Concept

of
Ecosystem
➢ Introductory Activity:
➢ Watch the following videos
https://youtu.be/xwFr2hWjo5s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hIy0ZlyPPDg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CvQP7hI9UvM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o_AfNcjlOgU

Guide Question: How types of biome affects human population

and his environment?
 INTRODUCTION

➢ The German biologist Ernst Haeckel in 1869 coined the word

“Ecology” combining two Greek words – oikos, meaning
“household” or “home” and logos, meaning “study of” – to coin
ecology,
➢ the science that deals with the study of organisms in their natural
home interacting with their surroundings ie., other living
organisms and physical components.
➢ Ecology examines the life histories, distribution and behaviour of
individual species as well as the structural and functions of a
natural system in terms of population, communities, ecosystems
and landscape.
➢ In 1935 essay the English biologist Arthur Tansley proposed the
concept of an energy model involving “ecosystems” and “energy”.
➢ Tansley (1935) described an ecosystem as a group of biotic
communities of species interacting with one another and with their
non-living environment exchanging energy and matter.
➢ On the energy model, the ecological whole is to be understood as
an energy system or circuit. Just as the physicist studies the flow
of energy through a physical system, the ecologist studies the flow
of energy through an ecosystem.
➢ The language of food chain is replaced with the mathematically
more precise language of chemistry and physics. The ecosystem
appears as just another physical, mechanical system.
➢ Ecosystem is necessary for the maintenance of life on Earth.
➢ For an ecosystem to function, both input and output environments
are important.
➢ The flow of energy, the cycling of materials and community are
the components for making an ecosystem functional.
➢ The living community of plants and animals in any area together
with the non-living components of the environment such as soil,
air and water, constitute the ecosystem.
➢ Ecosystems are divided into terrestrial or land based ecosystem and
aquatic ecosystem in water.
➢ These form the two major habitat conditions for the Earth’s living
organisms.
➢ What is an Ecosystem?
The ecosystem is the structural and functional unit of ecology
where the living organisms interact with each other and the
surrounding environment.
In other words, an ecosystem is a chain of interaction between
organisms and their environment. The term “Ecosystem” was first
coined by A.G.Tansley, an English botanist, in 1935.
 Fundamentals of Ecology:
➢ Ecology: The study of the relationship of plants and
animals to their physical and biological environment.
Primary concerns are, Population, Community and
Ecosystem.
➢ Environment: Is anything that is external to organisms.
- Refer to the sum of all external factors acting on an
organism or community of organism which includes the
living organism and non-living elements.
Fundamentals of Ecology:
➢ Ecology:
➢Population is groups of individuals of the same
species in a certain area at a given time.
➢Community refers to all the population occupying
this given area
➢Ecosystem The interaction of the community and
the non-living environment form. Sometimes, these
are also referred to as life-support systems .
- The basic functional unit in ecology.
▪ Types of Ecosystem
An ecosystem can be as small as an oasis in a desert, or as big as an
ocean, spanning thousands of miles. There are two types of ecosystem:
Terrestrial Ecosystem
Aquatic Ecosystem

➢ Terrestrial Ecosystems
Terrestrial ecosystems are exclusively land-based ecosystems. There are
different types of terrestrial ecosystems distributed around various geological
zones. They are as follows:
1. Forest Ecosystems
2. Grassland Ecosystems
3. Tundra Ecosystems
4. Desert Ecosystem
➢ Forest Ecosystem
A forest ecosystem consists of several plants, animals and
microorganisms that live in coordination with the abiotic factors of the
environment. Forests help in maintaining the temperature of the earth and
are the major carbon sink.
➢ Grassland Ecosystem
In a grassland ecosystem, the vegetation is dominated by grasses
and herbs. Temperate grasslands, savanna grasslands are some of the
examples of grassland ecosystems.
➢ Tundra Ecosystem
Tundra ecosystems are devoid of trees and are found in cold
climates or where rainfall is scarce. These are covered with snow for most
of the year. The ecosystem in the Arctic or mountain tops is tundra type.
 Tropical rainforest ecosystem

➢ The tropical rainforest is a hot,

moist biome found near Earth's
equator. The world's
largest tropical rainforests are
in South America, Africa, and
Southeast Asia. Tropical
rainforests receive from 60 to
160 inches of precipitation that is
fairly evenly distributed
throughout the year.
 GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM
➢ Grasslands are areas where the
vegetation is dominated by grasses;
however, sedge and rush families
can also be found along with variable
proportions of legumes, like clover,
and other herbs. Grasslands occur
naturally on all continents except
Antarctica. Grasslands are found in
most ecoregions of the Earth
 TUNDRA ECOSYSTEM
➢ Tundra ecosystems are
treeless regions found in the
Arctic and on the tops of
mountains, where the
climate is cold and windy
and rainfall is scant. Tundra
lands are snow-covered for
much of the year, until
summer brings a burst of
wildflowers.
➢ Desert Ecosystem
Deserts are found throughout the world. These are regions
with very little rainfall. The days are hot and the nights are cold.
➢ Aquatic Ecosystem
Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems present in a body of
water. These can be further divided into two types, namely:
1. Freshwater Ecosystem
2. Marine Ecosystem
Freshwater Ecosystem
The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that
includes lakes, ponds, rivers, streams and wetlands. These have no
salt content in contrast with the marine ecosystem.
DESERT ECOSYSTEM
➢ The desert biome is an
ecosystem that forms due to
the low level of rainfall it
receives each
year. Deserts cover about
20% of the Earth. There are
four major types of desert in
this biome - hot and dry,
semiarid, coastal, and cold.
They are all able to inhabit
plant and animal life that are
able to survive there.
➢ Marine Ecosystem
The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans. These have
a more substantial salt content and greater biodiversity in comparison
to the freshwater ecosystem.
❖ Structure of the Ecosystem
The structure of an ecosystem is characterized by the
organization of both biotic and abiotic components. This includes
the distribution of energy in our environment. It also includes the
climatic conditions prevailing in that particular environment.
The structure of an ecosystem can be split into two main
components, namely:
• Biotic Components
• Abiotic Components
The biotic and abiotic components are interrelated in an
ecosystem. It is an open system where the energy and
components can flow throughout the boundaries.
• Biotic Components (biocenosis)
Biotic components refer to all life in an ecosystem. Based on
nutrition, biotic components can be categorized into autotrophs,
heterotrophs and saprotrophs (or decomposers).
• Producers include all autotrophs such as plants. They are
called autotrophs as they can produce food through the
process of photosynthesis. Consequently, all other organisms
higher up on the food chain rely on producers for food.
• Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that depend on
other organisms for food. Consumers are further classified into
primary consumers, secondary consumers and tertiary consumers.
• Primary consumers are always herbivores that they rely on
producers for food.
• Secondary consumers depend on primary
consumers for energy. They can either be a
carnivore or an omnivore.
• Tertiary consumers are organisms that depend on
secondary consumers for food. Tertiary consumers
can also be an omnivore.
• Quaternary consumers are present in some food
chains. These organisms prey on tertiary
consumers for energy. Furthermore, they are
usually at the top of a food chain as they have no
natural predators.
 • Decomposers include saprophytes such as fungi and
bacteria. They directly thrive on the dead and decaying
organic matter. Decomposers are essential for the ecosystem
as they help in recycling nutrients to be reused by plants.
•Abiotic Components (biotope)
Abiotic components are the non-living component of an
ecosystem. It includes air, water, soil, minerals, sunlight,
temperature, nutrients, wind, altitude, turbidity, etc
Functions of Ecosystem
The functions of the ecosystem are as follows:
1. It regulates the essential ecological processes, supports life
systems and renders stability.
2. It is also responsible for the cycling of nutrients between
biotic and abiotic components.
3. It maintains a balance among the various trophic levels in
the ecosystem.
4. It cycles the minerals through the biosphere.
5. The abiotic components help in the synthesis of organic
components that involves the exchange of energy.
Why Is Preserving Ecosystems Important?
➢ Like all other living beings, humans are dependent on natural
ecosystem services to survive.
➢ We need it to get the food we eat, the water we drink and to transform
raw materials into our everyday products.
➢ So in order to keep our living conditions, it’s truly important that we
preserve natural ecosystems.
➢ For example, the agriculture that provides our food depends on the
characteristics of a specific ecosystem.
➢ Cereals or vegetables grow only under certain conditions of temperature
and humidity.
➢ They also need certain natural processes, such as pollination, to take
place.
➢ If we change these characteristics too intensely, there is the risk
that we aren’t able to produce what we produce today, or at least
not in the same way.
➢ That’s why there are some agricultural techniques that understand
and manage food production (such
as agroforestry, permaculture or regenerative agriculture) that the
wider impacts of using herbicides, pesticides, exhausting nearby
water sources or betting on different types of trees that make
ecosystems more resilient.
What Are The Ecosystem Services?
Ecosystem Services: Examples
Without ecosystem services, life on Earth as we know it
wouldn’t exist. There are four main categories of ecosystem
services:
Provisioning services refer to the products secured by
ecosystems. These include:
• Water
• Food (including cattle and seafood)
• Pharmaceuticals, biochemicals, and industrial products
• Energy (sunlight, hydropower, biomass)
Regulating services are the ecosystem services that allow the
regulation of ecosystem processes such as:
• Climate regulation (and carbon absorption and storage via
the oceans, trees, soil)
• Waste decomposition (one of the most essential microbial
process happening in soil)
• Crop pollination (performed by agents such as bees that
contribute to the reproduction of flowering plants)
• Water and air purification and regulation
• Control of pests and diseases
 Supporting and habitat services refer to the ability of ecosystems to give
habitat for migratory species and to support the viability of gene-pools. This is
possible thanks to:
• Primary reproduction
• Nutrient and seed dispersal
Cultural services are the benefits ecosystem services bring to humans.
Examples of these are:
• Inspiration for intellectual (creativity), cultural (entertainment) and spiritual
(why) purposes
– Remember how it feels good to seeing and hearing wild birds
– Animals, plants and even the fungi kingdom serve as inspiration in
theaters, movies…
– Many people go to natural sites when they want to be alone or reflect
about life
 • Recreational experiences such as outdoors activities or
ecotourism
• Scientific discovery and optimization/efficiency by following
examples of the natural world (biomimicry)
How Do Humans Affect Ecosystems? The Human Impact on
Ecosystems
➢ Human activities are having a negative impact on ecosystems. In
fact, according to the famous Millennium Ecosystems Assessment,
at the beginning of the 20th century, human activities changed
ecosystems more rapidly than ever before.
➢ Humankind has been demanding for food, water, food, timber, and
other materials like crazy. And all these demands have been
highly contributing to deforestation (to grow more crops), the loss
of natural pollination (bees are disappearing), water pollution (from
animal excreta and pesticides to plastic), soil exploitation (due to
intensive agriculture), overfishing and huge biodiversity loss. But
why are humans affecting ecosystems this much?
Why Are Humans Affecting Ecosystems?
➢ There is no straight-forward answer to this question. But human
activities have impacts that aren’t instantaneously noticed. This
means the visual impact of these effects isn’t there most of the
time. As well, the ecological capital is hard to measure.
➢ For instance, transforming land to build a hotel will have specific
costs (buying the land, construction materials, manpower) and the
revenue can be predicted via estimation of occupancy rate, price
per season…
➢ But there’s no precise way to quantify what’s the value of that park
and those trees that will need to be taken down to build it.
➢ What is its value for the environment? And for the families that go
there every day?
➢ There’s no exact way of answering this, although organizations
such as the government are trying to shed light on this issue.
Ecosystems Expanded To Human Environments
➢ we need to have a more rational approach regarding how we’re transforming
ecosystems.
➢ We need to rethink the processes by which we change, take, use and get
disposed of natural resources.
➢ They need to become more efficient and circular so that ecosystems can be
better preserved.
➢ Only by restoring a more harmonious and lasting cohabitation with natural
habitats and their living population we’ll be able to benefit from the Earth
services.
➢ These are especially important to humankind’s survival on what concerns:
Supply: water, food, materials, energy resources, pharmacopoeia…
Regulation: climate, water cycles, bio-ecological cycles,
atmospheric stability (oxygen production) and geological…
 The Major Biomes
➢ Ecologists recognize at least ten different biomes.
➢ The world’s major land biomes include tropical rain forest, tropical
dry forest, tropical savanna, desert, temperate grassland,
temperate woodland and shrubland, temperate forest, northwestern
coniferous forest, boreal forest, and tundra.
➢ Each of these biomes is defined by a unique set of abiotic factors –
particularly climate – and has a characteristic ecological
community.
The map shows the natural geographic distribution of the major biomes
 Major Types of Biomes
➢ Tropical Rain Forest
Tropical rain forests are home to more species than all other land
biomes combined. The leafy tops of tall trees – extending up to 70
meters above the forest floor – form a dense covering called a
canopy. In the shade below the canopy, a second layer of shorter
trees and vines forms an understory. Organic matter that falls to the
forest floor quickly decomposes and the nutrients are recycled.
• Abiotic factors: hot and wet year-round; thin, nutrient-poor soils
• Dominant plants: broad-leaved evergreen trees; ferns; large
woody vines and climbing plants; orchids and bromeliads
• Dominant wildlife: herbivores such as sloths, tapirs, and
capybaras; predators such as jaguars; anteaters; monkeys; birds
such as toucans, parrots, and parakeets; insects such as
butterflies, ants, and beetles; piranhas and other freshwater
fishes; reptiles such as frogs, caymans, boa constrictors, and
anacondas
• Geographic distribution: parts of South and Central America,
Southeast Asia, parts of Africa, southern India, and northeastern
Australia
➢ Tropical Dry Forest
Tropical dry forests grow in places where rainfall is highly
seasonal rather than year-round. During the dry season, nearly all
the trees drop their leaves to conserve water. A tree that sheds its
leaves during a particular season each year is called deciduous.
• Abiotic factors: generally warm year-round; alternating wet and
dry seasons; rich soils subject to erosion
• Dominant plants: tall, deciduous trees that form a dense canopy
during the wet season; drought-tolerant orchids and bromeliads;
aloes and other succulents
 • Dominant wildlife: tigers; monkeys; herbivores such as elephants,
Indian rhinoceros, hog deer; birds such as great pied hornbill, pied
harrier, and spot-billed pelican; insects such as termites; reptiles
such as snakes and monitor lizards
• Geographic distribution: parts of Africa, South and Central America,
Mexico, India, Australia, and tropical islands
➢ Tropical Savanna
Receiving more seasonal rainfall than deserts but less than
tropical dry forests, tropical savannas, or grasslands, are
characterized by a cover of grasses. Savannas are spotted with
isolated trees and small groves of trees and shrubs. Compact soils,
fairly frequent fires, and the action of large animals such as
rhinoceros prevent some savanna areas from turning into dry forest.
• Abiotic factors: warm temperatures; seasonal rainfall; compact
soil; frequent fires set by lightning
• Dominant plants: tall, perennial grasses; sometimes drought-
tolerant and fire resistant trees or shrubs
• Dominant wildlife: predators such as lions, leopards, cheetahs,
hyenas, and jackals; aardvarks; herbivores such as elephants,
giraffes, antelopes, and zebras; baboons; birds such as eagles,
ostriches, weaver birds, and storks; insects such as termites
• Geographic distribution: large parts of eastern Africa, southern
Brazil, northern Australia
➢ Desert
All deserts are dry – in fact, a desert biome is defined as having
annual precipitation of less than 25 centimeters. Beyond that, deserts
vary greatly, depending on elevation and latitude. Many undergo
extreme temperature changes during the course of a day, alternating
between hot and cold. The organisms in this biome can tolerate the
extreme conditions.
• Abiotic factors: low precipitation, variable temperatures; soils rich
in minerals but poor in organic material
• Dominant plants: cacti and other succulents; creosote bush and
other plants with short growth cycles
• Dominant wildlife: predators such as mountain lions, gray foxes,
and bobcats; herbivores such as mule deer, pronghorn antelope,
desert bighorn sheep, and kangaroo rats; bats; birds such as
owls, hawks, and roadrunners; insects such as ants, beetles,
butterflies, flies, and wasps; reptiles such as tortoises,
rattlesnakes, and lizards
• Geographic distribution: Africa, Asia, Middle East, United
States, Mexico, South America, and Australia
➢ Temperate Grassland
Characterized by a rich mix of grasses and underlaid by some
of the world's most fertile soils, temperate grasslands – such as
plains and prairies – once covered vast areas of the midwestern
United States. Since the development of the steel plow, however,
most have been converted to agricultural fields. Periodic fires and
heavy grazing by large herbivores maintain the characteristic plant
community.
• Abiotic factors: warm to hot summers; cold winters; moderate,
seasonal precipitation; fertile soils; occasional fires
• Dominant plants: lush, perennial grasses and herbs; most are
resistant to drought, fire, and cold
• Dominant wildlife: predators such as coyotes and badgers --
historically included wolves and grizzly bears; herbivores such as
mule deer, pronghorn antelope, rabbits, prairie dogs, and
introduced cattle -- historically included bison; birds such as
hawks, owls, bobwhite, prairie chicken, mountain plover; reptiles
such as snakes; insects such as ants and grasshoppers
• Geographic distribution: central Asia, North America, Australia,
central Europe, and upland plateaus of South America
➢ Temperate Woodland and Shrubland
This biome is characterized by a semiarid climate and a mix of
shrub communities and open woodlands. In the open woodlands,
large areas of grasses and wildflowers such as poppies are
interspersed with oak trees. Communities that are dominated by
shrubs are also known as chaparral. The growth of dense, low plants
that contain flammable oils makes fires a constant threat.
• Abiotic factors: hot, dry summers; cool, moist winters; thin,
nutrient-poor soils; periodic fires
• Dominant plants: woody evergreen shrubs with small, leathery
leaves; fragrant, oily herbs that grow during winter and die in
summer
 • Dominant wildlife: predators such as coyotes, foxes, bobcats,
and mountain lions; herbivores such as blacktailed deer,
rabbits, squirrels, and mice; birds such as hawks, California
quail, western scrub jay, warblers and other songbirds; reptiles
such as lizards and snakes; butterflies; spiders
• Geographic distribution: western coasts of North and South
America, areas around the Mediterranean Sea, South Africa,
and Australia
➢ Temperate Forest
Temperate forests contain a mixture of deciduous and
coniferous (koh-NIF-ur-us) trees. Coniferous trees, or conifers,
produce seed-bearing cones and most have leaves shaped like
needles.
conifers, produce seed-bearing cones and most have leaves shaped
like needles. These forests have cold winters that halt plant growth for
several months. In autumn, the deciduous trees shed their leaves. In
the spring, small plants burst out of the ground and flower. Soils of
temperate forests are often rich in humus (HYOO-mus), a material
formed from decaying leaves and other organic matter that makes soil
fertile.
• Abiotic factors: cold to moderate winters; warm summers;
year-round precipitation; fertile soils
• Dominant plants: broadleaf deciduous trees; some conifers;
flowering shrubs; herbs; a ground layer of mosses and ferns
 • Dominant wildlife: Deer; black bears; bobcats; nut and acorn
feeders, such as squirrels; omnivores such as raccoons and
skunks; numerous songbirds; turkeys
• Geographic distribution: eastern United States; southeastern
Canada; most of Europe; and parts of Japan, China, and
Australia
➢ Northwestern Coniferous Forest
Mild, moist air from the Pacific Ocean provides abundant
rainfall to this biome. The forest is made up of a variety of conifers,
ranging from giant redwoods, along the coast of northern California.
to spruce, fir, and hemlock farther north.
Moss often covers tree trunks and the forest floor. Flowering trees
and shrubs such as dogwood and rhododendron are also abundant.
Because of its lush vegetation, the northwestern coniferous forest is
sometimes called a "temperate rain forest.."
• Abiotic factors: mild temperatures; abundant precipitation
during fall, winter, and spring; relatively cool, dry summer;
rocky, acidic soils
• Dominant plants: Douglas fir, Sitka spruce, western hemlock,
redwood
• Dominant wildlife: bears; large herbivores such as elk and
deer; beavers; predators such as owls, bobcats, and members
of the weasel family
 • Geographic distribution: Pacific coast of northwestern United
States and Canada, from northern California to Alaska Boreal
Forest
➢ Boreal Forest
Along the northern edge of the temperate zone are dense
evergreen forests of coniferous trees. These biomes are called
boreal forests, or taiga (TY-guh). Winters are bitterly cold, but
summers are mild and long enough to allow the ground to thaw. The
word boreal comes from the Greek word for "north," reflecting the fact
that boreal forests occur mostly in the Northern Hemisphere.
• Abiotic factors: long, cold winters; short, mild summers;
moderate precipitation; high humidity; acidic, nutrient-poor
soils
• Dominant plants: needleleaf coniferous trees such as spruce
and fir; some broadleaf deciduous trees; small, berry-bearing
shrubs
• Dominant wildlife: predators like lynx and timberwolves and
members of the weasel family; small herbivorous mammals;
moose and other large herbivores; beavers; songbirds and
migratory birds
• Geographic distribution: North America, Asia, and northern
Europe
➢ Tundra
The tundra is characterized by permafrost, a layer of
permanently frozen subsoil. During the short, cool summer, the
ground thaws to a depth of a few centimeters and becomes soggy
and wet. In winter, the topsoil freezes again. This cycle of thawing
and freezing, which rips and crushes plant roots, is one reason that
tundra plants are small and stunted. Cold temperatures, high winds;
the short growing season, and humus-poor soils also limit plant
height
• Abiotic factors: strong winds; low precipitation; short and
soggy summers; long, cold, and dark winters; poorly
developed soils; permafrost
• Dominant plants: ground-hugging plants such as mosses,
lichens, sedges, and short grasses
• Dominant wildlife: a few resident birds and mammals that
can withstand the harsh conditions; migratory waterfowl,
shore birds, musk ox, Arctic foxes, and caribou; lemmings
and other small rodents
• Geographic distribution: northern North America, Asia, and
Europe
Conservation and preservation of biomes
Biomes have changed many times during the history of life on
Earth. Different biomes have different effect on the planet. The
world's oceans have an even greater effect on global climate than
forests do. More recently, human activities have drastically altered
these communities. Thus, conservation and preservation of biomes
should be a major concern to all. We must understand how human
activity affects these biomes. Aquatic biomes are the most valuable
and they are also more threatened by pollution.