Chapter 6: Psychosocial awareness and knowledge of socially accepted

Development during the First Three standards of behavior.

Brain Growth and Emotional Development
Years
The development of the brain after birth is closely
Foundations Of Psychosocial Development connected with changes in emotional life:
emotional experiences are affected by brain
Personality - the relatively consistent blend of development and can have long-lasting effects on
emotions, temperament, thought, and behavior the structure of the brain
that makes each person unique
First Shift (first 3 months) - differentiation of
basic emotions begins as the cerebral cortex
becomes functional, bringing cognitive
perceptions into play. REM sleep and reflexive
behavior, including the spontaneous neonatal
smile, diminish.

second shift (9 or 10 months) - when the frontal

lobes begin to interact with the limbic system (a
seat of emotional reactions). At the same time,
limbic structures such as the hippocampus
EMOTIONS become larger and more adultlike. Connections
- are subjective reactions to experience that between the frontal cortex and the hypothalamus
are associated with physiological and and limbic system, which process sensory
behavioral changes information, may facilitate the relationship
between the cognitive and emotional spheres. As
Crying - is the most powerful way infants can these connections become denser and more
communicate their needs. As children age, they elaborate, an infant can experience and interpret
realize that crying serves a communicative emotions at the same time.
function.
- basic hunger cry - a rhythmic cry, which is third shift (2nd year) - infants develop self-
not always associated with hunger. awareness, self-conscious emotions, and a
- angry cry - a variation of the rhythmic cry, greater capacity for regulating their emotions and
excess air is forced through the vocal activities. These changes, which coincide with
cords. greater physical mobility and exploratory
- pain cry - a sudden onset of loud crying behavior, may be related to myelination of the
without preliminary moaning, sometimes frontal lobes.
followed by holding the breath.
- frustration cry - two or three drawn-out fourth shift (age 3) - hormonal changes in the
cries, with no prolonged breath-holding. autonomic (involuntary) nervous system coincide
with the emergence of evaluative emotions.
Social smiling - newborn infants gaze and smile Underlying the development of such emotions as
at their parents, develops in the 2nd month of life shame may be a shift away from dominance by
the sympathetic system, the part of the
Reflexive Smile - a smile that does not occur in autonomic system that prepares the body for
response to external stimuli and appear during action, as the parasympathetic system, the part
the first month after birth of the autonomic system that is involved in
excretion and sexual excitation, matures.
Anticipatory smiling - infants smile at an object
and then gaze at an adult while continuing to altruistic behavior - Activity intended to help
smile—rises sharply between 8 and 10 months another person with no expectation of reward.
and seems to be among the first types of
communication in which the infant refers to an Empathy - ability to imagine how another person
object or experience. might feel in a particular situation

Self-Conscious Emotions - like embarrassment, Mirror neurons - fire when a person does
empathy, and envy, arise only after children have something but also when they observe someone
developed self-awareness. else doing the same thing

Self-Awareness - the cognitive understanding TEMPERAMENT

that they have a recognizable identity, separate - an early-appearing, biologically based
and different from the rest of their world tendency to respond to the environment in
predictable ways
By about age 3, having self-awareness plus a
good deal of knowledge about their society’s Temperament Patterns and Development
accepted standards, rules, and goals, children
become better able to evaluate their own “Easy” Children - happy, rhythmic in biological
thoughts, plans, desires, and behavior against functioning, and accepting of new experiences.
what is considered socially appropriate. Only then
can they demonstrate the self-evaluative “Difficult” Children - irritable and harder to
emotions. please, irregular in biological rhythms, wary of
new experiences, more intense in expressing
self-evaluative emotions - Emotions, such as emotion.
pride, shame, and guilt, that depend on both self-
“Slow-to-Warm-Up” Children - mild but slow toddlers are minimal. Boys tend to be slightly
to adapt to new people and situations longer, heavier, and stronger, but are more
physically vulnerable. Boys are also more active
prenatally, while girls are less reactive to stress
and have higher infant survival rates. Boys' brains
are about 10% larger than girls' at birth. Both
sexes develop motor skills, such as sitting up and
walking, around the same age. However, by ages
1-2, differences in preferences for toys, activities,
and playmates emerge. Boys tend to play more
aggressively and show gender-specific toy
preferences early. By 6 months, infants can
Cultural Influences on Temperament distinguish male and female voices, and by 9-12
months, they can identify gender through facial
Goodness of Fit - the match between a child’s features. Around 19 months, children begin using
temperament and the environmental demands gender labels, and those who do so earlier tend
and constraints the child must deal with to engage in more gender-typical play.

Developmental Issues in Infancy Parental Influences on Gender Differences

- as babies, our first challenge involves
forming basic sense of Trust versus Gender-typing - the process by which children
Mistrust learn behavior their culture considers appropriate
- Ideally, babies develop a balance between for each sex
trust and mistrust
- If trust predominates, as it should, children DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES IN INFANCY
develop Hope and the belief that they can
fulfill their needs and obtain their desires DEVELOPING TRUST
Approximate Age Crisis Virtue - Erikson argued that at each stage in the
Develope life span, we are faced with a challenge
d and a complementary risk. As babies, our
Infancy (0-18 months) Trust vs. Hope first challenge involves forming a basic
Mistrust sense of trust versus mistrust
Toddler (18 – 36 Autonomy vs. Will
months) Shame/Doubt
DEVELOPING ATTACHMENTS
Maladaptive Tendency for Infancy: Sensory
Attachment - a reciprocal, enduring emotional
Maladjustment – overly trusting and gullible,
tie between an infant and a caregiver, each of
unrealistic, spoiled
whom contributes to the quality of the
relationship
Malignant Tendency: Withdrawal – never
trust anyone, paranoid, neurotic, depressive
Studying Patterns of Attachment
EARLY SOCIAL EXPERIENCES: THE FAMILY
The Strange Situation - a classic, laboratory-
based technique designed to assess attachment
The Mother’s Role - Harlow's experiments with
patterns between an infant and an adult
monkeys showed that infants preferred comfort
and closeness over feeding, spending more time
secure attachment - are flexible and resilient in
with soft cloth mothers than wire ones. These
the face of stress
findings highlight that mothering involves more
than just feeding—it includes warmth, comfort,
avoidant attachment - are outwardly
and emotional connection. Human infants also
unaffected by a caregiver leaving or returning
need a responsive mother for healthy emotional
and cognitive development.
ambivalent (resistant) attachment - anxious
The Father’s Role - The father's role in
even before the caregiver leaves, sometimes
parenting is shaped by cultural norms and varies
approaching the caregiver for comfort when the
across societies. In some cultures, fathers have
stranger looks at or approaches them for
specific roles like economic support or discipline,
interaction.
while in others, they are more involved in
caregiving. For example, in the Huhot culture of
disorganized-disoriented attachment - lack a
Inner Mongolia, fathers mainly provide economic
strategy to deal with stress of the Strange
support and discipline, while in Aka families in
Situation.
central Africa, fathers are highly involved in infant
care. In the U.S., fathers' involvement has
Stranger Anxiety - wariness of a person he/she
increased, particularly as more mothers work
does not know
outside the home. A father's active involvement
in caregiving is linked to positive child
Separation Anxiety - distress when a familiar
development.
caregiver leaves him/her
GENDER: HOW DIFFERENT ARE BABY BOYS
Separation Protest – crying when caregiver
AND GIRLS?
leaves
Gender - what it means to be male or female
Babies react negatively to strangers by 8 or 9
months
Sex Differences in Infants and Toddlers –
Measurable gender differences in infants and
Long-Term Effects of Attachment
- As attachment theory proposes, security Moral Development and Socialization
of attachment seems to affect emotional,
social, and cognitive competence,
presumably through the action of internal
working models

Intergenerational Transmission of
Attachment Patterns
- Attachment history influences how parents
interact with their children
- Parents’ attachment history also
influences their perceptions of their baby’s
temperament, and those perceptions may
affect the parent-child relationship
Infants or children from 0-2 yrs old is in Pre-
Mutual Regulation - The ability of both infant conventional Level, specifically in Stage 1
and caregiver to respond appropriately and whereas they desire to obey rules and avoid
sensitively to each other’s mental and emotional being punished
states.
Heteronomous Morality – children think of
caregivers and infants have high interactional justice and rules as unchangeable properties of
synchrony—in which both unconsciously the world, removed from the control of people
coordinate their behavior and affect in a rhythmic  4-7 years of age
back-and-forth manner, responding appropriately  Consider its consequences, not its
and effectively to each other’s signals in an intentions
interactive dance. Interactional synchrony in 2- to  “law is law”
9-month-old infants is measured using the still-
face paradigm Immanent Justice – the concept that if a rule is
broken, punishment will happen immediately
Social Referencing  From 7-10 yrs old, children are in
- When babies look at their caregivers on transition showing some features of the
encountering an ambiguous event, they first stage of moral reasoning and some of
are engaging in social referencing, seeking the second
emotional information to guide behavior.
- Understanding an ambiguous situation by Autonomous Morality – becomes aware with
seeking another person’s perception of it. the rules and laws created by people, and in
judging an action they consider the actor’s
DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES IN TODDLERHOOD intentions as well as the consequences
 10 yrs and older
Maladaptive Tendency for Toddler:  Intentions are considered
Impulsiveness – shameless willfulness that
leads to jump into things without proper Conscience – internal regulation of standards of
consideration right and wrong that involves integration of all
three components of moral development
Malignant Tendency for Toddler:
Compulsiveness – perfectionism, rule follower Socialization - process by which children
 Sphincter Muscle is developed develop habits, skills, values, and motives that
make them responsible, productive members of
The Emerging Sense of Self society

self-concept - our image of ourselves—our total Compliance with parental expectations can be
picture of our abilities and traits seen as a first step toward compliance with
societal standards. Socialization rests on
By at least 3 months, infants pay attention to internalization of these standards
their mirror image
Developing Self-Regulation
Pretend Play – an early indication of the ability
to understand other’s mental states and their self-regulation - A child’s independent control
own of behavior to conform to understood social
expectations.
Development of Autonomy
- Erikson identified the period from about 18 Developing a Conscience
months to 3 years as the second stage in
personality development, autonomy Conscience - involves both the ability to refrain
versus shame and doubt, which is marked from certain acts as well as to feel emotional
by a shift from external control to self- discomfort for failing to do so
controL.
Situational compliance - children could put the
toys away if their parents were there to remind
them.
Committed Compliance - they were committed Nonorganic Failure to thrive – slowed or
to following requests and could do so without arrested physical growth with no known medical
their parents’ direct intervention cause, accompanied by poor developmental and
emotional functioning
Receptive Cooperation - child’s willingness to
cooperate harmoniously with a parent, not only in Shaken baby syndrome - a form of
disciplinary situations but also in a variety of daily maltreatment found mainly in children under 2
interactions, routines, chores, hygiene, play. years old, most often in infants

Relationships with Other Children Long-Term Effects of Maltreatment

Siblings Long-term consequences of maltreatment may

- Research has shown that babies usually include physical, psychological and behavioral
become attached to their siblings and can consequences that may persist across
use them as a secure base and that their generations
older siblings generally offer them comfort
when they are distressed As adolescents, maltreated children are more
likely to engage in risky sexual activity, juvenile
Peers delinquency, and alcohol and drug use
- Infants and—even more so—toddlers show
interest in people outside the home, Despite elevated risk, many maltreated children
particularly people their own size show remarkable resilience
- Preschoolers usually like to play with
children of the same age, sex, and gender. Chapter 7: Physical and Cognitive
Development in Early Childhood
Children of Working Parents
/
Effects of Maternal Employment
- Because there has not been much Summary
variability in paternal employment but 3 years old
women have increasingly joined the work Children begin to lose their babyish roundness and take on
the slender, athletic appearance of childhood
force, most studies of the impact of
Brain is approximately 90% of adult weight
parents’ work on children’s well-being Cannot turn or stop suddenly or quickly
have focused on employed mothers Can jump a distance of 15-24 inches
- In general, the more satisfied a mother is Can ascend a stairway unaided, alternating feet
with her employment status, the more Can hop
effective she is likely to be as a parent Handedness is evident
All primary teeth are evident
Can now pick up tiny objects between their thumb and
Early Child Care forefingers (tho still clumsy)
- Factors Having an Impact on Child Care Know the difference between reality and imagination
- Cultural Variations in Early Child Care Can use 900 to 1000 words
Typically begin to use plurals, possessives, and past tense
Child Maltreatment 4 years old
Peak of the density of synapses in the prefrontal cortex
More effective control of stopping, starting, and turning
Physical abuse - injury to the body through
Can jump a distance of 24-33 inches
punching, beating, kicking, or burning Can descend a long stairway alternating feet if supported
Able to categorize objects to identify similarities and
Neglect - failure to meet a child’s basic needs, differences
such as food, clothing, medical care, protection, Can tell the differences in size
and supervision They conversate in sentences and may be declarative,
negative, interrogative, or imperative
Can recognize facial expressions, recognize emotions thru
Sexual abuse - any sexual activity involving a vocal cues and body postures
child and an older person 5 years old
Can start, turn, and stop effectively in games
Emotional maltreatment - including rejection, Can descend a long stairway, unaided
terrorization, isolation, exploitation, degradation, Run hard and enjoy races with each other
Hand, arm, and body move together under better
ridicule, or failure to provide emotional support,
command of the eye
love, and affection Can now count to 20 or more and know the relative sizes of
the numbers 1 through 10
Sex trafficking, the recruitment, harboring, Speech is quite adultlike
transportation, provision, or obtaining of a person Children understand the public aspects of emotions
(understand the things that causes others to be sad or
for the purpose of a commercial sex act, was
happy)
included in the reports for the first time in 2018
6 years old
Brain is 90% of its peak volume
Maltreatment in Infancy and Toddlerhood Permanent teeth begins to appear
Has an expressive vocabulary of 2,600 words and
Babies who do not receive nurturance and understands more than 20,000
affection or who are neglected sometimes suffer 7 years old
Children start to understand that mental states can drive
from nonorganic failure to thrive, slowed or emotions
arrested physical growth with no known medical
cause, accompanied by poor developmental and
emotional functioning
ASPECTS OF PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT - A tendency toward obesity can be
hereditary, but the main factors driving
Bodily Growth and Change the obesity epidemic are environmental
- Children grow rapidly between ages 3 and
6 but less quickly than before Undernutrition
- Muscular and skeletal growth progresses, - Food insecurity occurs when families do
making children stronger not have dependable access to adequate
amounts of food to support healthy living
Growth Hormone Deficiency – absence or - In early childhood, food insecurity and low-
deficiency of growth hormone produced by quality diet have been linked to vitamin
pituitary gland to stimulate the body to grow and mineral deficiencies, higher body
weight, reduced cognitive and social-
SLEEP PATTERNS AND PROBLEMS emotional skills
- In most cases sleep disturbances are only
occasional and usually are outgrown Food Allergies
- A child who experiences a night terror - Children who suffer from food allergies are
appears to awaken abruptly from a deep smaller and shorter than children without
sleep early in the night in a state of food allergies
agitation - Changes in diet, how foods are processed,
- Sleepwalking, sleeptalking, and night the timing of the introduction of foods, and
terrors share many characteristics. They decreased vitamin D based upon less
all occur during slow wave sleep and are exposure to the sun have all been
more common when children are sleep suggested as contributors to the increase
deprived, have a fever or are on in allergy rates
medications, or when conditions are noisy
- Nightmares - common during early Food allergy - an abnormal immune system
childhood, between 6 to 10 years old response to a specific food

Enuresis - repeated, involuntary urination at Oral Health

night by children old enough to be expected to - By age 3, all the primary teeth are in
have bladder control place, and the permanent teeth, which will
begin to appear at about age 6, are
BRAIN DEVELOPMENT developing
- During the first few years of life, brain - Tooth decay in early childhood often
development is rapid and profound. stems from overconsumption of
- By age 6, the brain has attained about 90 sweetened milk and juices in infancy,
percent of its peak volume especially when bottles are taken to bed,
together with a lack of regular dental care
corpus callosum - a thick band of nerve fibers - Dental Caries - or cavities
that connects both hemispheres of the brain and
allows them to communicate. Deaths and Accidental Injuries

MOTOR SKILLS Other common causes of death in early childhood

include cancer, congenital abnormalities and
Gross Motor Skills - such as running and chromosomal disorders, assault and homicide,
jumping, which involve the large muscles heart disease, respiratory diseases (including
both chronic respiratory disease as well
Fine Motor Skills - which are manipulative skills asinfluenza and pneumonia), and septicemia (a
such as buttoning and drawing that involve eye- bacterial infection that poisons the blood, leading
hand and small-muscle coordination to organ failure)

Environmental Influences
systems of action - such combinations of skills - Socioeconomic Status
- Race/Ethnicity
- Homelessness
- Environmental Pollutants
- Cognitive Development

Cognitive Development Piagetian Approach

Handedness - the preference for using one hand

over the other, is usually evident by about age 3

Health and Safety

Stunted Children – normal weight but shorter

than they should for their age and may have
cognitive and physical deficiencies, visible in
developing countries.
Obesity and Overweight
 strategies for addition, such as using
fingers.
- Basic Number Sense in School: By
elementary school, children have basic
skills, including counting, number
knowledge (ordinality), simple addition
and subtraction, estimation, and
recognizing number patterns.
- Impact of SES and Preschool Experience:
SES and preschool experiences affect
math development. Children from middle-
income families often have better number
skills by age 4. Preschool activities like
Advances on Preoperational Thought "math talk" and playing number board
games help children, especially those from
The Symbolic Function - Being able to think low-income families, catch up.
about something in the absence of sensory or - Long-Term Impact: Early numerical
motor cues characterizes the symbolic function competence in kindergarten predicts math
success through 3rd grade.
Deferred Imitation – children imitate an action
at some point after observing it Immature Aspects of Preoperational
Thought
Intuitive Thought – begin to use primitive
reasoning and want to know the answers to all Centration - the tendency to focus on one
sorts of questions aspect of a situation and neglect others

pretend play - also called fantasy play, dramatic Decenter - think about several aspects of a
play, or imaginary play, children use an object to situation at one time
represent something else
Egocentrism - is a form of centration. According
transduction - Piaget’s term for a preoperational to Piaget, young children center so much on their
child’s tendency to mentally link particular own point of view that they cannot take in
phenomena, whether or not there is logically a another’s
causal relationship
conservation - awareness that two objects that
Object Space - children also begin to be able to are equal according to a certain measure remain
understand the symbols that describe physical equal in the face of perceptual alteration so long
spaces, although this process is slow as nothing has been added to or taken away from
either object.
Causality
- Piaget maintained that preoperational Irreversibility - failure to mentally reverse an
children cannot yet reason logically about action
cause and effect. Instead, he said, they
reason by transduction Theory of mind - the understanding that others
have their own thoughts, beliefs, desires, and
Categorization, or classification - requires a intentions
child to identify similarities and differences.
Knowledge about Thinking and Mental
animism - tendency to attribute life to objects States
that are not alive - ages 3-5, children come to understand
that thinking goes on inside the mind.
Number - preschoolers generally believe that mental
- Infants' Early Number Concepts: Research activity starts and stops. Not until middle
by Karen Wynn shows that infants as childhood do children know that the mind
young as 4½ months understand basic is continuously active
number concepts, such as adding one doll - The recognition that others have mental
to another to make two. states accompanies the decline of
- Ordinality Development: Around 9–11 egocentrism and the development of
months, infants begin to grasp ordinality empathy
(comparing quantities like more, less, - By age 3, children realize that if someone
bigger, smaller). By age 4, children can gets what he wants he will be happy, and
compare quantities (e.g., which tree is if not, he will be sad.
bigger) and solve simple ordinality
problems. False Beliefs and Deception
- Cardinality Principle: Children don’t - The understanding that people can hold
consistently apply the cardinality principle false beliefs flows from the realization that
(understanding that counting items means people hold mental representations of
the total) until age 3½, although some reality, which can sometimes be wrong.
2½-year-olds may use it in practical - Three-year-olds’ failure to recognize false
contexts, like checking which plate has beliefs may stem from egocentric thinking.
more cookies. - Four-year-olds understand that people
- By Age 5: Most children can count to 20, who see or hear different versions of the
understand number sizes, and develop same event may come away with different
beliefs.
- Not until about age 6, however, do enhances theory-of-mind skills by
children realize that two people who see encouraging perspective-taking.
or hear the same thing may interpret it - Bilingualism: Bilingual children tend to
differently (Pillow & Henrichon, 1996) perform better on theory-of-mind tasks,
- Deception is an effort to plant a false likely due to their ability to understand
belief in someone else’s mind multiple perspectives and better
attentional control.
Distinguishing between Appearance and - Brain Development: Neural activity in the
Reality prefrontal cortex is important for theory-
- Piaget's View: Children typically begin to of-mind development. Children who
distinguish between appearance and successfully reason about others' mental
reality around age 5 or 6, although some states show brain wave activation in this
studies suggest it starts earlier, around region.
age 4. - Cognitive or Developmental Impairments:
- 3-Year-Olds' Confusion: In experiments, 3- Impaired theory of mind, such as seen in
year-olds often confuse appearance and autism, may lead to difficulties in
reality, such as when they wore understanding others' intentions, social
sunglasses that made milk look green but reciprocity, and perspective-taking.
still said the milk was green.
- Action vs. Words: The difficulty in Information-Processing Approach: Memory
distinguishing appearance from reality Development
may be less about understanding and
more about how the question is asked. Basic Processes and Capacities
When asked to act (e.g., "Give me the
candle for a birthday cake"), 3-year-olds Encoding - Process by which information is
were more likely to choose correctly, even prepared for long-term storage and later retrieval
if they couldn't express it verbally.
Storage - Retention of information in memory for
Distinguishing between Fantasy and future use.
Reality
- Development of Distinction: Between 18 Sensory memory - a temporary storehouse for
months and 3 years, children learn to tell incoming sensory information
the difference between real and imagined
events. By age 3, they can distinguish working memory – short-term storehouse for
between real dogs and dream dogs, and information a person is actively working on, trying
understand invisible vs. imaginary things. to understand, remember, or think about.
- Pretend Play: By age 3 (or sometimes 2),
children understand that pretending is long-term memory - a storehouse of virtually
intentional and can tell the difference unlimited capacity that holds information for long
between actually doing something and periods of time.
pretending to do it.
- Magical Thinking: Children aged 3 and Recognition - ability to identify something
older often engage in magical thinking, encountered before.
not from confusion, but to explain events
without clear answers or for fun (e.g., Recall - ability to reproduce knowledge from
believing in imaginary companions). They memory
recognize the magical nature of these
beliefs but may entertain the idea that Phonological Loop – aids in the processing of
they could be real. Magical thinking tends verbal information
to decrease by the end of the preschool
years. Visuospatial Sketchpad – maintains and
manipulates visual information
Individual Differences in Theory of Mind
Development Metamemory - one component of metacognition
- Brain Maturation and Cognition: Theory of and can be described as the knowledge of and
mind development is linked to brain reflection about memory processes
maturation and cognitive improvements.
- Infant Social Attention: Early social Executive Functioning
attention predicts later theory-of-mind The growth of working memory permits the
abilities, with children who paid more development of executive function, the conscious
attention as infants showing better social control of thoughts, emotions, and actions to
cognition later on. accomplish goals or to solve problems
- Social Competence and Language
Development: Children with strong social Recognition – ability to identify something
skills and language abilities tend to better encountered before
understand thoughts, emotions, and
perspectives of others. Recall – ability to reproduce knowledge from
- Home Environment: Parents' discussions memory
about others' thoughts, feelings, and
causality promote mental state Childhood Memories
understanding and empathy in children.
- Pretend Play: Role-playing and talking Generic memory - which begins at about age 2,
about character emotions in stories produces a script, or general outline of a familiar,
repeated event, such as riding the bus to
preschool or having lunch at Grandma’s house. It
helps a child know what to expect and how to act Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) - the
imaginary psychological space between what
Episodic memory - awareness of having children can do or know by themselves and what
experienced a particular event at a specific time they could do or know with help
and place
Scaffolding - the supportive assistance that a
Autobiographical memory - a type of episodic more sophisticated interaction partner provides,
memory, refers to memories of distinctive and ideally, it should be aimed at the ZPD
experiences that form a person’s life history
Language Development
Attention – defined as the focusing of mental
resources on select information Vocabulary
- The rapid expansion of vocabulary occurs
Executive Attention – involves action planning, through fast mapping, which allows a child
allocating attention to goals, error detection and to pick up the approximate meaning of a
compensation, monitoring progress on tasks, etc. new word after hearing it only once or
twice in conversation
Sustained Attention – focused and extended
engagement with an object, tasks, and dealing Grammar and Syntax
with novel or difficult circumstances - Ways children combine syllables into
words and words into sentences grow
Influences on Memory Retention increasingly sophisticated during early
- The social interaction model, based on childhood as their understanding of
Vygotsky’s sociocultural approach, provides a grammar and syntax becomes more
rationale complex

Intelligence: Psychometric and Vygotskian Syntax – a concept and involves the rules for
Approaches putting together sentences in a particular
language
Psychometric Measures of Intelligence
Pragmatics and Social Speech
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales
- Individual intelligence tests used for ages Pragmatics - involves the practical knowledge of
2 and up and take 45 to 60 minutes. how to use language to communicate
- measure fluid reasoning, knowledge,
quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial social speech - Speech intended to be
processing, and working memory understood by a listener.
- Child is ask to define words, string beads,
build blocks, etc. Private speech - talking aloud to oneself with no
intent to communicate with others— is normal
Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of and common in childhood
Intelligence, Revised (WPPSI-IV)
 individual test that takes 30 to 60 minutes Emergent Literacy – development of
for children ages 2½ to 7 fundamental skills that eventually lead to being
 Yields verbal, performance, and combined able to read
scores - Social interaction promotes emergent
 Includes subtests designed to measure literacy
both verbal and nonverbal fluid reasoning,
etc. Speech and Language Delays

Influences on Measured Intelligence About 11 percent of 3- to 6-year-old children have

a communication disorder, most frequently a
A common misconception is that IQ scores problem with speech or language
represent a fixed quantity of inborn intelligence.
In reality, an IQ score is simply a measure of how Some risk factors are medical in nature and
well a child can do tasks at a certain time in include birth complications leading to oxygen
comparison with other children of the same age deprivation; preterm delivery; seizure disorders;
some developmental delays; deformities in the
Test scores of children in many industrialized head, mouth, and face; or hearing loss
countries have risen steadily since testing began,
forcing test developers to raise standardized Emergent literacy - Preschoolers’ development of
norms skills, knowledge, and attitudes that underlie
reading and writing
The degree to which family environment
influences a child’s intelligence is difficult to Early Childhood Education
specify. Some of parents’ influence on
intelligence comes from their genetic Cultural Variations in Early Education
contribution, and some results from the fact that - There are wide global variations in the
they provide a child’s earliest environment for proportion of children who attend
learning preschool, as well as in the cultural ideals
and skills taught to young children
Testing and Teaching Based on Vygotsky’s
Theory
Preschools in different countries also vary with
respect to their developmental goals and Real Self - the person he/she actually is
socialization practices
Types of Preschools Ideal Self - the person he/she would like to be

Child-centered Kindergarten – emphasizes the representational mappings In neo-Piagetian

education of the whole child and concern for his terminology, second stage in development of self-
or her physical, cognitive, and socioemotional defi nition, in which a child makes logical
development. connections between aspects of the self but still
sees these characteristics in all- or-nothing terms.
Montessori method - based on the belief that
children’s natural intelligence involves rational, Race and Self-Concept
spiritual, and empirical aspects
Cultural Differences in Self-Concept
Reggio Emilia approach - a less formal model
than Montessori. Teachers follow children’s Disability and Self-Concept
interests and support them in exploring and
investigating ideas and feelings through words, A disability is defined as any mental or physical
movement, dramatic play, and music condition making it difficult for a person to do
certain activities and interact with the world
Developmentally Appropriate Practice – around them
based on knowledge of the typical development
of children within an age span as well as the Self-Esteem
uniqueness of the child
Self-esteem is the self-evaluative part of the self-
Compensatory Preschool Programs concept, the judgment children make about their
overall worth
Research shows that children who are enrolled in
compensatory preschool programs show Self-Esteem – self-evaluative part of the self-
academic and social gains in multiple, but not all, concept, the judgement children make about
target areas immediately following their their overall worth
participation
Children’s self-esteem tends to be unidimensional
universal preschool - a national system for (either good or bad)
early care and education using the public schools
Children whose self-esteem is contingent on
Kindergarten success tend to become demoralized when they
- Although only 13 states require fail
kindergarten programs or kindergarten
attendance, most 5-year-olds attend Children with noncontingent self-esteem tend to
kindergarten attribute failure or disappointment to factors
- Emotional and social adjustment affects outside themselves or to the need to try harder
readiness for kindergarten and strongly
predict school success Emotional self-regulation helps children guide
- Some children are asked to repeat their behavior and adjust their responses to meet
kindergarten, generally out of the belief societal expectations
that a second year of kindergarten will
help children gain the skills they need to Emotion-Coaching Parents – monitor their
keep up. children’s emotions, view negative emotions as
opportunities for teaching, assist them in labelling
CHAPTER 8: Psychosocial emotions, and coach them in how to deal
Development in Early Childhood effectively with emotions

Emotion-Dismissing Parents – view their role

The Developing Self as to deny, ignore, or change negative emotions

The Self-Concept and Cognitive Social Emotions – involve a comparison of one’s

Development self or one’s actions to social standards

The self-concept is our total picture of our Guilt, shame and pride
abilities and traits—who we think we are and how
we feel about who we are Developed after they gain self-awareness and
accept the standards of behavior their parents
Changes in Self-Definition have set

Children’s self-definition—the way they describe Preschool children can do-and want to do-more
themselves—typically changes between about and more. At the same time, they are learning
ages 5 and 7 reflecting self-concept development that some of the things they want to do meet
and advances in cognitive abilities social approval, whereas others do not
Regulating Emotions
single representations - In neo-Piagetian
terminology, fi rst stage in development of self- Understanding Emotions
defi nition, in which children describe themselves
in terms of individual, unconnected
characteristics and in all-or-nothing terms.
At about 3 years of age, after children gain self- reproductive pressures early men and women
awareness and accept the standards of behavior confronted in the study for survival
their parents have set, they develop the social
emotions, including guilt, shame, and pride Identification – adoption of characteristics,
beliefs, attitudes, values, and behaviors of the
Erikson: Initiative Versus Guilt parent of the same sex

Preschool children can do—and want to do—more According to Kohlberg, Children actively search
and more. At the same time, they are learning for cues about gender in their social world
that some of the things they want to do meet
social approval, whereas others do not
Biological Approach
Purpose – the courage to envision and pursue
goals without being unduly inhibited by guilt or
fear of punishment

Maladaptive Tendency: Ruthlessness – don’t

care who they step in just to achieve their goals

Malignant Tendency: Inhibition – too much

guilt to do anything so nothing would happen

Gender

Gender identity, awareness of one’s gender and

all it implies in one’s society of origin, is an Transgender people are individuals whose gender
important aspect of the developing self-concept identity is different from their biological sex

Sex Differences Intersex people are those born with sexual or

reproductive anatomical variations not typical for
Sex differences (as traditionally investigated and male or female bodies
defined) are psychological or behavioral
differences between males and females Gender dysphoria is a feeling of psychological
distress occurring when there is a mismatch
Physically, among the larger sex differences are between a person’s gender identity and biological
boys’ higher activity level, superior motor sex
performance, especially after puberty, and
greater propensity for physical aggression. Sex- Evolutionary Approach
typed play preferences increase between
toddlerhood and middle childhood, and the Theory of Sexual Selection, the selection of
degree of sex-typed behavior exhibited early in sexual partners is a response to the differing
life is a strong indicator of later gender-based reproductive pressures early men and women
behavior confronted in the struggle for survival

Boys and girls do equally well on tasks involving Psychoanalytic Approach

basic mathematical skills and are equally capable
of learning math but show variations in specific Identification, the adoption of characteristics,
abilities beliefs, attitudes, values, and behaviors of the
parent of the same sex
Girls generally show a verbal advantage
Cognitive Approach
We need to remember, of course, that sex
differences are valid for large groups of boys and Gender Constancy, a child’s realization that their
girls but not necessarily for individuals gender will always be the same

Perspectives on Gender Development Kohlberg’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory

explains how children learn about gender. First,
Gender roles are the behaviors, interests, they recognize their gender ("I’m a boy" or "I’m a
attitudes, skills, and personality traits that a girl"), then start adopting behaviors associated
culture considers appropriate for males or with that gender ("I like boy things" or "I like girl
females things"). For example, 3-year-old Sarah likes dolls
because she sees girls playing with them. Gender
Gender-typing, the acquisition of a gender role, constancy, or understanding that gender is
takes place early in childhood, but children vary permanent, is key to this process. It develops in
greatly in the degree to which they become three stages:
gender-typed Gender Identity: Awareness of one’s own
gender and that of others typically occurs
Gender stereotypes are preconceived between ages 2 and 3
generalizations about male or female behavior:
“All females are passive and dependent; all males Gender stability: Awareness that gender
are aggressive and independent” does not change. However, children at this
stage base judgments about gender on
Theory of Sexual Selection – the selection of superficial appearances (clothing or
sexual partners is a response to differing hairstyle) and stereotyped behaviors.
 Gender consistency: The realization that a Formal Games with Rules—organized games with
girl remains a girl even if she has a short known procedures and penalties, such as four
haircut and plays with trucks and a boy square and freeze tag
remains a boy even if he has long hair and
earrings typically occurs between ages 3 The Social Dimension of Play
and 7

Gender-Schema Theory – like cognitive-

developmental theory, it views children as
actively extracting knowledge about gender from
their environment before engaging in gender-
typed behavior
 Place more emphasis on the influence of
culture
 Children match their behavior to their
culture’s view of what boys and girls are 6Types of Play by Parten (1932)
supposed to be and do  Unoccupied Behavior – child does not
 According to Walter Mischel, children seem to be playing but watches anything
acquire gender roles by imitating of momIentary interest
models and being rewarded for  Onlooker Behavior – child spends most
gender-appropriate behavior time watching others play
 Solitary Independent Play – child plays
Social Learning Approach alone
 Parallel Play – plays beside the other
Social Cognitive Theory, an expansion of social children independently
learning theory, incorporates some cognitive  Associative Play – children talk, borrow,
elements in an attempt to address these issues and lend toys, follow each other around
Family Influences - Children’s gender and play similarly
preferences are shaped by family, with  Cooperative or Organized
parents often reinforcing gender-typical Supplementary Play – child plays in a
behaviors. For example, fathers are more group organized for some goal – to make
uncomfortable if boys play with dolls. Boys something, play formal game, or
are typically more gender-socialized than dramatize a situation
girls, and fathers' involvement in
housework can reduce gender-typing. Reticent Play – combination of Unoccupied and
Onlooker categories is often a manifestation of
Peer Influences - Peers have a strong shyness
impact on gender-typing, especially by
age 3 when kids play in same-sex groups. Social Play – involves interaction with peers
Peer influence often outweighs family Constructive play – combines
influence in shaping gender behavior, with sensorimotor/practice play with symbolic
children becoming more gender-typed representation
through their peer interactions.
Games – activities that children engage in for
Cultural Influences - Gender roles are pleasure and that have rules
taught early in cultures, like in Nepal,
where girls are told not to do tasks their Sex Segregation is common among preschoolers
brothers do. In the U.S., media like TV, and becomes more prevalent in middle childhood
movies, and books reinforce gender
stereotypes. Boys are often main Gender Segregation – a phenomenon wherein
characters, while girls are shown as girls tend to select other girls as playmates, and
nurturing or focused on beauty. These so boys
cultural influences shape gender-typing,
but it’s hard to pinpoint exact causes, and
more research is needed to understand Gender and Play
how culture, biology, and individual factors
interact. As mentioned previously, girls tend to select
other girls as playmates, and boys prefer other
boys, a phenomenon known as gender
Play segregation

Cognitive Levels of Play Culture and Play

Functional Play - consisting of repeated practice Cultural values influence beliefs about the
in large muscular movements, such as rolling a importance of play
ball
The degree of egalitarianism of a country does
Constructive Play - is the use of objects or not seem to affect children’s toy preferences,
materials to make something, such as a house of although a comparison of more recent studies to
blocks or a crayon drawing older studies suggests gendered toy preferences
have declined, especially for girls, in recent
Dramatic Play - involves imaginary objects, decades
actions, or roles
Culture also influences the nature of play via peer Authoritative Parenting emphasizes a child’s
interactions Parenting Forms of Discipline individuality but also stresses limits. Authoritative
parents are loving and accepting but also
Parenting demand good behavior and are firm in
maintaining standards. They impose limited,
Forms of Discipline judicious punishment when necessary, within the
context of a warm, supportive relationship.
In the field of human development, discipline Preschoolers with authoritative parents tend to be
refers to methods of molding character and of the most self-reliant, self-controlled, self-
teaching self-control and acceptable behavior assertive, exploratory, and content

External Reinforcements – may be tangible or Criticisms of Baumrind’s Mode

intangible; it must be seen as rewarding and
received fairly consistently after showing desired
behavior

Internal Reinforcements – a sense of pleasure

or accomplishment
Cultural Differences in Parenting Styles
Punishment, if consistent, immediate, and clearly
tied to the offense, may be effective Relationships with Other Children Sibling
 Administered calmly, in private, and aimed Relationships
at eliciting compliance not guilt
 Effective when accompanied with short The earliest, most frequent, and most intense
explanation disputes among siblings are over property rights
 The desired behavior should be clear or access to the mother

Reinforcement and Punishment SPECIAL BEHAVIORAL CONCERNS

Corporal Punishment - has been defined as “the altruism Behavior intended to help others out of
use of physical force with the intention of causing inner concern and without expectation of external
a child to experience pain, but not injury, for the reward; may involve self-denial or self-sacrifi ce.
purpose of correction or control of the child’s
behavior prosocial behavior Any voluntary behavior
intended to help others.
Other Disciplinary Techniques
instrumental aggression - Aggressive behavior
Inductive Techniques - are designed to encourage used as a means of achieving a goal.
desirable behavior or discourage undesirable
behavior by setting limits, demonstrating logical overt (direct) aggression Aggression that is
consequences of an action, explaining, openly directed at its target.
discussing, negotiating, and getting ideas from
the child about what is fair relational aggression Aggression aimed at
damaging or interfering with another person’s
Power assertion is intended to stop or discourage relationships, reputation, or psychological well-
undesirable behavior through physical or verbal being.
enforcement of parental control; it includes
demands, threats, withdrawal of privileges, Relationships with Other Children Conflict is
spanking, and other types of punishment common in siblings

Withdrawal of love may include ignoring, The quality of sibling relationships tends to
isolating, or showing dislike for a child persist over time and to carry over to
relationships with other children
Parenting Styles
The Only Child
Baumrind’s Model of Parenting Styles
With respect to academic outcomes and success
Authoritarian Parenting emphasizes control and in work, they perform slightly better than children
unquestioning obedience. Authoritarian parents with siblings. They tend to be more motivated to
try to make children conform to a set standard of achieve and to have slightly higher self-esteem;
conduct and punish them forcefully for violating and they do not differ in emotional adjustment,
it. They are less warm than other parents. Their sociability, or popularity
children tend to be more discontented,
withdrawn, and distrustful Only children may do better because parents
focus more attention on only children, talk to
Permissive Parenting emphasizes self-expression them more, and expect more of them than do
and self-regulation. Permissive parents make few parents with more than one child
demands. They consult with children about policy
decisions and rarely punish. They are warm, Those with siblings reported higher levels of fear,
noncontrolling, and undemanding. Their anxiety, and depression than only children,
preschool children tend to be immature—the regardless of sex or age
least self-controlled and the least exploratory
Playmates and Friends
Friendships develop as people develop

Preschoolers usually like to play with children of

the same age

The traits that young children look for in a

playmate are similar to the traits they look for in
a friend

Overall, peer relationships are important for

psychosocial development - changes in the volume of gray matter
peak at different times in the different
Chapter 9: Physical and Cognitive lobes
- Beneath the cortex, gray matter volume in
Development in Middle Childhood
the caudate—a part of the basal ganglia
involved in control of movement and
Aspects of Physical Development
muscle tone and in mediating higher
cognitive functions, attention, and
Height and Weight
emotional states—peaks at age 7 in girls
- Children grow about 2 to 3 inches each
and age 10 in boys
year between ages 6 and 11 and
- The loss in density of gray matter with age
approximately double their weight during
is balanced by another change: a steady
that period
increase in white matter
- Girls retain somewhat more fatty tissue
than boys
Motor Development and Physical Activity
Dental Health
- Tooth decay remains one of the most
common chronic untreated conditions
- Access to proper dental care is
important for young children

Nutrition
- The recommended calories per day for
school children 9 to 13 years of age range
from 1,400 to 2,600, depending on gender
and activity level
Rough-and-Tumble Play: wrestling, kicking,
- Research across 33 different countries has
tumbling, grappling, and chasing, often
shown that skipping breakfast, which
accompanied by laughing and screaming
occurs in 10 to 30 percent of children and
 6-9 year olds need more flexible rules,
rises with age, is associated with an
shorter instruction time, and more free
increased risk of overweight, obesity, and
time to practice than older children
cardiometabolic risk factors
 Older children are able to process
instruction and learn team strategies
- Approximately one-third of children eat at
fast-food restaurants on any given day
Health, Fitness, and Safety
- Nutrition education in schools can be
Body Image (how one believes one looks)
helpful when combined with parental
becomes important early in middle childhood,
education and changes in school lunch
especially for girls, which could lead to eating
menus, although they have been more
disorders during adolescence (may be influenced
successful in improving fruit intake than
by playing unrealistic dolls such as barbie)
vegetable intake
Overweight, a body mass index between the 85th
Sleep
and 95th percentile, and obesity, a body mass
- Sleep needs decline from 10 to 13 hours a
index over the 95th percentile, have become a
day for 3- to 5-year-olds to 9 to 11 hours a
major health issue for children worldwide
day for ages 6 to 13
- Snoring can be a marker of poor sleep
Causes of Overweight and Obesity
- Failure to get adequate sleep is also
associated with a variety of adjustment
Obesity can result from an inherited tendency
problems
aggravated by too little exercise and too much or
the wrong kinds of food
Brain Development
Overweight and Obesity Outcomes
- A number of cognitive advances occur in
The adverse health effects of obesity for
middle childhood that can be traced back
children are similar to those faced by
to changes in the brain’s structure and
adults. These children commonly have
functioning
medical problems, including high blood
- Magnetic resonance imaging shows that
pressure, high cholesterol, and high insulin
the amount of gray matter in the frontal
levels, or they may develop such diseases
cortex, which is strongly influenced by
at a younger age
genetics, is likely linked with differences in
IQ
Chronic Medical Conditions In the stage of concrete operations, children have
a better understanding than preoperational
Acute Medical Conditions—occasional, short term children of spatial concepts, causality,
conditions, such as infections and warts—are categorization, inductive and deductive
common reasoning, conservation, and number

Chronic Medical Conditions: physical, Piaget maintained that the shift from the rigid,
developmental, behavioral, or emotional illogical thinking of younger children to the
conditions that persist for 3 months or more flexible, logical thinking of older children depends
in part on neurological development, a belief that
Asthma - a is a chronic, allergy-based respiratory has been bolstered by research in brain imaging
disease characterized by sudden attacks of
coughing, wheezing, and difficulty breathing Spatial Relationships

Diabetes - is characterized by high levels of Causality - makes judgement about cause and
glucose in the blood effects
Type 1: result of an insulin deficiency that
occurs when insulin-producing-cells in the Categorization
pancreas are destroyed - Seriation - arranging objects in a series
according to one or more dimensions
Type 2: characterized by insulin - Transitive Inferences - Understanding the
resistance and used to be found mainly in relationship between two objects by
overweight and older adults knowing the relationship of each to a third
object.
Childhood Hypertensions - or high blood pressure, - Class Inclusion is the ability to see the
was once rare in childhood, but it has become relationship between a whole and its
increasingly common, especially among ethnic parts, and to understand the categories
minorities within a whole

Accidental Injuries Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

- Inductive Reasoning involves making
As in early childhood, accidental injuries are the observations about particular members of
leading cause of accidental death among school- a class of people, animals, objects, or
age. events, and then drawing conclusions
about the class as a whole
Cognitive Development - Deductive reasoning, by contrast, starts
with a general statement—a premise—
Piagetian Approach: The Concrete about a class and applies it to particular
Operational Child members of the class

At about age 7, according to Piaget, children Conservation

enter the stage of concrete operations when they - Piaget’s term for this inconsistency in the
can use mental operations, such as reasoning, to development of different types of
solve concrete problems conservation is horizontal decalage
- Principle of Identity: still same
Cognitive Advances
object even tho it has different
appearance
- Principle of Reversibility: can
picture what would happen if he tried
to roll back the clay of snake
- Decenter: ability to look at more than
one aspect of the two objects at once

Information-Processing Approach: Planning,

Attention, and Memory

Executive Functioning - the conscious control of

thoughts, emotions, and actions to accomplish
goals or solve problems

The gradual development of executive function

from infancy through adolescence is the result of
developmental changes in brain structure

Environmental influences are also important and,

given the slow rate of development of the frontal
cortex, exert a relatively large effect

Illustrating the plasticity of the brain, children—

particularly those with poor executive control—
benefit from training

Selective Attention
School-age children can concentrate longer than The second edition of the Kaufman Assessment
younger children and can focus on the Battery for Children (K-ABC-II) an individual test
information they need and want while screening for ages 3 to 18, is designed to evaluate cognitive
out irrelevant information abilities in children with diverse needs (such as
autism, hearing impairments, and language
Inhibitory control – the voluntary suppression disorders) and from varying cultural and linguistic
of unwanted responses backgrounds

The increasing capacity for selective attention is Dynamic tests based on Vygotsky’s theories focus
believed to be due to neurological maturation and on the child’s zone of proximal development
is one of the reasons memory improves during (ZPD): the difference between the items a child
middle childhood can answer alone and the items the child can
answer with help
Working Memory
The IQ Controversy
Working memory involves the short-term storage
of information that is being actively processed, The use of psychometric intelligence tests such
like a mental workspace as those just described is controversial. On the
positive side, because IQ tests have been
The efficiency of working memory increases standardized and widely used, there is extensive
greatly in middle childhood, laying the foundation information about their norms, validity, and
for a wide range of cognitive skills reliability

Mnemonics On the other hand, critics claim that the tests

underestimate the intelligence of children who
Mnemonic Device - a strategy to aid memory are in ill health or, for one reason or another, do
not do well on tests
External Memory Aids - prompts by something
outside the person A more fundamental criticism is that IQ tests do
not directly measure native ability; instead, they
Organization - mentally placing information into infer intelligence from what children already
categories (such as animals, furniture, vehicles, know
and clothing) to make it easier to recall
Influences on Intelligence
In elaboration, children associate items with
something else, such as an imagined scene or Brain Development - Research shows that brain
story size and gray matter are linked to intelligence,
especially in reasoning and problem-solving. Gray
Metamemory matter in the frontal cortex, which affects IQ, is
Metamemory can be described as the knowledge inherited. However, the pattern of development
of and reflection about memory processes in the prefrontal cortex is crucial. For children
with average IQs, the cortex peaks at age 8, but
Psychometric Approach: Intelligence for highly intelligent children, it peaks at ages 11-
Measuring Intelligence 12, suggesting a longer period for developing
advanced thinking skills. Other brain areas and
The most widely used individual test is the genetic factors also play a role, along with how
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC- fast the brain sends messages. Early on, family,
IV). The test for ages 6 through 16 measures school, and culture impact intelligence, but as
verbal and performance abilities, yielding children get older, their genetic traits influence
separate scores for each as well as a total score the environment more.

Another commonly used individual test is the Influence of Schooling on IQ - Schooling has a
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale. The Stanford- positive effect on IQ. Children who start school
Binet measures both verbal and nonverbal later can lose up to 5 IQ points per year, and
abilities and consists of five subtests: fluid some of these losses are permanent. IQ also
reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning, tends to drop during summer vacation. A study of
visual-spatial processing, and working memory 1,500 children found that their language, spatial,
and conceptual scores improved more during the
A popular group test, the Otis-Lennon School school year (October to April) than during the
Ability Test (OLSAT8), has levels for kindergarten summer (April to October), showing that school
through 12th grade. Children are asked to classify attendance helps boost intelligence.
items, show an understanding of verbal and
numerical concepts, display general information, Influences of Race/Ethnicity on IQ - IQ gaps
and follow directions between racial groups have narrowed, with
environmental factors like education and income
Theory of Multiple Intelligence – conventional playing a bigger role than genetics. Improved
intelligence tap only three types of intelligence: living conditions and early intervention programs
linguistic, logical-mathematical, and to some have helped raise scores, especially for
extent spatial disadvantaged children. Asian American
 Howard Gardner academic success is more about cultural values
 The other five, which are not reflected in and hard work than higher IQs.
IQ scores are, musical, bodily-kinesthetic,
interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist Is There More Than One Intelligence
 phrases and sentences) becomes more
Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences ○ sophisticated with age
According to Gardner, conventional intelligence
tests tap only three “intelligences”: linguistic, Sentence structure continues to become more
logical-mathematical, and, to some extent, elaborate
spatial
- Gardner argued that these intelligences Pragmatics
are distinct from each other and that high
intelligence in one area does not Pragmatics - the social context of language
necessarily accompany high intelligence in
any of the others Second-Language Learning
- Gardner (1995) would assess each
intelligence directly by observing its Some schools use an English-immersion approach
products— how well a child can tell a (sometimes called ESL, or English as a second
story, remember a melody, or get around language) in which language-minority children
in a strange area— and not with typical are immersed in English from the beginning in
standardized tests special classes
- Critics of Gardner argue that his multiple
intelligences are actually more accurately English-immersion approach Approach to
labeled as talents or abilities and assert teaching English as a second language in which
that intelligence is more closely associated instruction is presented only in English.
with skills that lead to academic
achievement Bilingual - fluent in two languages

Another, less common approach is two-way (dual-

language) learning, in which English-speaking
and foreign-speaking children learn together in
their own and each other’s languages

Literacy

Learning to Read and Write

Decoding - match the visual features of letters

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence and the phenomes and remember which ones go
together
The componential element is the analytic
aspect of intelligence; it determines how Phonetic (code-emphasis) Approach, the child
efficiently people process information sounds out the word, translating it from print to
speech before retrieving it from long-term
The experiential element is insightful or memory
creative; it determines how people approach
novel or familiar tasks The whole-language approach emphasizes visual
retrieval and the use of contextual cues
The contextual element is practical; it helps
people deal with their environment By using visually based retrieval, the child simply
looks at the word and then retrieves it
Tacit Knowledge - learn practical skills
The Child in School
Language and Literacy
Influences on School Achievement
- Children use increasingly precise
- Self-Efficacy - an individuals belief that
verbs, simile and metaphor
they can execute behaviors necessary to
- Rarely use passive voice
attain specific performance
- Understanding of rules of syntax
becomes more sophisticated with age
- Gender
- Sentence structure continue to
- Peer Acceptance
become more elaborate
- Parenting Practices
- Boys tend to use more controlling - Socioeconomic Status
statements, negative interruptions, - Educational Reform
and competitive statements - Class Size
- Girls phrase their remarks in a more - Charter Schools and Homeschooling
tentative, conciliatory way and are - The Influence of COVID-19 on Education
more polite and cooperative - Computer and Internet Use

Vocabulary, Grammar, and Syntax Educating Children with Special Needs

As vocabulary grows during the school years, Children with Learning Problems
children use increasingly precise verbs
Intellectual Disability - is significantly subnormal
Children’s understanding of rules of syntax cognitive functioning. It is indicated by an IQ of
(the deep underlying structure of language about 70 or less, coupled with a deficiency in age
that organizes words into understandable appropriate adaptive behavior (such as
communication, social skills, and self-care), According to Erikson (1982), a major determinant
appearing before age 18 of self-esteem is children’s view of their capacity
for productive work, which develops in his fourth
Learning Disabilities - interfere with specific stage of psychosocial development: industry
aspects of school achievement, such as listening, versus inferiority
speaking, reading, writing, or mathematics,
resulting in performance substantially lower than Developing a sense of industry involves learning
would be expected given a child’s age, how to work hard to achieve goals
intelligence, and amount of schooling
- Dyslexia is the most commonly diagnosed Maladaptive Tendency: Narrow Virtuosity –
of the learning disabilities. Dyslexia is a children that aren’t allowed to “be children” and
chronic, persistent medical condition and push into one area of competence
tends to run in families
- Dysgraphia – difficulty in handwriting Malignant Tendency: Inertia – suffer from
- Dyscalculia – developmental inferiority complexes
arithmetic disorder
Emotional Self-Regulation – voluntary control
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder - is a of emotions, attention, and behavior
chronic condition usually marked by persistent
inattention, distractibility, impulsivity, and low Children tends to become more empathetic and
tolerance for frustration more inclined to prosocial behaviors

ADHD – most common mental disorder in Gender Stereotypes – broad categories that
childhood reflect general impressions and beliefs about
Autism Spectrum Disorder – Pervasive males and females
Developmental Disorder As children grow, they are more aware of their
own and other people’s feelings
Autistic Disorder – severe
developmental ASD that has onset during Children are typically aware of feeling shame and
the first 3 yrs of life pride and a clearer idea of the difference between
guilt and shame
Asperger Syndrome – mild ASD
Emotional Growth and Prosocial Behavior
Gifted Children - As children grow older, they are more
aware of their own and other people’s
Enrichment programs may deepen students’ feelings
knowledge and skills through extra classroom - Understanding others’ emotions is
activities, research projects, field trips, or expert important
coaching - Parents help shape their children’s
growing understanding of emotions
Acceleration programs speed up their education - The development of emotion regulation
through early school entrance, grade skipping, has behavioral and academic
placement in fast-paced classes, or advanced consequences. Children who are good at
courses self-regulation tend to be socially
competent and do well in school
Defining and Measuring Creativity - The changes in children’s self-control
Convergent Thinking—the kind IQ tests abilities may help explain why the
measure—seeks a single correct answer influence of parental support of emotions
changes over time
Divergent Thinking, by contrast, involves - Parents transmit important cultural values
coming up with a wide array of fresh within the context of their interactions
possibilities, such as when children are with children
asked to list how many different uses - Cultural values also influence children’s
there might be for a paper clip or to write emotional experiences
down what a sound brings to mind - While children become better at
identifying and understanding emotions
Chapter 10: Psychosocial with age, some children lag behind, and
this can cause social and behavioral issues
Development in Middle Childhood
. THE CHILD IN THE FAMILY
- At this time, judgement about the self
become more conscious, realistic, Family Atmosphere
balanced, and comprehensive as children
form representational systems Internalizing behaviors - Behavior by which
emotional problems are turned inward; for
THE DEVELOPING SELF
example, anxiety or depression.
Self-Concept Development
Externalizing behaviors - Behavior by which a
child acts out emotional difficulties; for example,
Representational Systems - broad, inclusive
aggression or hostility.
self-concepts that integrate various aspects of
the self
Children exposed to high levels of family conflict
are more likely to show a variety of responses
Industry Versus Inferiority
that can include internalizing or externalizing - Sibling relations have both positive and
behaviors negative aspects to them
- However, sibling conflict is not always
Parenting Issues: From Control to beneficial. High sibling conflict has been
Coregulation associated with internalizing (e.g.,
depression and anxiety) and externalizing
In middle childhood, social power becomes more (e.g., delinquency and aggression)
equal between parent and child. Parent and child problems as well as risky behaviors
engage in coregulation. - Gender also appears to be an influence on
sibling relationships. Sisters are higher in
Coregulation - a stage that can include sibling intimacy than brothers or mixed-
strategies in which parents exercise oversight but sex dyads
children enjoy moment-to-moment self-regulation - Siblings also influence each other
If family conflict is constructive, it can help indirectly, through their impact on each
children see the need for rules and standards and other’s relationship with their parents
learn what issues are worth arguing about and
what strategies can be effective THE CHILD IN THE PEER GROUP

The amount of autonomy parents provide affects Peer Groups

how their children feel about them
 Peer groups helps children learn how to
Children are more apt to follow their parents’ adjust their needs and desires to those of
wishes when they believe the parents are fair and others, when to yield, and when to stand
concerned about the child’s welfare firm
 Children can gauge their abilities and gain
Parents of school-age children tends to use a clearer sense of self-efficacy
inductive techniques as a form of discipline
Prejudice - unfavorable attitudes toward
Cultural Differences in Family Dynamics outsiders, especially members of certain racial or
ethnic group
 The more satisfied a mother is with her
employment status, the more effective  Children can be negatively affected by
she is likely to be a parent discrimination
 Tho poverty can harm children’s  Girls are more likely to engage in cross-
development, high-quality parenting can gender activities
buffer children from potential
consequences of poverty Popularity
 Children tend to do better in families with
two continuously married parents than in Positive Nomination – asking children who they
cohabiting, divorced, single-parent, or like to play with, they like the most, or who they
step-families think other kids like the most
 Parent’s relationship, the quality of their
parenting, and their ability to create a Children can also easily describe which children
favorable family atmosphere affect they don’t like to play with, like the least, or think
children’s adjustment more than their other kids don’t like; this is a negative nomination
marital status does
 Children whose parents later divorce show Sociometrically, popular children receive many
more anxiety, depression, or antisocial positive nominations and few negative
behavior prior to the divorce than those nominations
parents who stay married Fstages
 Children do better with joint custody Children can be unpopular in one of two ways.
 Co-parenting has been consistently linked Some children are rejected, and they receive a
to positive child outcomes large number of negative nominations. Other
 Most adopted children fall within the children are neglected and receive few
normal range of development nominations of any kind
 Children adopted after the age 1 were
more likely to show lower school Other children can be average in their ratings and
achievement do not receive an unusual number of either
 Having a warm and supportive sibling positive or negative nominations. Finally, some
relationship is associated with better children are controversial and receive many
adjustment and better emotion regulation positive and negative nominations, indicating that
 Sisters are higher in sibling intimacy than some children like them a great deal and some
brothers or mixed-sex dyads dislike them a great deal

Family Structure Popularity is important in middle childhood,

- Divorce although the quality of friendships appears to be
- One-Parent Families more important than the actual number of friends
- Cohabitating Families
- Stepfamilies Sociometric Popularity – measures that is
- Gay and Lesbian Parents composed of positive nominations, negative
- Adoptive Families nominations or no nominations. Children’s
sociometric popularity is influenced by family
Sibling Relationship context
Cultural norms can affect children’s criteria for health. Although most children are fairly
popularity well adjusted, at least 1 in 10 children and
adolescents has a diagnosed mental
Friendship disturbance severe enough to cause some
impairment.

Common Emotional Problems

Disruptive Conduct Disorders

 Oppositional Defiant Disorder –
pattern of defiant, disobedience, and
hostility towards adult authority figures
lasting at least 6 months
 Conduct Disorder – persistent, repetitive
pattern, beginning at an early age of
aggressive, antisocial acts, such as
truancy, setting fires, habitual lying, etc.4

Anxiety Disorders
Children look for friends who are like them in age,  School Phobia – unrealistic fear of going
sex, activity level, and interests to school
 Separation Anxiety Disorder –
excessive anxiety for at least 4 weeks
Popular Children – frequently nominated as
concerning separation from home or from
bestie and rarely disliked by peers
people to whom the child is attached
 Social Phobia or Social Anxiety –
Average children – receive an average no of extreme fear and/or avoidance of social
both positive and negative nominations situations such as speaking in class
 Generalized Anxiety Disorder –
Neglected Children – infrequently nominated as children worry about everything, tends to
bestie but not really disliked be self-conscious, self-doubting, and
excessively concerned with meeting the
Rejected Children – disliked by peers expectations of others
 Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder –
Controversial Children – frequently nominated obsessed by repetitive, intrusive thoughts,
both bestie and most disliked image, or impulses, or may show
compulsive behaviors
School-age children distinguish among “best
Childhood Depression
friends,” “good friends,” and “casual friends” on  Childhood Depression – disorder of
the basis of intimacy and time spent together mood that goes beyond normal,
temporary sadness
Unpopular children can make friends, but they
tend to have fewer friends than popular children,
and they demonstrate a preference for younger
friends, other unpopular children, or children in a
different class or a different school Treatment Techniques

Aggression and Bullying In individual psychotherapy, a therapist sees a

child one-on-one to help the child gain insights
Bullies and Victims into his or her personality and relationships and
to interpret feelings and behavior
 Instrumental Aggression – aimed at
achieving an objective In family therapy, the therapist sees the family
 Proactive together, observes how members interact, and
 View force and coercion as effective ways points out both growth-producing and growth-
to get what they want inhibiting or destructive patterns of family
 Hostile Aggression – intended to hurt functioning
another person
 Reactive Behavior therapy, or behavior modification, is a
 Hostile Attributional Bias – quickly form of psychotherapy that uses principles of
conclude, in ambiguous situations that learning theory to eliminate undesirable
others were acting with ill intent and are behaviors or to develop desirable ones
likely to strike out in retaliation or self-
defense When children have limited verbal and
 Bullying – aggression that is deliberately, conceptual skills or have suffered emotional
persistently directed against a particular trauma, art therapy can help them describe what
target is troubling them without the need to put their
feelings into words
Aggression becomes bullying when it is
deliberately, persistently directed against a Play therapy, in which a child plays freely while a
particular target: a victim therapist occasionally comments, asks questions,
or makes suggestions, has also been
Mental Health demonstrated to be effective for a variety of
- The term mental health is a misnomer emotional, cognitive, and social problems,
because it usually refers to emotional
especially when consultation with parents or
other close family members is part of the process

The use of drug therapy—antidepressants,

stimulants, tranquilizers, or antipsychotic
medications—to treat childhood emotional
disorders is controversial

Resilience

Resilient children are those who weather

circumstances that might blight others, who
maintain their composure and competence under
challenge or threat, or who bounce back from
traumatic events

The two most important protective factors that

help children and adolescents overcome stress
and contribute to resilience are good family
relationships and cognitive functioning
- The child’s temperament or personality:
Resilient children are adaptable, friendly,
well liked, independent, and sensitive to
others
- Compensating experiences: A supportive
school environment or successful
experiences in studies, sports, or music, or
with other children or adults can help
make up for a destructive home life
- Reduced risk: Children who have been
exposed to only one of a number of
factors for psychiatric disorder (such as
parental discord, a disturbed mother, a
criminal father, and experience in foster
care) are often better able to overcome
stress than children who have been
exposed to more than one risk factor