non-ferrous metals.
Ex: Al, copper, zinc, tin, lead, nickel, titanium, silver and gold.

a. Copper: It is one of the most widely used non-ferrous metals in industry. It is a soft,
malleable and ductile material with a reddish-brown appearance. It is a good
conductor of electricity. It is largely used in making electric cables and wires for
electric machinery and appliances, in electrotyping and electroplating, in making
coins and household utensils. It may be cast, forged, rolled and drawn into wires. It is
non-corrosive under ordinary conditions and resists weather very effectively. Copper
in the form of tubes is used widely in mechanical engineering. It is also used for
making ammunitions. It is used for making useful alloys with tin, zinc, nickel and
aluminium.
b. Copper Alloys:

Copper alloys are made by combining copper with other elements like zinc, tin, and
bronze to enhance specific properties.

They are known for excellent electrical and thermal conductivity, corrosion resistance, and
antimicrobial properties.

Common copper alloys include bronze, brass, and cupronickel.

Applications range from electrical wiring and plumbing (brass) to marine equipment
(cupronickel).
Copper-zinc alloys (Brass): The most widely used copper-zinc alloy is brass. There
are various types of brasses, depending upon the proportions of copper and zinc. . It
has a greater strength than that of copper, but have a lower thermal and electrical
conductivity. Brasses are very resistant to atmospheric corrosion and can be easily
soldered. They can be easily fabricated by processes like spinning and can also be
electroplated with metals like nickel and chromium.
Copper-tin alloys (Bronze): The alloys of copper and tin are usually termed as
bronzes. The useful range of composition is 75 to 95% copper and 5 to 25% tin. The
metal is comparatively hard, resists surface wear and can be shaped or rolled into
wires, rods and sheets very easily. In corrosion resistant properties, bronzes are
superior to brasses.
 Alloy Use

Brass Used in decorative items, valves, and low-pressure plumbing

Bronze Utilized for making statues, bearings, and in shipbuilding

Duralumin Commonly applied in aviation structures

c. Aluminium Alloys:

The aluminium may be alloyed with one or more other elements like copper, magnesium,
manganese, silicon and nickel. The addition of small quantities of alloying elements converts
the soft and weak metal into hard and strong metal, while still retaining its light weight. The
main aluminium alloys are Duralumin (95%Al and 4 % copper 0.5% ma,0.5% mg), Y-alloy
(93% Al and 2% copper 1% nickel and magnesium), Magnalium.(Al with 2 to 10%
magnesium and 1.75% copper)
Aluminium alloys are formed by mixing aluminium with other elements like copper,
magnesium, and silicon to improve strength, durability, and other properties.
They are lightweight, corrosion-resistant, and have good thermal and electrical conductivity.
Widely used in aerospace, automotive, construction, and packaging industries.
Examples include 6061-T6 (structural applications) and 5052-H32 (sheet metal).

d. Titanium Alloys:

Titanium alloys are created by combining titanium with elements like aluminium and
vanadium to enhance strength, corrosion resistance, and heat resistance.
They are known for their exceptional strength-to-weight ratio, making them suitable for
aerospace and medical applications.

Common titanium alloys include Ti-6Al-4V (aircraft components) and Ti-6Al-4V ELI
(biomedical implants).
Used in aircraft, spacecraft, medical implants, and chemical processing equipment.
Properties of Non-ferrous materials:
 High Ductility
 High Malleability
 High thermal conductivity
 High electrical conductivity
 Good corrosion resistance

Applications of non-ferrous metals:

 Architectural: building fronts, downspouts, flashing, gutters, roofing, screening,

grillwork, bridge bearing plates
  Automotive: Gaskets, radiators, heater cores and tanks, automatic high speed screw
machine parts (screws, bolts, fasteners).
 Electrical: bus bars, conductivity wire, contacts, radio parts, switches, terminals,
flashlight shells, lamp fixtures, switches, reflectors, screw shells, socket shells

 Hardware: ball floats, butts, cotter pins, nails, rivets, soldering copper, tacks, eyelets,
fasteners, grommets, finish hardware articles
1.7 Ceramics: Ceramics are classified as inorganic and non-metallic materials that are
essential to our daily lifestyle. It is made up of either metal or non-metal compounds that
have been shaped and then hardened by heating to high temperatures. In general, they are
hard, corrosion-resistant and brittle. Ceramic comes from the Greek word meaning ‘pottery’.
The clay-based domestic wares, art objects and building products are familiar to us all, but
pottery is just one part of the ceramic world. Nowadays the term ‘ceramic’ has a more
expansive and it includes materials like glass, advanced ceramics and some cement systems
as well. Advanced ceramics are not generally clay-based. Instead, they are either based on
oxides or non-oxides or combinations of the two

 Ceramics are generally made by taking mixtures of clay, earthen elements, powders,
and water and shaping them into desired forms. Once the ceramic has been shaped,
it is fired in a high temperature oven known as a kiln.
 Often, ceramics are covered in decorative, waterproof, paint-like substances known
as glazes.

The Advanced Ceramics are aluminum oxide (Al2O3), silicon dioxide (SiO2), silicon
carbide (SiC), silicon nitride (Si3N4).

Examples of ceramic materials:

 All types of glass product including fibers

 Cements, line, plaster
 Abrasives & some types of cutting of tools
 Bricks, tiles, drain, pipes etc..
 Electrical insulators, Ferro magnetic, semi-conductors

Properties:

 Ceramics are in-organic, non-metallic materials that are used at high

temperatures
 They are generally hard (high hardness) & brittle materials that with stand
compression very well.
 They are abrasive resistance, heat resistance & can sustain large compressive
loads even at high temperature
 Ceramics are chemically inert even at high temperatures
 Good oxidation and reduction resistance at low and high temperatures.
 The nature of chemical bond is ionic in character.
 Possesses high thermal conductivity, thermal-shock-resistance and thermal
capacity.
Advantages of Ceramics:

* Most of them have high hardness hence they are used as abrasive powder and cutting
tools.

* They have high melting points which makes them excellent refractory materials.

They are good thermal insulators this is another reason to use them as a refractory material.
They have high electric resistivity which makes them suitable to be used an insulator.
* They have low mass density which results in lightweight components.

* They are generally chemically inert which makes them durable.

Disadvantages of Ceramics:

* They are brittle in nature.

* They have almost zero ductility.

* They have poor tensile strength.

* They show a wide range in the variation of strength, even for identical specimens.

* They are difficult to shape and machine.

Applications:

1. Aerospace: space shuttle tiles, thermal barriers, high-temperature glass windows, f

cells.

2. Used in the military - ceramic armour, structural components for ground, air naval
vehicles, missiles and sensors.

3. Automotive: catalytic converters, ceramic filters, airbag sensors

4. Ceramic are used in space industry because of their low weight

5. Used as cutting tools

6. Used as refractory materials

 7. Used as thermal insulator

8. Used as electrical insulator.

Ceramics can be classified into two main categories: oxides and non-oxides. Here are short
notes on each category:
a. Oxide Ceramics:

Alumina (Al2O3): Alumina is a widely used oxide ceramic known for its excellent
mechanical and thermal properties. It is highly wear-resistant and finds applications in cutting
tools, ball bearings, electrical insulators, and as a substrate for electronic components.

Zirconia (ZrO2): Zirconia exhibits high strength, toughness, and resistance to wear and
corrosion. It is used in applications like dental implants, aerospace components, and high-
temperature furnace linings.

Silicon Dioxide (SiO2): Silicon dioxide, primarily in the form of quartz, is used in the
manufacture of glass, optical fibers, and as a structural material in high-temperature
environments due to its high melting point.

Titanium Dioxide (TiO2): Titanium dioxide is commonly used as a white pigment in paints,
coatings, and plastics. It also has photocatalytic properties and is used in self-cleaning
surfaces and solar cells.

b. Non-Oxide Ceramics:

Silicon Carbide (SiC): Silicon carbide is known for its high hardness, exceptional heat
resistance, and excellent electrical conductivity. It is used in abrasive materials,
semiconductor electronics, and high-temperature applications.
Boron Nitride (BN): Boron nitride is a ceramic known for its lubricating properties and high
thermal conductivity. It is used in machining, as a lubricant, and in heat sinks for electronics.

Carbides (e.g., Tungsten Carbide, WC): Carbide ceramics, like tungsten carbide, are
extremely hard and wear-resistant. They find applications in cutting tools, mining equipment,
and wear-resistant components.
Nitrides (e.g., Aluminum Nitride, AlN): Nitride ceramics offer good electrical insulation and
thermal conductivity. They are used in electronic packaging, heat sinks, and high-power
semiconductor devices.

1.8. Composites:

Composites are simply a combination of two or more constituent materials with different
physical or chemical properties. When combined, they produce a material with characteristics
different from their original properties. A composite material is a multiphase material. In
which one phase is matrix and another phase is reinforcement. They are typically classified
based on the matrix material and the type of fiber used.
Based on Matrix Material:

 Metal Matrix Composites

 Polymer Matrix Composites
 Ceramic Matrix Composites
 Carbon – Carbon Matrix Composites

Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs): MMCs utilise a metal matrix (e.g., aluminium or
magnesium) combined with high-strength fibre reinforcement (carbon fibre or silicon
carbide particles).They offer properties such as increased strength, temperature resistance,
wear resistance, and reduced thermal expansion. Commonly used in aerospace, automotive,
electronics, medical devices, and sporting goods.

Matrix: Metal, such as aluminium, magnesium, or titanium.

Fibers: Typically ceramics, carbides, or carbon.
Characteristics: MMCs offer high strength, stiffness, and good thermal properties. They are
used in aerospace and automotive applications where lightweight and high-performance
materials are required.

Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs): PMCs include various materials, including carbon
and glass fibre fabrics, epoxies, and polyester resins, offering high stiffness, strength, and
resilience. Widely used in aerospace, automotive, marine, and sporting goods, although
skilled labour and precise curing control can result in higher costs.

Matrix: Thermoplastic or thermosetting polymer.

Fibers: Typically, glass, carbon, aramid, or natural fibers.

Characteristics: PMCs are lightweight, have good impact resistance, and are easy to process.
Common in aerospace, automotive, and sporting goods.

Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs): CMCs feature a ceramic matrix with reinforcing
fibres, enhancing temperature and wear resistance. Used in gas turbine blades, aerospace
components, and heat exchangers.
Matrix: Ceramic materials, often silicon carbide or silicon nitride.
Fibers: Continuous ceramic fibers, like silicon carbide.
Characteristics: CMCs are known for their high-temperature resistance, strength, and low
weight. They are used in gas turbine engines, aerospace, and cutting tools.

Based on Fiber Type:

Carbon Fiber Composites (CFRP): CFRPs utilise carbon fibre in epoxy or polyester
matrices, often as woven roving. Hand lay-up or pultrusion methods yield rigid, tough
materials suitable for aerospace, automotive, and other applications.
Matrix: Can be polymer, metal, or ceramic.
Fibers: High-strength carbon fibers.
Characteristics: Carbon fiber composites are lightweight, strong, and have excellent stiffness.
They are used in aerospace, automotive, and sports equipment.
Example: Continuous carbon fibre reinforced aluminum (1500 MPa strength)

Glass Fiber Composites (GFRP): GFRPs consist of epoxy and polyester-bonded glass fibre
materials with varying fibre orientations. Used for their anisotropic strength in structures,
often in the form of chopped strands, chopped strand roving, or woven roving.
Matrix: Typically polymer.
Fibers: Glass fibers.
Characteristics: Glass fiber composites are affordable, have good electrical insulation, and
moderate strength. They are used in construction, marine, and automotive industries.
Example: Continuous Glass fibre reinforced Nylon (1100 MPa strength)

Advantages of Composite materials

1. Low costs compared to metals and alloys (fabrication and raw materials)
2. Design flexibility (can be designed any complex shapes easily)
3. Resistance to a wide range of chemical agents
4. Low weight (densities are less compared to the metals and ceramics)
5. They offer excellent strength-to-weight ratios.
6. They resist corrosion and wear.
7. Easy to shape and customize.
8. Provide electrical and thermal insulation.
9. Resist chemical damage.
10. Absorb and withstand impacts.
Disadvantages of Composite Materials:
1. Manufacturing composites can be expensive.
2. Repairs may require specialized techniques.
3. Layers can separate under stress.
4. Challenges in reuse and disposal.
5. Difficulty in joining composite parts.

Properties of composite materials:

1. High specific strength to weight ratio
2. High material stability against corrosion
3. Good electrical and thermal insulation
4. High thermal shock and creep resistance
5. High temperature resistance
6. Excellent resistance to corrosion and wear

Applications of Composite Materials:

1. Durable in building structures.
2. Used in racket frames.
3. Resistant boat hulls and parts.
4. Makes robust turbine blades.
5. Strong materials for prosthetics.
6. Insulation in circuit boards.
7. Corrosion-resistant pipelines.

1.9. Smart Materials:

Smart materials, also known as smart or responsive materials, are materials that can respond
to changes in their environment or conditions in a controlled and predictable manner. These
materials have the ability to sense stimuli, such as temperature, stress, light, or electrical
fields, and then adapt their properties or behavior accordingly. Here's a brief explanation of
smart materials:

Key Characteristics of Smart Materials:

 Sensing Capability: Smart materials can detect changes in their surroundings, such
as temperature, pressure, or moisture.
 Responsive Behaviour: They can react to stimuli through changes in their physical,
mechanical, electrical, or chemical properties.
 Controlled Action: The response of smart materials can be engineered and
controlled to perform specific functions or tasks.

Examples of Smart Materials:

Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs): SMAs can "remember" and return to their original shape
when heated, making them useful in applications like self-repairing structures and medical
devices.
Among them, the so-called Nitinol (Nickel and Titanium alloy), is one of the most used due
to its good properties. Even so, there are other metal alloys that also have shape memory,
 such as Copper, Zinc and Aluminium (Cu-Zn-Al) alloys; Copper, Aluminium and Nickel
(Cu-Al-Ni); o Iron, Manganese and Silicon (Fe-Mn-Si)
Applications: SMA in Dental arch wires, Blood clot filter, artificial joint implants,
orthodontic braces and orthopaedic wire that holds bones in place while a fracture heals,
Automatic Valve, Robotic arm.
Piezoelectric Materials: These materials generate an electric charge when subjected to
mechanical stress, and vice versa. They are used in sensors, actuators, and energy harvesting
devices.
Electrorheological (ER) and Magnetorheological (MR) Fluids: These fluids change their
viscosity in response to electric or magnetic fields, enabling applications like adaptive
dampers in vehicle suspensions, hydraulic valves and clutches, automotive industry,
household applications.

Chromogenic materials: Chromogenic systems change color in response to electrical,

optical or thermal changes. These include

 Electrochromic materials, which change their colour or opacity on the application of

a voltage (e.g., liquid crystal displays).
 Thermochromic materials change in colour depending on their temperature. they are
employed in smart windows, textiles, and temperature-sensitive labels.
 Photochromic materials, which change colour in response to light—for example,
light-sensitive sunglasses that darken when exposed to bright sunlight.

Photovoltaic materials:Photovoltaic materials convert light to electrical current.

Magnetic shape memory alloys: Magnetic shape memory alloys are materials that change
their shape in response to a significant change in the magnetic field.
Smart Polymers (Hydrogels): Hydrogels can swell or shrink in response to changes in pH,
temperature, or moisture, making them suitable for drug delivery systems and tissue
engineering.

Advantages of Smart materials:

1. High energy density

2. Excellent bandwidth
3. Simplified packaging
4. Unique functions
Dis advantages of Smart materials:

1. Complex thermo mechanical behavior

2. Lack of biodegradability
3. Potential for environmental pollution
 UNIT II
MANUFACTURING PROCESS

2. Manufacturing process: The process of converting Raw materials into useful products.
Manufacturing is the process of transforming raw materials or components into finished
goods through various equipment, methods, techniques and processing.
The goods can be either for consumer demand or industrial use. Manufacturing processes
use many different types of tools and machinery to accomplish the purpose. It is usually
done in multiple stages, starting with raw material sheets or blocks.

2.1 Classifications of manufacturing process:

 Shaping: Process in which shape and size of material is changed without removal of
material.
Ex. Casting, forging, Drawing, Rolling, Extrusion, and sintering
 Machining: Process in which shape and size of material is changed by removing the
material from unwanted portions of the work piece.
Ex. Turning, drilling, grinding, milling
 Joining: Process in which two or more components are joined together as single
component
Ex. Welding, brazing, soldering, reverting, bolting
2.3 Casting Process:
 Casting is a manufacturing process in which a liquid material is usually poured into a
mould that contains a cavity of the desired shape and then allowed to solidify. The
solidified part is also known as the casting, which is ejected or broken from the mould
to complete the process.
 Casting is most commonly used to create complex shapes that would otherwise be
difficult or uneconomical to make using other methods. Heavy equipment such as
machine tool beds, ship propellers, etc. can be easily cast to the size required instead of
having several small pieces joined together.

Advantages of casting process

 It can create any complex structure economically. 

 The size of object doesn’t matter for casting. 
 The casting objects have high compressive strength.
 All structure made by casting has wide range of properties. 
 This can create an accurate object.
 All material can be cast.
 It creates isotropic structure.
 It is cheapest among all manufacturing processes. 
 Composite component can be easily made by casting.

Disadvantages of casting process:

 Dimensional accuracy: Because of shrinkage in the casting, the dimensional accuracy

might be at risk. So, the designers must take care of providing the allowance to the
product (Pattern) before pouring the molten metal. 
 Low strength: Due to high porosity compared to a machined part.
 Post-processing: It requires Secondary machining operations in order to improve the
surface finish. 
 Lower Melting Point: Generally limited to metals of the lower melting point.
 Not suitable for low-volume production.

Applications of casting process:

 Transport: automobile, aerospace, railways and shipping

 Heavy equipment: construction, farming and mining
  Machine tools: machining, casting, plastics moulding, forging, extrusion and forming
 Plant machinery: chemical, petroleum, paper, sugar, textile, steel and thermal plants
 Defence: vehicles, artillery, munitions, storage and supporting equipment
 Electrical machines: motors, generators, pumps and compressors
 Municipal castings: pipes, joints, valves and fittings
 Household: appliances, kitchen and gardening equipment, furniture and fittings. 

Casting Terminology:

1. Flask: The Flask is the box that contains the moulding aggregate.
2. Pattern: It is the replica of the final object to be made with some modification.
3. Parting Line: This is dividing line b/w two parts of flask that makes the sand
moulds.
4. Bottom board: This is normally made of wood which is used to support the one
end of the flask.
5. Facing sand: The Small amount of carbonaceous sand material sprinkle on the
internal mould surface of cavity to give better surface finish to the casting.
6. Moulding Sand: It is Freshly Prepare refractory use for making the mould
cavity.
7. Backing Sand: It is the bulk of the sand used to back up the facing sand & to
fill up the volume of the flask.
8. Pouring basin: A Small Funnel Shaped Cavity at the top of mould in to inch the
molten metal is poured.
9. Core: A core is used in Casting and moulding Process to produce internal
hollow cavities in final product.
10. Sprue: It is Vertical Cavity in the moulds to flow the molten metal from the
pouring basin.
11. Runner: The pass way in the parting line through which molten metal regulated
before they reach to mould cavity.
12. Riser: It is reservior of molten metal provided in casting show that metal can
flow back into the more cavity there is a reduction in volume of metal due to
solidify.
13. Chaplet: It is used to support core inside the mould cavity to take core of it’s
own weight & overcome meler lostetic Forces.
14. Chills: Chills are metalic object which are placed in mould to increase the
cooling rate of the casting.

The basic metal casting process involves creating a pattern and a mold, then pouring molten
metal into the mould.

Step 1: Create the pattern:

Before you make your mould, you must create a pattern to determine the mould’s shape. The
pattern can be a 3-dimensional model of your final cast. It may be shaped in wax, sand, plastic,
or even wood.
Step 2: Make the mould.

After you have created a pattern, it is time to make your mould. As we mentioned above, you
may choose to make a reusable mould, which is typically made from metal, or a single-use
mould, which may be made from sand, plaster, or ceramic shell.
Step 3: Choose the metallic alloy

All metal castings are produced from either ferrous or non-ferrous alloys. Alloys are a mixture
of elements that provide the best mechanical properties for the final cast’s use. Ferrous alloys
include steel, malleable iron, and gray iron.

Step 4: Melt the alloy

Melting processes vary between alloys because each alloy will have a different melting
temperature. Essentially, melting consists of placing the solid alloy in a crucible and heating it
over an open flame or inside of a furnace.

Step 5: Pour into the mould:

Pour the molten metal into the mould cavity. If it is a small casting, you may simply pour from
the crucible where the metal was heated directly into the mould. A larger casting may require
a small team to support heating the metal inside of a furnace, and transferring the metal into a
larger crucible or ladle before being poured into the mould.

Step 6: Remove the casting from the mould.

When the metal has cooled and solidified, you can remove it from the mould. If you cast into
a single-use mould, you can break away the mould from the casting. If you used a plaster
investment, you will want to quench the plaster in water after the metal has solidified. The
water will help break away the mould. For reusable moulds, you may use ejector pins to extract
your casting.

Types of Casting Process:

 Sand casting. 
 Investment casting.
 Die casting. 
 Low pressure casting. 
 Centrifugal casting.
 Gravity die casting.
 Vacuum die casting.
 Squeezing die casting. 
 Lost Foam Casting.
 Continual Casting.
2.4 Forming Process:

Forming is a mechanical process used in manufacturing industries wherein materials (mostly

metals) undergo plastic deformations and acquire required shapes and sizes by application of
suitable stresses such as compression, shear and tension. In the forming process, no material is
removed; it is completely displaced and deformed into the required shape. Some of the
commonly used forming processes in the manufacturing industry are: Forging, Rolling,
Extrusion.

 A raw material is shaped by stretching, bending, or compression. Large forces are applied
to plastically deform a material into its new permanent shape.
 The tools used for such deformation are called die, punch etc. depending on the type of
process.

2.4.1 Bulk forming: It is a severe deformation process resulting in massive shape change.
The surface area-to-volume of the work is relatively small. Mostly done in hot working
conditions.
1. Rolling Process:

The workpiece in the form of slab or plate is compressed between two rotating
rolls in the thickness direction, so that the thickness is reduced.

2. Forging Process:

The workpiece is compressed between two dies containing shaped contours.

The die shapes are imparted into the final part.
3. Extrusion Process:

Extrusion is a manufacturing process used to create objects of a fixed cross-

sectional profile by forcing a material through a die. The material, often in the form of
a billet or a heated metal, is pushed through the die using a ram or a screw mechanism.

4. Wire Drawing: The workpiece is pulled through the die opening to take the cross-section.

2.4.2 Sheet forming: Sheet metal forming involves forming and cutting operations
performed on metal sheets, strips, and coils. The surface area-to-volume ratio of the
starting metal is relatively high. Tools include punch, die that are used to deform the
sheets.
1. Bending: Bending is the process of forming where an angle is used in order to be pressed
by the compressive force of the metal plate. This helps the material to bend at a particular
angle so that, the plate can get its necessary shape. The shape of the angle usually looks like
either the English letter “V” or “U”.
2. Deep Drawing: In this operation, a hollow cup shape die is used. The die is clamped using
the blank-holder. The workpiece (sheet metal) is placed over the die and a punch exerts the
force on the workpiece. Due to this force, sheet metal extend and fills the cavity to take the
shape of the die.
3. Shearing: In this operation, the metal sheet is in a cantilever position, and a punch coming
from the top exerts a force on the cantilever position of the sheet. Shearing is just a cutting
operation of the metal sheet.
1. Rolling:

Rolling is a metal forming process used to reduce the thickness or change the cross-
sectional shape of a metal workpiece. It involves passing the material through a set of rotating
rolls to apply compressive forces. The rotating rolls draw the slab into the gap and compresses
it. The final product is in the form of sheet.

2. Forging:

Forging is a metal shaping process that involves the application of compressive forces to
deform a metal workpiece into a desired shape. The process is typically performed at high
temperatures for increased plasticity, although cold forging is also possible for certain
materials.

 Closed die forging

 Open die forging
 Cold forging
 Roll forging
Applications:

 Aerospace: Aircraft Engines, Airframe and auxiliary equipment

 Guided missiles and space vehicles
 Automotive Passenger Cars Trucks, busses and trailers
 Motorcycles and bicycles
 Bearings ball and roller
 Electric power generation/transmission
 Industrial and commercial machinery and equipment
 Hand Tools Industrial tools
 Internal combustion engines

3. Extrusion:

The workpiece is forcing through a die to reduce the cross-section or transform it into a
desired shape.

Applications:

 It is widely used in the production of hollow pipes and tubes.

 Aluminium extrusion is used in structural work in many industries.
 Polymeric filters and nonporous goods are formed through the extrusion process.
 The extrusion process is used to produce frames, windows, doors, etc., in the
automotive industries.
4. Wire or rod drawing: Similar to extrusion, except that the workpiece is pulled through the die
opening to take thecross-section.

 Used to produce wires used in electrical industries made from materials like copper
and aluminium.
 Products like paper clips and helical springs are manufactured using the Metal
drawing process.

Advantages of Metal Forming Process

1. This process is simple and Versatile

2. It has an extensive Product Range
3. Enhanced Strength and Durability
4. Complex Geometric Shapes
5. Rapid, Strong Shaping
6. Improved Strength
7. Reduced Scrap Costs
8. Cost-Effective Process
Disadvantages of Metal Forming Process

1. Elevated Power Consumption

2. Prolonged Cycle Times
3. Thickness Variations Impact Accuracy
4. Upfront Tooling Investment
5. Limited Suitability for Certain Shapes
6. Susceptibility to Error Ratios
7. High Initial Costs

Applications of Metal Forming Process

1. Seamless tubes and rods can be made with the help of the Metal Forming process.
2. Turbine rings can be produced by this method.
3. Cement kilns can also be made with the help of this process.
4. Bearings, plates, steel sheets, and various components of an automotive car can be
developed with the help of the Metal forming process.
5. Missile & aircraft components are also manufactured through this process.
6. Moreover, agricultural tools & military products are also produced with the help of
this process.
7. Furniture, hook, pin, screws can also be made from this process.
2.5 Joining Process:

 Manufacturing process which is used to assemble subcomponents into a single final

product either temporarily or permanently with or without application heat or pressure.
 Joining includes welding, brazing, soldering, adhesive bonding of materials.
 Many bicycle frames, for instance, are welded together from individual pieces of metal
tubing.

 Riveting is the joining process, where metallic parts are joined together by using rivets
 Bolting is the joining process, where metallic parts are joined together by means of bolt
or screw (nut).

2.5.1 WELDING:

Welding is a permanent joining process in which two pieces of metal together to form one
piece by heating the metals to their melting points. Additional metal also called filler metal is
added during the heating process to help bond the two pieces together.

Welding Machine:

A welding machine is used to create the heat and apply the filler metal. The filler metal is
supplied to form the joint, either from the electrode itself (or) by filler material. The
temperature of the heat produced is of the order of 6000° to 7000°c.
Types of Welding Processes
 Gas welding
 Arc welding
 Resistance welding

Advantages of Welding Process

1. A well-executed weld is as strong as the base metal.
2. Faster process compared to riveting and casting.
3. Applicable to all metals and alloys.
4. Difficult shapes can be produced by welding.
5. Welding equipment is portable and can be easily maintained.
6. No noise is produced during the welding process as in the case of riveting.
7. The welding process requires less workspace in comparison to riveting.

Disadvantages of Welding Process

1. Gives out harmful radiation, fumes, and spotless (a sudden sprinkle of spark).
2. It needs certain jigs and fixtures to hold metals properly.
3. Skilled workers are needed to perform welding tasks.
4. The inspection of welding work is more difficult and costlier than the riveting work.

Applications of Welding
1. Welding finds extensive use in fabrication of pressure vessels, bridges, building structures, aircraft
and spacecraft as well as railway coaches and various general applications.
2. It is employed in shipbuilding, automotive manufacturing, electrical, electronic and defence
industries.
3. Steel furniture, gates, doors, door frames and various components of appliances like refrigerators,
washing machines and microwave ovens are all manufactured through welding.

Some of the application are:

 Shipbuilding
 Railway coaches
 Automobile chassis and bodybuilding
 Earthmover bodies
 Window shutters
 Doors, gates
 All types of fabrication work.
2.5.2. Soldering:
 Soldering is one of the oldest and most popular techniques used for joining similar or
dissimilar metals.
 It uses a filler material to join parent materials that remain solid. It is a low-temperature
analog to brazing which uses filler alloys with melting temperatures below 450 °C (840
°F).
 This process may or may not require a fluxing agent. The filler metals melt at low
temperatures so there is minimum part distortion and heat damage to sensitive parts.
 The filler metal is called solder which when solidifies, is then bonded to the metal parts
to join them.
 The most commonly used solder is tin alloy and lead. Soldering is extensively used in
the electronics industry for joining wires, capacitor, resistor, etc. with the joining plate.
2.5.3 Brazing:

 Brazing is a permanent joining process that operates at temperatures above 450 Oc and
is utilized to join materials such as brass, copper and aluminum. The typical brazing
process involves the use of a torch or holder as the primary component. Through
which gas is passed to produce a flame at the torch’s tip. This flame to heat the
surfaces of the workpieces before joining.
 In this process, a filler material is employed, which is melted using the torch and then
applied to the workpieces to facilitate the joining. The choice of filler material
depends on the type of material being joined. Additionally, a flux material is utilized
to prevent oxidation during the welding of the workpieces. Oxy- acetylene gas is
commonly used to generate the flame for melting the filler material and joining the
workpieces.
 It can be applied to a wide variety of materials, including metals, ceramics, glasses,
plastic, and composite materials.
 This process can also be used to join dissimilar metals such as silver, gold, copper,
aluminum, etc. Brazing is necessarily done at temperature above 450 °C but below the
critical temperature of metal.
2.6 Machining Process:

 Machining is a manufacturing process where the material is gradually removed from a

workpiece in the form of small chips.
 Machining operations are capable of producing mechanical components with
dimensions and shapes that are far more precise than their cast or forged counterparts.
Most important machining operations:
 Turning: Turning is a form of machining process, which is used to create rotational parts
by cutting away unwanted material.
 Drilling: Drilling produces cylindrical holes in solid materials using drill bits—it is one
of the most important machining processes as the holes that are created are often intended
to aid in assembly.
 Milling: Milling uses rotating cutters to remove material, unlike turning operations where
the tool does not spin.
 Grinding: Grinding is used to remove small amounts of material from both flat surfaces
and cylindrical shapes.
Other machining operations:
 Shaping and planning: Planing and shaping processes excel at creating flat surfaces, especially
those that will undergo scraping as a finishing method.
 Broaching: Broaching is a machining process that employs a tool called a broach to create
square holes, spline holes, keyways and various other shapes in workpieces.
 Sawing: sawing is machining process used to create shorter lengths from extruded shapes, bars
and various materials, typically carried out by cut-off machines.

Advantages of Machining process:

1. High degree of accuracy

2. Able to create complex shapes
3. High degree of surface finish
4. Able to create parts with tight tolerance
5. Repeatability
Disadvantages of Machining process:

1. High initial cost

2. Generates waste material
3. Limited design flexibility
4. Require skilled workers

Applications of Machining process:

1. Automotive Industry: There are various parts in a vehicle which require the precision
of machining.
2. Aerospace Industry: Spare parts production for military vehicles.
3. Medical Industry
4. High precision and accuracy jobs.

2.7 CNC Machines: CNC (Computer Numerical Control) machines are automated tools
controlled by computers to execute precise machining operations.
1. CAD (Computer Aided Design) and CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing) programs
is used in modern CNC machines for end-to-end component design where G and M
codes are used.
2. CNC machines can create many products by using actuators, drives, and software
programs.
3. CNC machines encompass a range of equipment like lathes, mills, slott0ers, shapers

How CNC Works?

 Controlled by G and M codes.
 These are number values and co-ordinates.
 Each number or code is assigned to a particular operation.
 Typed in manually to CAD by machine operators.
 G&M codes are automatically generated by the computer software.
Components of a CNC Machine:

 Input Devices: These devices are responsible for inputting the part program into
the CNC machines. punch tape reader, magnetic tape reader, and computer
via RS-232-Ccommunication.
 Machine Control Unit (MCU): Serving as the heart of the CNC machine, the
MCU performs all controlling actions. Its various functions include reading the
coded instructions, decoding them, implementing interpolation (linear, circular, and
helical) to generate axis motion commands
 Machine Tool: The CNC machine tool comprises a slide table and a spindle to
control the position and speed. The machine table is controlled in the X and Y-axis
direction, while the spindle is controlled in the Z-axis direction.
 Driving System: The driving system consists of amplifier circuits, drive motors, and
balllead screws.
 Feedback System: This system incorporates transducers that act as sensors and
measuring devices. It continuously monitors the position and speed of the cutting
tool at any given moment.
 Display Unit: A monitor is used as a display unit to showcase CNC machine
programs, commands, and other pertinent data.

Advantages of CNC Machines:

 Can work without constant operator interaction.

 They have high production rates.
 CNC machines have a repeatable and high level of accuracy.
 Can produce parts with minimal dimensional deviation.
 Can produce parts with complex features that would not be possible with manual
machines.
 CNC programs can be modified easily to accommodate design changes.
 Reduces the risk of human error and increases safety.

Disadvantages of CNC Machines:

 CNC machines cost significantly more than manual machines.

 Operating CNC machines needs expensive skilled labor.
 CNC machines require regular maintenance to ensure their optimal performance.
 Downtime for repairs or maintenance can disrupt production schedules and incur
additional costs.
 2.8 3D Printing:

3D printing is a process in which a digital model is turned into a tangible, solid, three-
dimensional object, usually by laying down many successive, thin layers of a material.

How does it work?

 Modeling: Additive manufacturing takes virtual blueprints from cad or animation

modeling software and slices them into digital cross sections for a machine to
successively use as a guideline for printing.
 Printing: To perform a print the machine reads the design and lays down successful
layers of liquid, powder or sheet material to build the models from a series of cross
sections. These layers join together or automatically fused to creative final shape. The
main advantage of this technique is to create almost any geometrical shape
 Finishing: Printing a slightly oversized version of the desired object in standard
resolution and then removing excess material with a subtractive process and achieve a
high resolution.

How are things printed?

 The 3D printer will begin printing the layers of material in a process known as
material extrusion.
 Depending on the type of 3D printer and material being used, there are several
methods of material extrusion.
 The 3D printer will have a nozzle ejecting a semi-liquid material, like molten plastic,
metal, or cement.
 The extrusion nozzle can move in both horizontal and vertical directions as it
precisely places the material, following the blueprint of the digital model layer by
layer.
 This process is repeated until the 3D printer has replicated every layer in the digital
model with the extruded material.

Applications:

 Design visualization,
 Prototyping/CAD,
 Metal casting,
 Architecture,
 Education,
 Geospatial,
 Healthcare
 Entertainment/retail.

2.9 Smart Manufacturing:

Smart manufacturing represents the utilization of interconnected machinery and

tools to enhance manufacturing performance while optimizing energy consumption and
 workforce efficiency. This is achieved through the integration of big data processing,
artificial intelligence, advanced robotics technology and the seamless connectivity of
these elements.

 Smart manufacturing refers to the digitization of manufacturing at all levels: product

design, supply chain, production, distribution, and sales.
 By analyzing data from all steps in the manufacturing process through machine learning,
artificial intelligence, and connected robotics, manufacturers can stay agile and make fast
adjustments to their business models.
 The transition to smart manufacturing starts with bringing analog data into a digital
database.
 Smart manufacturing leverages Industry 4.0, which is characterized by interconnected
cyber-physical systems such as intelligent robots and machines that can self-diagnose and
warn of possible failures.
 The proliferating IoT brings more powerful devices and machines with smart sensors that
upload continuous streams of usage data to the cloud for analysis.
 AI/Machine Learning, Augmented Reality/Virtual Reality, Automation/Robotics, Additive
Manufacturing/Hybrid Manufacturing, Big Data Analysis, Cloud Computing, CNC
Machining, Design for Manufacturing, IoT/Edge Computing and Simulation/Digital Twin

Advantages of Smart Manufacturing

 Predictive Maintenance
 Increased productivity
 Asset Optimization
 Effective Supply Chain Management
 Enhance accuracy and efficiency

Disadvantages of Smart Manufacturing

 The initial implementation cost is more.

 Complexity
 Need for highly skilled employees

Role of smart manufacturing:

Smart manufacturing also known as Industry 4.0 or the Industrial Internet of Things (IoT),
revolutionizes traditional manufacturing processes by integrating advanced technologies such
as artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning, big data analytics, robotics, and the Internet of
Things (IoT) into the production environment. The role of smart manufacturing is

 Efficiency and Productivity

 Quality Assurance
 Supply Chain Optimization
 Customization and Flexibility
 Worker Safety and Collaboration.
 Thermal engineering

Thermal engineering deals with movement of heat energy and transfer. Since the energy can
be transferred between two medium or transferred into other forms of energy.

Boiler: Boiler is a steel pressure vessel in which water under pressure is converted into steam
by the application of combustion. It is simply a heat exchanger which uses radiant heat and hot
flue gases, liberated from burning fuel (solid, liquid or gaseous), to generate steam and hot
water for heating and processing loads.

The steam boilers generate steam to power turbines for power generation and other various
industrial applications.

Working principle: the boiler is closed vessel, where the water is stored. Hot gases are formed
by burning fuel in the furnace. These gases are made to come in contact with the water vessel,
the point where the heat transfer takes place between the steam and water so by using the heat
energy the water is converted to steam.
Classification of boilers:
The steam boilers are classified as
 According to flow of water and hot gases.
1. Fire Tube Boilers
2. Water Tube Boilers
 According to the method of firing.
1. Internally fired boilers
2. Externally fired boilers
 According to the Pressure developed
1. Low pressure boilers
2. High pressure boilers

Comparison between Water tube and Fire tube boilers:

Heat Engine: Heat Engine is a machine which converts heat energy supplied to it into
mechanical work. Heat energy is supplied to the engine by burning the fuel.

Classification of Heat Engines:

Internal Combustion Engines (IC Engines)
In IC engines, combustion of fuel takes place inside the engine cylinder.
Examples: Diesel Engines, Petrol Engines, Gas engines.
External Combustion Engines (EC Engines)
In EC engines, combustion of fuel takes place outside the working cylinder.
Examples: Steam Engines and Steam turbines
Four Stroke Petrol Engine- Working:
Construction:
• A piston reciprocates inside the cylinder
• The piston is connected to the crank shaftby means of a connecting rod and crank.
• The inlet and exhaust valves are Mounted on the cylinder head.
• A spark is provided on the cylinder Head.
• The fuel used is petrol

(a) Suction Stroke (First Stroke of the Engine)

• Piston moves down from TDC to BDC
• Inlet valve is opened and the exhaust valve is closed.
• Pressure inside the cylinder is reduced below the atmospheric pressure.
• The mixture of air fuel is sucked into the cylinder through the inlet valve.
(b) Compression Stroke: (Second Stroke of the piston)
• Piston moves up from BDC to TDC
• Both inlet and exhaust valves are closed.
• The air fuel mixture in the cylinder is compressed.
(c) Working or Power or Expansion Stroke: (Third Stroke of the Engine)
• The burning gases expand rapidly. They exert an impulse (thrust or force) on the
piston. The piston is pushed from TDC to BDC
• This movement of the piston is converted into rotary motion of the crankshaft
through connecting rod.
• Both inlet and exhaust valves are closed.
(d) Exhaust Stroke (Fourth stroke of the piston)
• Piston moves upward from BDC
• Exhaust valve is opened and the inlet valve is closed.
• The burnt gases are forced out to the atmosphere through the exhaust valve (Some of
the burnt gases stay in the clearance volume of the cylinder)
• The exhaust valve closes shortly after TDC
• The inlet valve opens slightly before TDC and the cylinder is ready to receive
fresh charge to start a new cycle.
Summary:
• Compression ratio varies from 5 to 8
• The pressure at the end of compression is about 6 to 12 bar.
• The temperature at the end of the compression reaches 250o C to 350o C

Four Stroke Diesel Engine: Working

Construction:
• A piston reciprocates inside the cylinder
• The piston is connected to the crankshaft by means of a connecting rod and crank.
• The inlet and exhaust valves are mounted on the cylinder head.
• A fuel injector is provided on the cylinder head
• The fuel used is diesel.
(a) Suction Stroke (First Stroke of the piston)
• Piston moves from TDC to BDC
• Inlet valve is opened and the exhaust valve is closed.
• The pressure inside the cylinder is reduced below the atmospheric pressure.
• Fresh air from the atmosphere is sucked into the engine cylinder through air cleaner
and inlet valve.
(b) Compression stroke (Second stroke of the piston)
• Piston moves from BDC to TDC
• Both inlet and exhaust valves are closed.
• The air is drawn during suction stroke is compressed to a high pressure and temperature.
• At the end of the compression, fuel valve opens and fuel is injected into the cylinder through an
injector.
(c) Working or power or expansion stroke (Third stroke of the piston)
• The burning gases (products of combustion) expand rapidly.
• The burning gases push the piston move downward from TDC to BDC
• This movement of piston is converted into rotary motion of the crank shaft through
connecting rod.
• Both inlet and exhaust valves are closed
 (d) Exhaust Stroke (Fourth stroke of the piston)
• Piston moves from BDC to TDC
• Exhaust valve is opened the inlet valve is closed.
• The burnt gases are forced out to the atmosphere through the exhaust valve. (some of the
burnt gases stay in the clearance volume of the cylinder)
• The exhaust valve closes shortly after TDC
• The inlet valve opens slightly before TDC and the cylinder is ready to receive fresh air
to start a new cycle.

Comparison between SI and CI Engines:

2 Stroke engines working:

Construction:
• A piston reciprocates inside the cylinder
• It is connected to the crankshaft by means of connecting rod and crank
• There are no valves in two stroke engines, instead of valves ports are cut on the cylinder walls.
• There are three ports, namely inlet, exhaust and transfer ports.
• The closing and opening of the ports are obtained by the movement of piston. The crown of
piston is made in to a shape to perform this.
• A spark plug is also provided.
First Stroke: (Upward stroke of piston)
• The piston moves up from Bottom Dead Centre (BDC) to Top Dead Centre (TDC)
• Both transfer and exhaust ports are covered by the piston.
• Air fuel mixture which is transferred already into the engine cylinder is compressed
by moving piston.
• The pressure and temperature increase at the end of compression.
• Piston almost reaches the top dead center. The air fuel mixture inside the cylinder is ignited
by means of an electric spark produced by a spark plug
• At the same time, the inlet port is uncovered by the plane.
• Fresh air fuel mixture enters the crankcase through the inlet port.
Second Stroke: (Downward Stroke of the engine):
• The burning gases expand in the cylinder. The burning gases force the piston to move down.
Thus, useful work is obtained.
• When the piston moves down, the air fuel mixture in the crankcase is partially compressed.
This compression is known as Crank case compression.
• At the end of expansion, exhaust port is uncovered.
• Burnt gases escape to the atmosphere.
• Transfer port is also opened. The partially compressed air fuel mixture enters the cylinder
through the transfer port.
• The crown of the piston is made of a deflected shape. So, the fresh charge entering the cylinder
is deflected upwards in the cylinder.
• Thus, the escape of fresh charge along with the exhaust gases is reduced.
Otto cycle:
The Otto cycle is an ideal thermodynamic cycle
Process 0–1 Suction /Intake: A mass of air is drawn into piston/cylinder arrangement at
constant pressure.
Process 1–2 isentropic compression: The charge as the piston moves frombottom dead
centre (BDC) to top dead centre (TDC) compressing the fuel air charge.
Process 2–3 constant-volume heat supplied: The burning gases (products of combustion)
expand rapidly. The burning gases push the piston move downward from TDC to BDC
Process 3–4 isentropic Expansion: when the mixture burns, it expands istentropically. This
is called power stroke.
Process 4–1 constant-volume heat rejected completes the cycle by a constant-volume
process in which heat is rejected fromthe air while the piston is at bottom dead centre.
Diesel cycle:
Process 0-1 Suction /Intake: In this process suction takes place
Process 1-2 isentropic compression: In this process compression takes place. Both the inlet
and exhaust valves are closed and the compression takes place which is much higher than that
of an Otto cycle. This increases the pressure and temperature.
Process 2-3 constant-pressure heat supplied: In this process, fuel is added, and combustion
occurs due to high temperature, while maintaining a constant pressure because the volume is
also increasing.
Process 3-4 isentropic Expansion: In this process expansion takes place, due to
combustion the piston moves from TDC to BDC and power is generated.
Process 4-1 constant-volume heat rejected: In this process, heat rejection is taking place at
constant volume

Refrigeration: Refrigeration is the process of removing heat from a space, substance, or

system to lower its temperature. This is commonly used in various applications such as
preserving food, cooling beverages, and maintaining comfortable temperatures in buildings.
The working principle of refrigeration systems.
Air conditioning: Air conditioning process has an indoor and outdoor unit connected with a
pipe. The air is heated, compressed, condensed and liquefied. The liquid gas evaporates and is
cooled with the help of a condenser.
Refrigerator: A device used to maintain the low temperature within required space. The
working fluid used to cool lower temperature is called Refrigerant.
Vapour Compression Refrigeration Cycle:
A vapour compression refrigeration system, the refrigerant undergoes a phase change from liquid
to vapour and vapour to liquid during the completion of a cycle. The refrigerant usually used for this
purpose are freons, ammonia, carbon dioxide and Sulphur - dioxide. Vapour compression systems are
being used for all purposes of refrigeration varying from small domestic refrigerators to big air
conditioning plants.

Process 1-2 - Evaporation:

From points 1 to 2, low-pressure liquid refrigerant in the evaporator absorbs heat from its
surrounding environment, thus performing the cooling or refrigeration effect. Due to absorption
of heat liquid refringent is converted into vapour. This vapour enters into compressor.

Process 2-3 Compression of the refrigerant:

The superheated vapour from evaporator enters the compressor where its pressure is increased
due to compression. The temperature also typically increases, since a part of the energy put
into the compression process is transferred to the refrigerant.

Process 3-4 Condensation of pressurized refrigerant

The pressurized and superheated vapour from compressor outlet is sent to a condenser. Vapour
refrigerant gets condensed in condenser. So that vapour refringent converts into liquid state.

Process 4-1 Expansion of the subcooled and highly pressurized refrigerant

The high-pressure sub-cooled liquid passes through the expansion device, which reduces its
pressure as well as controls the flow into the evaporator. The process is repeated from now in
cycle.
Advantages:

1. It is smaller in size for given capacity.

2. Running cost is low.
3. It can be operated over large range of temperatures.
4.
Disadvantages:

1. Initial cost is high

2. Leakage of refrigerant is a major problem in this system.

Vapour Absorption Refrigeration Cycle:

Vapor absorption refrigeration system consists of evaporator, absorber, generator,

condenser, expansion valve, pump & reducing valve. In this system ammonia is used as
refrigerant and solution is used is aqua ammonia. Strong solution of aqua ammonia contains as
much as ammonia as it can and weak solution contains less ammonia. The compressor of vapor
compressor system is replaced by an absorber, generator, reducing valve and pump. The heat
flow in the system at generator, and work is supplied to pump. Ammonia vapours coming out
of evaporator are drawn in absorber. The weak solution containing very little ammonia is
spread in absorber. The weak solution absorbs ammonia and gets converted into strong
solution. This strong solution from absorber is pumped into generator. The addition of heat
liberates ammonia vapor and solution gets converted into weak solution. The released vapor is
passed to condenser. Here vapour is converted into high pressure high temp liquid and high-
pressure high temp liquid passes through a expansion valve. It converts into low pressure low
temperature liquid vapour and again it passes through the evaporator. The low-pressure liquid
refrigerant entered into the evaporator absorbs heat from its surrounding environment, thus
performing the cooling or refrigeration effect. Due to absorption of heat liquid refringent is
converted into vapour. The process is repeated from now in cycle.
Advantages
1. Can use waste heat or other low-grade energy sources
2. No moving parts, so minimal maintenance required
3. Can operate with a wide range of refrigerants
4. Quieter operation compared to vapor compression cycle

Disadvantages
1. Higher initial cost compared to vapor compression cycle
2. Lower cooling capacity
3. Requires a large amount of space for the absorber and generator
4. Performance can be affected by changes in ambient temperature or humidity
5. Lower coefficient of performance compared to vapor compression cycle

Electric and Hybrid Vehicles:

Need for Electric vehicles:
The use of electric vehicles is an active action in conserving the environment. The use of
these vehicles promotes the protection of the environment by reducing greenhouse gas
emissions while promoting renewable energy sources that are less likely to amount to the
carbon footprint.
An electric vehicle is an automotive mode of transportation propelled by one or more
electric motors, utilizing electrical energy stored in an energy storage device. The
fundamental components within electric vehicles consist of the motor, controller, power
source and transmission.
Electric Vehicle Components: Electric vehicles (EVs) consist of several key
components:
* Motor: The motor is responsible for propelling the vehicle, converting electrical
energy into mechanical power for motion.
* Battery: The battery serves as the energy storage device, storing electrical power to
supply the electric motor and other vehicle components.
* Transmission: The transmission is responsible for transmitting the mechanical power
generated by the motor to the vehicle's wheels, enabling movement.
Motor Controller: The motor controller manages the distribution of electric power from
the battery to the motor, regulating power flow based on data from the accelerator pedal.
* Vehicle Controller: This component controls various vehicle functions, including
monitoring and managing different systems for safe and efficient operation.
* Inverter: The power inverter plays a pivotal role in converting DC power from the
batteries into AC power for the motor. It also converts AC current generated during
regenerative braking back into DC current for battery recharging.
When the battery is recharged, it stores electric energy, which is subsequently used to
power the electric motor and other vehicle components. The controller governs the supply of
electric power to the motor, adjusting power flow in response to accelerator pedal input. The
transmission transfers mechanical power from the motor to the vehicle's wheels. Some EVs
employ regenerative braking to generate energy during braking or deceleration, which is then
returned to the battery.

Advantages:
1. Electricity is Renewable, unlike Gasoline
2. Low Maintenance
3. Quieter and Smoother Motion
4. No need for gasoline, eliminating fuel costs.
5. Zero emissions, contributing to environmental sustainability.
6. Cost-effective operation with lower maintenance requirements.
7. Reduced noise during operation compared to internal combustion engine vehicles.
Limitations:
1. High initial cost
2. Limited driving range.
3. Charging Complications
4. Battery Life

Need for hybrid vehicles: When compared to conventional vehicles, hybrids offer better
power and fuel efficiency as they combine the benefits of high fuel efficiency and low
emissions. When hybrid vehicles are cruising or while braking, the result is excess power which
is used to charge the batteries. Hybrid electric vehicles are powered by an internal combustion
engine and an electric motor, which uses energy stored in batteries. A hybrid electric vehicle
cannot be plugged in to charge the battery. Instead, the battery is charged through regenerative
braking and by the internal combustion engine.
 A hybrid vehicle is a type of car that uses two or more different power sources to move the
vehicle.
 The most common type of hybrid vehicle is a gas-electric hybrid, which uses both gasoline
and electricity to power the car.
 Hybrid vehicles are becoming increasingly popular as people look for ways to save money
on fuel and reduce their environmental impact.
 The hybrid car has five main components: gas engine, electric motor, battery, power control
unit, and regenerative braking system

Main components of Hybrid Electric vehicles:

Gas Engine: The gas engine is responsible for providing power to the wheels when needed.
It typically runs on gasoline or diesel, but some hybrid cars also use alternative fuels such as
natural gas or propane.
Electric Motor: The electric motor is used to power the car at lower speeds and during start-
up. It is usually powered by a battery, but some hybrid cars also have an on-board generator
that can recharge the battery while you are driving.
Battery: The battery serves as the energy storage device, storing electrical power to supply
the electric motor and other vehicle components.
Power Control Unit: The power control unit manages the flow of power between the gas
engine, the electric motor, and the battery. It ensures that the right amount of power is being
used at the right time.
Regenerative Braking System: The regenerative braking system captures energy from the
brakes and uses it to recharge the battery. This helps to improve fuel efficiency and extends
the life of the battery
Advantages and Limitations of hybrid vehicles
Advantages Limitations
1. Environmentally Friendly 1. Less Power
2. Financial Benefits 2. Can be Expensive
3. Less Dependence on Fossil Fuels 3. Poorer Handling
4. Regenerative Braking System 4. Higher Maintenance Costs
5. Built from Light Materials 5. Accident from High Voltage in Batteries
6. Assistance from Electric Motor 6. Battery Replacement is Pricey
7. Smaller Engines 7. Battery Disposal and Recycling
8. Automatic Start and Stop 8. Hydrogen Fuel Cell Issues
9. Electric-Only Drive
10. Higher Resale Value
 UNIT III
3. Power Plants
3.1 Steam power plant: Thermal power plant
A steam power plant, also known as a thermal power plant, is a facility designed to
generate electricity through the use of steam as the primary working fluid. It operates based
on the principles of thermodynamics, utilizing the conversion of heat energy into mechanical
work and subsequently into electrical energy.
The boiler generates steam at high pressure and high temperature. The steam turbine
converts the heat energy of steam into mechanical energy. The generator then converts the
mechanical energy into electric power.
The primary components of a steam power plant include a boiler, a turbine, a
condenser, and a generator.
Fuel Combustion: The primary source of heat in a thermal power plant is the
combustion of a fossil fuel such as coal, natural gas, or oil. Some plants use renewable
sources like biomass or geothermal heat. The fuel is burned in a combustion chamber to
produce high-temperature and high-pressure steam.
Boiler: The heat generated by fuel combustion is used to boil water and produce
steam in a boiler. The boiler is a high-pressure vessel where water is heated to create
superheated steam. The steam is typically at very high temperatures and pressures to
maximize its energy content.
Steam Turbine: The high-pressure, high-temperature steam generated in the boiler is
directed into a steam turbine. The steam expands through the turbine's blades, causing the
turbine to rotate. As the steam does work on the turbine, its pressure and temperature drop,
and the kinetic energy is converted into mechanical energy.

Generator: The rotating shaft of the steam turbine is connected to a generator. As the
turbine rotates, it drives the generator, which converts the mechanical energy into electrical
energy through electromagnetic induction. This process generates alternating current (AC)
electricity.

Condenser: After passing through the turbine, the low-pressure and low-temperature
exhaust steam is condensed back into water in a condenser. This condensation is facilitated
by a cooling system, typically using water from a nearby river or cooling towers. The water is
then returned to the boiler to be reheated and reused.
Advantages Disadvantages

Cheap coal is used Air pollution from smoke fumes

Can be installed anywhere near fuel & Maintenance and operating costs are high.
water supply

Less space is required in comparison with Steam power plants emit large amounts of smoke
that for hydroelectric plants. and pollutants.
Cost for Generation is less Great difficulty experienced in coal handling
Cheaper in initial cost A large quantity of water is required.

3.2. Hydro Electric Power Plant

A hydroelectric power plant generates electricity using the energy of flowing water, typically from a
river or dam. The basic principle and working of a hydroelectric power plant involve the conversion
of kinetic energy from moving water into mechanical energy. At hydropower plants water flows
through a pipe, or penstock, then pushes against and turns blades in a turbine that spin to power a
generator to produce electricity.

Here are the key steps involved:

Water Source: A hydroelectric power plant relies on a consistent and reliable source of flowing
water, which can be obtained from a river, dammed reservoir, or other water bodies. The flow of
water is essential for the continuous operation of the plant.

Dam or Reservoir: In many hydroelectric power plants, a dam is built across a river to create a
reservoir, which stores a large volume of water at an elevated level. This elevated water is a potential
energy source.
Penstock: The water from the reservoir is channelled into a large, high-pressure pipe called a
penstock. The pressure in the penstock is created by the weight of the water due to its elevation
above the turbines. The high-pressure water enters the power plant with significant kinetic energy.

Turbines: The high-pressure water from the penstock is directed onto the blades of a turbine. The
force of the flowing water causes the turbine to spin. There are different types of turbines used in
hydroelectric power plants, such as Pelton, Francis, and Kaplan turbines, each suited to specific
water flow conditions.

Mechanical Energy: As the turbine spins, it converts the kinetic energy of the flowing water into
mechanical energy in the form of rotational motion.
Generator: The rotating shaft of the turbine is connected to a generator. Inside the generator, the
mechanical energy is used to turn a rotor, which is placed within a magnetic field. This rotation
induces electromagnetic induction, producing electrical energy in the form of alternating current
(AC)

 Advantages:
1. No fuel charges.
2. Maintenance and operation charges are very low.
3. No fuel transportation problem.
4. A hydro-electric plant is highly reliable.
5. Running cost of the plant is low.
6. No ash problem and atmosphere is not polluted since no smoke is produced in the
plant.

 Disadvantages:
1. Can damage fish populations and other aquatic life
2. The initial cost of the plant is very high.
3. There are limited places suitable for building hydropower plants.
3.3. Nuclear Power Plant

A nuclear power plant generates electricity through a process called nuclear fission. Nuclear fission
involves the splitting of atomic nuclei, releasing a significant amount of energy. The basic principle
and working of a nuclear power plant can be explained as follows:

In nuclear power plant, heat generated in the reactor due to the fission of the fuel is taken up by the
coolant. The hot coolant then leaves the reactor and flows through the steam generator. In the steam
generator the hot coolant transfers its heat to the feed water which gets converted into steam. The
steam produced is passed through the turbine, which is coupled with generator. Hence the power is
produced during the running of turbine. The exhaust steam from the turbine is condensed in the
condenser. The condensate then flows to the steam generator through the feed pump. The cycle is
thus repeated.

Nuclear Fuel: Nuclear power plants use a specific type of fuel, typically uranium-235 (U-235) or
plutonium-239 (Pu-239). These fuels are chosen because they are fissile materials, meaning they can
undergo nuclear fission when bombarded with neutrons. The fuel is usually in the form of small
pellets, which are loaded into fuel rods.

Nuclear Chain Reaction: To initiate nuclear fission, the nuclear fuel is placed in a controlled
environment within the reactor core. Neutrons are introduced to the fuel, causing U-235 or Pu-239
nuclei to undergo fission, which releases energy in the form of heat. This process is self-sustaining,
as each fission event releases more neutrons, leading to a chain reaction.

Reactor Core: The reactor core is the central component of the nuclear power plant. It contains the
fuel assemblies, control rods, and coolant. The control rods are made of materials that can absorb
neutrons, and their position can be adjusted to control the rate of the chain reaction.

Coolant (or Moderator): The heat generated during nuclear fission is carried away by a coolant,
usually water or heavy water (deuterium oxide). The coolant circulates through the reactor core,
absorbing heat and carrying it to a heat exchanger.
Heat Exchanger: In the heat exchanger, the heat from the coolant is transferred to a secondary
coolant loop without any contact between the two loops. The secondary coolant is typically water or
steam.
Steam Generation: The heat transferred to the secondary coolant in the heat exchanger causes it to
boil and produce high-pressure steam.
Steam Turbine: The high-pressure steam from the secondary coolant loop is directed into a steam
turbine. The steam expands through the turbine blades, causing the turbine to rotate.
Generator: The rotating shaft of the steam turbine is connected to a generator. As the turbine spins,
it drives the generator, converting the mechanical energy into electrical energy through
electromagnetic induction. This electricity is generated in the form of alternating current (AC

Advantages of Nuclear Power Plant:

• Nuclear power plants are expensive to build, but relatively inexpensive to operate.
• Requires less space compared to steam power plant.
• Fuel required is negligible compared to coal requirement.
• Fuel transport cost is less.
• Reliable in operation.
• Water required is very less.

Disadvantages of Nuclear Power Plant:

• Initial Cost is higher.
• Not suitable for varying load condition.
• Radioactive wastes are hazardous. Hence these are to be handled with much care.
• Maintenance cost is higher.
• Trained workers are required to operate the plant.

3.4 Diesel Power plant:

Step 1:
The air enters into the compressor and forms high pressure and temperature and then enters
into filter to remove dust particles and sent to the diesel engine.
Step 2:
The fuel from the fuel tank enters into engine through injector, combustion takes place and
the crank shaft rotates, the shaft is connected to the generator, which produces the electrical
energy.
The lubricant is sent to diesel engine to reduce the friction in moving parts and the oil cooler
is used to cool the in the engine and heat is absorbed and sent to condenser to cool down heat
absorbed and converted to water, this water is supplied to the cooling water.
Advantages:
1. The construction of diesel power plant is simple.
2. The diesel power plant can be easily installed at any place where the demand for
power is very less.
3. Time required to start and stop this power plant is very minimum as compare to time
take by other plants to start and stop.
4. It starts quickly and easily picks up the load variations.
5. Overall capital cost is lesser than that for steam plants.
Disadvantages:
1. The running cost of diesel power plant is high because diesel fuel is more expensive.
2. High operating cost.
3. High maintenance and lubrication cost.
4. This plant has limited power generation and storages capacity than thermal and
hydroelectric power plants.
5. This diesel power plant produces limited amount of electricity.
6. The life span of the diesel energy is relatively short.
3.5 Power Transmission Systems:

MECHANICAL POWER TRANSMISSION:

Power is a vital requirement for driving various machines and equipment across a wide range
of applications. Transmitting available power efficiently to achieve desired motion and
perform work is crucial.

Mechanical power transmission is the process of transferring mechanical energy from one
component to another. It finds application in a diverse array of machinery, from everyday
appliances to large industrial systems. This system comprises three key elements: the
transmission mechanism, the receiving mechanism and the power source. The transmission
mechanism converts power from the source into motion, which is subsequently transferred to
the receiving mechanism.

This method is not only highly efficient but also cost-effective. Mechanical power
transmission has been in use for centuries and has evolved with technological advancements.
It offers numerous advantages, including affordability, reliability and versatility.

Mechanical power transmission systems are well-suited for various applications due to their
multitude of benefits. They are more efficient, dependable, cost-effective and safe. When
energy is transmitted from input to output using mechanical components, it is referred to as
mechanical power transmission or a drive.

The process of transmitting available energy or power to achieve desired motion and work
involves the use of mechanical elements such as friction discs, various types of belts, ropes,
chains, gears, couplings and more.

There are two main categories of drives:

* Flexible Drives: These drives connect the driver and driven shafts through an intermediate
flexible element. Examples include belt drives, chain drives and rope drives.

* Fixed Drives: In fixed drives, the driver and driven shafts are directly connected by two
rigid bodies, eliminating the need for an intermediate flexible element. Gear drives are an
example of this type.

a. Belt Drives:

Principle: Belt drives operate based on the friction between a belt (usually made of rubber or
synthetic materials) and a pair of pulleys. The power is transmitted from one pulley to
another by the motion of the belt.
Advantages:

1. Smooth and quiet operation.

2. Less maintenance compared to some other drive systems.
3. Absorb shock loads and dampen vibrations
4. Suitable for long-distance power transmission.

Disadvantages:

1. Limited to lower power transmission compared to chain and gear drives.

2. Slippage can occur under heavy loads or in wet conditions.
3. Belt replacement may be necessary over time due to wear and fatigue.

b. Chain Drives:

Principle: Chain drives use a chain, typically made of metal, to transfer power between
sprockets. The power is transmitted through the meshing of the chain's links with the teeth of
the sprockets.

Advantages:

1. High strength and durability, making them suitable for heavy loads and high torque
applications.
2. Minimal slippage even under heavy loads.
3. Efficient power transmission.
 4. Low maintenance, especially when lubricated regularly.

Disadvantages:

1. Can be noisy and require lubrication.

2. Less flexibility and precision compared to gear drives.
3. In applications exposed to dust and debris, chains may require frequent cleaning and
maintenance.

c. Gear Drives:

Principle: Gear drives operate on the principle of interlocking gears. The teeth of one gear
mesh with the teeth of another gear to transmit motion and power.

Advantages:

1. High precision and efficiency in power transmission.

2. Offers precise control over speed and torque.
3. Compact and suitable for applications where space is limited.
4. Can handle both high and low-speed applications effectively.

Disadvantages:

1. Gears are more prone to wear and may require periodic maintenance.
2. Gear drives can be noisy due to the contact between gear teeth.
3. More complex design compared to belt and chain drive.

3.6 Introduction to Robotics:

Definition of a Robot: A robot is a programmable, autonomous or semi-autonomous

mechanical device designed to perform tasks and interact with its environment. Robots are
equipped with sensors, actuators, and a control system that allows them to sense their
surroundings, make decisions, and execute actions to achieve specific objectives. They come
in various forms and are used in a wide range of applications, from manufacturing and
healthcare to exploration and entertainment.
3.6.1 Role of Robots in the Modern World:

Robots play an increasingly significant role in the modern world, and their impact is
pervasive across various industries and aspects of daily life. Here are some key roles that
robots perform in the contemporary world:

Manufacturing and Industry:

Robots are extensively used in manufacturing to automate repetitive and dangerous tasks,
such as welding, painting, and assembly.

They enhance efficiency, accuracy, and consistency in production processes, leading to

higher product quality and reduced labor costs.

Healthcare:

Surgical robots assist doctors in performing precise and minimally invasive procedures,
improving patient outcomes and reducing recovery times.
Robots can provide physical therapy and assist patients with mobility issues, enhancing the
quality of healthcare services.

Agriculture:

Agricultural robots help with planting, harvesting, and monitoring crops. They can also
perform tasks like weeding and fruit picking.
These robots contribute to increased crop yield and reduced labor requirements in farming.

Logistics and Warehousing:

Robots are used in warehouses and logistics centers for tasks such as order fulfillment,
inventory management, and goods transportation.
They enable faster and more accurate order processing and optimize supply chain operations.

Space Exploration:

Robotic spacecraft and rovers are used for planetary exploration, allowing scientists to gather
data and conduct experiments in distant and hazardous environments.

Robots have played a crucial role in advancing our understanding of the cosmos.

Search and Rescue:

Robots, including drones and remote-controlled vehicles, aid in search and rescue operations
during natural disasters and emergencies, helping to locate survivors and assess damage.

Entertainment and Education:

Robots are employed in the entertainment industry, from animatronic characters in theme
parks to robots used in movies and shows.

Educational robots are used to teach programming, engineering, and problem-solving skills to
students of all ages.
Home Automation:

Smart home devices, often considered domestic robots, can perform tasks like cleaning (e.g.,
robotic vacuums), controlling appliances, and enhancing security.

Environmental Monitoring:

Robots are used to collect data on environmental conditions, including air and water quality,
and to monitor ecosystems for research and conservation purposes.

Defense and Security:

Military and security robots are used for tasks like bomb disposal, reconnaissance, and
surveillance, reducing risks to human personnel in dangerous situations.

3.6.2 Components of a robot:

The main components of a robot include:

Sensors: These devices allow the robot to perceive its environment by collecting data such as
visual information (cameras), proximity (ultrasonic sensors), touch (pressure sensors),
temperature, and more. Sensors provide input to the robot's control system.
Actuators: Actuators are responsible for generating motion or performing actions based on
commands from the control system. They include electric motors, servos, pneumatic
cylinders, and hydraulic systems.
Control System: The control system is the robot's "brain" and consists of microcontrollers,
microprocessors, and software. It processes sensor data, makes decisions, and sends
commands to actuators to control the robot's movements and actions.
Power Supply: Robots require electrical power to operate. This can be provided by batteries,
external power sources, or a combination of both. The power supply ensures the energy
needed for the robot's components to function.
Mechanical Structure: This includes the physical body, frame, and mechanical components
that give the robot its shape and mobility. The design of the mechanical structure is tailored
to the robot's intended tasks and environment.
End-Effector (Manipulator): The end-effector is the specific tool or attachment at the end
of the robot's arm or appendage that interacts with objects or performs tasks. It can be a
gripper, welding tool, surgical instrument, or sensor for data collection.
Communication Interface: Robots may have communication interfaces such as Wi-Fi,
Bluetooth, or wired connections to interact with other devices, networks, or humans. These
interfaces enable remote control, data exchange, and programming.
Programming and Control Software: Software defines the robot's behavior and
capabilities. It includes algorithms for sensor data processing, motion planning, and task
execution. Programmers use software to design and implement the robot's functions and
operations.

3.6.3 Types of Joints in Robotics:

In robotics, joints are pivotal components that allow a robot's parts to move relative to each
other. Different types of joints are used to enable various forms of motion and flexibility. The
choice of joint type depends on the specific application and desired range of motion.
Common types of joints in robotics include:

 Revolute Joint (R or Hinge Joint):

A revolute joint allows rotational motion around a single axis. It's like a hinge, allowing
movement like the opening and closing of a door.

 Prismatic Joint (P or Slider Joint):

A prismatic joint permits linear or translational motion along a single axis. It's like a drawer
or piston sliding in and out.

 Spherical Joint (S or Ball Joint):

A spherical joint allows for rotation around multiple axes at a single point. This provides a
high degree of freedom.

 Cylindrical Joint (C):

A cylindrical joint combine both prismatic and revolute motions. It allows linear motion
along one axis and rotational motion around an axis perpendicular to the linear axis.

 Planar Joint:

A planar joint allows movement in a plane, typically with two degrees of freedom. It's
commonly found in 2D robotic systems.
3.6.4 Types of configuration:

 Cartesian configuration: The Cartesian configuration robot uses three perpendicular

slides giving only linear motions along three principal axis X, Y and Z linear
directions in rectangle work volume
 Cylindrical configuration: The Cylindrical configuration robot uses two
perpendicular prismatic joint and one revolute joint. It consists of 2 linear movements,
1 angular rotational movement in cylindrical work volume.
 Polar configuration: Polar robot consists of a rotating base, a telescopic link which
can be raised or lowered about horizontal revolute joint. It consists of one linear and
two rotary joints. The work space (or) envelope of is partial spherical shell.
 Joint configuration: Articulated configuration: Jointed arm configuration is similar
to that of human arm. It is also called as Articulated arm. It consists of 3 rotary joints.
The work envelop is spherical shape. The two links are mounted on a rotary table.
Applications in Various Sectors

Manufacturing: Designing robots for tasks like welding, painting, and assembly.

Healthcare: Developing surgical robots, prosthetics, and exoskeletons.

Agriculture: Creating robotic systems for planting, harvesting, and monitoring crops.

Logistics: Building automated guided vehicles (AGVs) and drones for warehouse management and delivery.

Space Exploration: Designing rovers, manipulators, and robotic arms for extraterrestrial missions.

Defense: Developing robots for surveillance, bomb disposal, and autonomous weapon systems.