Vectors

(5) Zero vector : A vector having zero

Introduction of Vector magnitude and arbitrary direction (not known to

Physical quantities having magnitude, us) is a zero vector.

direction and obeying laws of vector algebra are (6) Unit vector : A vector divided by its
called vectors. magnitude is a unit vector. Unit vector for is
Example : Displacement, velocity, (read as A cap or A hat).
acceleration, momentum, force, impulse, weight,
Since, .
thrust, torque, angular momentum, angular
velocity etc. Thus, we can say that unit vector gives us
If a physical quantity has magnitude and the direction.
direction both, then it does not always imply that
(7) Orthogonal unit
it is a vector. For it to be a vector the third y
vectors and are called
condition of obeying laws of vector algebra has to
orthogonal unit vectors. These ĵ
be satisfied. x
vectors must form a Right k̂
Example : The physical quantity current has î
Handed Triad (It is a z
both magnitude and direction but is still a scalar Fig. 0.1
coordinate system such that
as it disobeys the laws of vector algebra.
when we Curl the fingers of right hand from x to y
Types of Vector
then we must get the direction of z along thumb).
(1) Equal vectors : Two vectors and are The
said to be equal when they have equal magnitudes
, ,
and same direction.

(2) Parallel vector : Two vectors and  , ,

are said to be parallel when (8) Polar vectors : These have starting point
(i) Both have same direction. or point of application . Example displacement and

(ii) One vector is scalar (positive) non-zero force etc.

multiple of another vector. (9) Axial Vectors : These represent

rotational effects and are always along the axis of
(3) Anti-parallel vectors : Two vectors
rotation in accordance with right hand screw rule.
and are said to be anti-parallel when
Angular velocity, torque and angular momentum,
(i) Both have opposite direction. etc., are example of physical quantities of this
(ii) One vector is scalar non-zero negative type.
multiple of another vector. Axial vector Axis of rotation

(4) Collinear vectors : When the vectors

under consideration can share the same support
or have a common support then the considered Anticlock wise Clock wise rotation
rotation
vectors are collinear. Axis of rotation Axial vector

Fig. 0.2
 Vectors

(10) Coplanar vector : Three (or more) If makes an angle  with then in
vectors are called coplanar vector if they lie in the
same plane. Two (free) vectors are always
coplanar.

Triangle Law of Vector Addition of Two

Vectors

If two non zero vectors are represented by

Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition
B
the two sides of a
R A B
If two non zero vectors are represented by
triangle taken in same
the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram then the
order then the B
O A
resultant is given by the diagonal of the
resultant is given by A
Fig. 0.3 parallelogram passing through the point of
the closing side of
intersection of the two vectors.
triangle in opposite order. i.e.
(1) Magnitude

Since,

(1) Magnitude of resultant vector

In

B C

R A B
B B sin
In we have
B B
 

R O N
B B sin A
A B cos
 
Fig. 0.5
O A A N
B Special cases : when  = 0o
Fig. 0.4 cos
when  = 180o

when  = 90o

(2) Direction

Polygon Law of Vector Addition

If a number of non zero vectors are

(2) Direction of resultant vectors : If is represented by the (n – 1) sides of an n-sided

polygon then the resultant is given by the closing
angle between and then
side or the nth side of the polygon taken in
opposite order. So,
 Vectors

But and

D D C

E C

E B Resolution of Vector Into

R B

O A
A
Fig. 0.6
Components
Y

Note :  Resultant of two unequal vectors Consider a vector in X-

can not be zero. Y plane as shown in fig. If we Ry R

 Resultant of three co-planar vectors draw orthogonal vectors 

X
Rx
may or may not be zero and along x and axes Fig. 0.8

 Resultant of three non co- planar respectively, by law of vector addition,

vectors can not be zero.

Subtraction of vectors
Now as for any vector so,

and
Since, and
so

…(i)

But from figure

Since, …(ii)

and …(iii)

R sum  A  B
Since R and  are usually known, Equation (ii)
and (iii) give the magnitude of the components of
B
along x and y-axes respectively.
 1
2 A Here it is worthy to note once a vector is
180 – 
 B resolved into its components, the components
themselves can be used to specify the vector as

R diff  A  ( B) (1) The magnitude of the vector is obtained

Fig. 0.7
by squaring and adding equation (ii) and (iii), i.e.

(2) The direction of the vector is obtained

and
by dividing equation (iii) by (ii), i.e.
 Vectors

or of the magnitude of two vectors with cosine of

angle between them.
Rectangular Components of 3-D Vector
Thus if there are two vectors and having
or
angle between them, then their scalar product
Y
written as is defined as
B

R 
Ry
Rx
(2) Properties : (i) It is
always a scalar which is positive
Rz
X
A
if angle between the vectors is
Z Fig. 0.10
acute (i.e., < 90°) and negative if
If makes an Fig.
angle0.9
 with x axis,  with y
angle between them is obtuse (i.e. 90°< < 180°).
axis and with z axis, then
(ii) It is commutative, i.e.

(iii) It is distributive, i.e.

(iv) As by definition

The angle between the vectors

Where l, m, n are called Direction Cosines of (v) Scalar product of two vectors will be

the vector and maximum when i.e. i.e.,

vectors are parallel

(vi) Scalar product of two vectors will be

minimum when i.e.
Note :  When a point P have coordinate (x,
y, z) then its position vector

 When a particle moves from point i.e. if the scalar product of two nonzero
(x1, y1, z1) to (x2, y2, z2) then its displacement vectors vanishes the vectors are orthogonal.
vector (vii) The scalar product of a vector by itself is
termed as self dot product and is given by

Scalar Product of Two Vectors

i.e.
(1) Definition : The scalar product (or dot
product) of two vectors is defined as the product (viii) In case of unit vector
 Vectors

so (iv) Potential energy of a dipole U : If an

electric dipole of moment is situated in an
electric field or a magnetic dipole of moment
(ix) In case of orthogonal unit vectors
in a field of induction the potential energy of
and
the dipole is given by :
(x) In terms of components
and

Vector Product of Two Vectors

(1) Definition : The vector product or cross

(3) Example : (i) Work W : In physics for product of two vectors is defined as a vector
constant force work is defined as, having a magnitude equal to the product of the
…(i) magnitudes of two vectors with the sine of angle
But by definition of scalar product of two between them, and direction perpendicular to the

vectors, plane containing the two vectors in accordance

…(ii) with right hand screw rule.

So from eqn (i) and (ii) i.e. work is

the scalar product of force with displacement. Thus, if and are two vectors, then their

(ii) Power P : vector product written as is a vector

defined by
As or [As is

constant]

or i.e., power is the scalar product


of force with velocity. ds 
B

(iii) Magnetic Flux : O Fig. 0.12

Magnetic flux through The direction of i.e. is perpendicular to

Fig. 0.11
an area is given by the plane containing vectors and and in the
…(i) sense of advance of a right handed screw rotated

But by definition of scalar product from (first vector) to (second vector) through

...(ii) the smaller angle between them. Thus, if a right

handed screw whose axis is perpendicular to the
So from eqn (i) and (ii) we have
plane framed by and is rotated from to
or through the smaller angle between them, then the
 Vectors

direction of advancement of the screw gives the (vii) In case of unit vector so that
direction of i.e.

(2) Properties (viii) In case of orthogonal unit vectors,

(i) Vector product of any two vectors is in accordance with right hand screw
always a vector perpendicular to the plane rule :
containing these two vectors, i.e., orthogonal to
ĵ ĵ
both the vectors and though the vectors

and may or may not be orthogonal.

k̂
(ii) Vector product of two vectors is not î î
commutative, i.e., [but
k̂ Fig. 0.13
Here it is worthy to note that

and

i.e. in case of vector and And as cross product is not commutative,

magnitudes are equal but directions are
, and
opposite.
(x) In terms of components
(iii) The vector product is distributive when
the order of the vectors is strictly
maintained, i.e.

(iv) The vector product of two vectors will be

maximum when i.e.,

(3) Example : Since vector product of two

vectors is a vector, vector physical quantities
i.e. vector product is maximum if the vectors
(particularly representing rotational effects) like
are orthogonal.
torque, angular momentum, velocity and force on a
(v) The vector product of two non- zero vectors moving charge in a magnetic field and can be
will be minimum when minimum = 0, expressed as the vector product of two vectors. It is
i.e., or well – established in physics that :

(i) Torque

(ii) Angular momentum

i.e. if the vector product of two non-zero
vectors vanishes, the vectors are collinear. (iii) Velocity

(vi) The self cross product, i.e., product of a (iv) Force on a charged particle q moving
vector by itself vanishes, i.e., is null vector with velocity in a magnetic field is given by
 Vectors

(v) Torque on a dipole in a field Taking magnitude, we get

and

Lami's Theorem

In any with sides

Dividing through out by abc, we have

180 – 


Relative Velocity
c b
(1) Introduction : When we consider the
  180 – 
motion of a particle, we assume a fixed point
180 –  a relative to which the given particle is in motion.
Fig. 0.14
For example, if we say that water is flowing or
wind is blowing or a person is running with a
speed v, we mean that these all are relative to the

i.e. for any triangle the ratio of the sine of the earth (which we have assumed to be fixed).

angle containing the side to the length of the side Y

Y P
is a constant.
r
For a triangle whose three sides are in the r
PS'
PS
same order we establish the Lami's theorem in the X
S
r S' S
following manner. For the triangle shown X
S
Fig. 0.15
[All three sides are taken in order]
…(i)

…(ii)
Now to find the velocity of a moving object

Pre-multiplying both sides by relative to another moving object, consider a

particle P whose position relative to frame S is

while relative to is .
…(iii)

Pre-multiplying both sides of (ii) by If the position of frames relative to S at

any time is then from figure,

Differentiating this equation with respect to

time
…(iv)

From (iii) and (iv), we get

 Vectors

So if the satellite moves form west to east (in

or [as
the direction of rotation of earth on its axis) its
] velocity relative to earth's surface will be

or
And if the satellite moves from east to west,
(2) General Formula : The relative velocity i.e., opposite to the motion of earth,

of a particle P1 moving with velocity with

respect to another particle P2 moving with velocity (4) Relative velocity of rain : If rain is
is given by, = – falling vertically with a velocity and an

v1 observer is moving horizontally with speed the

v2
velocity of rain relative to observer will be
P2

Fig. 0.16 P1

which by law of vector addition has

magnitude
(i) If both the particles are moving in the same
direction then :

direction with the vertical

(ii) If the two particles are moving in the
as shown in fig.
opposite direction, then :
 – vM 
vR vR
  vR 
vM vM
(iii) If the two particles are moving in the
mutually perpendicular directions, then: Fig. 0.17

(iv) If the angle between and be , then (5) Relative velocity of swimmer : If a

man can swim relative to water with velocity

.
and water is flowing relative to ground with
(3) Relative velocity of satellite : If a velocity velocity of man relative to ground
satellite is moving in equatorial plane with velocity
will be given by:
and a point on the surface of earth with
i.e.,
relative to the centre of earth, the velocity of
satellite relative to the surface of earth So if the swimming is in the direction of flow
of water,
 Vectors

And if the swimming is opposite to the flow of The time taken to cross the river will be:
water,

(6) Crossing the river : Suppose, the river 

A vr B
is flowing with velocity . A man can swim in still

water with velocity . He is standing on one bank 

w vr
of the river and wants to cross the river, two cases
arise.
Upstream O Downstrea
(i) To cross the river over shortest distance : m
Fig. 0.19
That is to cross the river straight, the man should
swim making angle v with the upstream as shown.
A r B


  In this case, the man will touch the opposite

vr
w  v
vm bank at a distance AB down stream. This distance


will be given by:
Upstream O Downstrea
m
Fig. 0.18 or

Here OAB is the triangle of vectors, in which

Their resultant is given by

 All physical quantities having direction are
. The direction of swimming makes angle 
not vectors. For example, the electric current
with upstream. From the triangle OBA, we find, possesses direction but it is a scalar quantity
because it can not be added or multiplied
Also according to the rules of vector algebra.

 A vector can have only two rectangular

Where  is the angle made by the direction of
components in plane and only three rectangular
swimming with the shortest distance (OB) across
components in space.
the river.
 A vector can have any number, even infinite
Time taken to cross the river : If w be the
components. (minimum 2 components)
width of the river, then time taken to cross the
 Following quantities are neither vectors nor
river will be given by
scalars : Relative density, density, viscosity,
frequency, pressure, stress, strain, modulus of
elasticity, poisson’s ratio, moment of inertia,

(ii) To cross the river in shortest possible time specific heat, latent heat, spring constant

: The man should swim perpendicular to the bank. loudness, resistance, conductance, reactance,
 Vectors

impedance, permittivity, dielectric constant, If , then A = B and .

permeability, susceptibility, refractive index,
If , then A = B but .
focal length, power of lens, Boltzman constant,
Stefan’s constant, Gas constant, Gravitational  Minimum number of collinear vectors whose
constant, Rydberg constant, Planck’s constant resultant can be zero is two.
etc.  Minimum number of coplaner vectors whose
 Distance covered is a scalar quantity. resultant is zero is three.

 The displacement is a vector quantity.  Minimum number of non coplaner vectors

 Scalars are added, subtracted or divided whose resultant is zero is four.

algebraically.  Two vectors are perpendicular to each other

 Vectors are added and subtracted if .
geometrically.  Two vectors are parallel to each other if
 Division of vectors is not allowed as
directions cannot be divided.
 Displacement, velocity, linear momentum
 Unit vector gives the direction of vector. and force are polar vectors.
 Magnitude of unit vector is 1.  Angular velocity, angular acceleration,
 Unit vector has no unit. For example, torque and angular momentum are axial
–1
velocity of an object is 5 ms due East. vectors.

i.e. due east.  Division with a vector is not defined because

it is not possible to divide with a direction.

 Distance covered is always positive quantity.

So unit vector has no unit as East is not a

 The components of a vectors can have
magnitude than that of the vector itself.
physical quantity.
 The rectangular components cannot have
 Unit vector has no dimensions.
magnitude greater than that of the vector itself.

 When we multiply a vector with 0 the
 product becomes a null vector.

  The resultant of two vectors of unequal

magnitude can never be a null vector.

 Three vectors not lying in a plane can never
 . Also But
add up to give a null vector.
Because and is collinear with  A quantity having magnitude and direction is
not necessarily a vector. For example, time and
electric current. These quantities have
 Multiplication of a vector with –1 reverses its
magnitude and direction but they are scalar.
direction.
This is because they do not obey the laws of
 Vectors

vector addition. minimum number of vectors of unequal

magnitude whose resultant can be zero is three.
 A physical quantity which has different
On the other hand, the minimum number of
values in different directions is called a tensor.
vectors of equal magnitude whose resultant can
For example : Moment of inertia has different
be zero is two.
values in different directions. Hence moment of
inertia is a tensor. Other examples of tensor are  Angle between two vectors and is given

refractive index, stress, strain, density etc. by

 The magnitude of rectangular components of

a vector is always less than the magnitude of
the vector  Projection of a vector in the direction of
vector
 If , then and .

 If . Or if , then

and lie in one plane.

 Projection of a vector in the direction of
 If , then is perpendicular to as vector
well as .

 If , then angle between

and is 90°.  If vectors are represented by

 Resultant of two vectors will be maximum three sides ab, bc and ca respectively taken in a

when  = 0° i.e. vectors are parallel. order, then

 Resultant of two vectors will be minimum

 The vectors is equally inclined to the
when  = 180° i.e. vectors are anti-parallel.
coordinate axes at an angle of 54.74 degrees.
 If , then .
Thus, minimum value of the resultant of two
 If , then and are
vectors is equal to the difference of their
coplanar.
magnitude.
 Thus, maximum value of the resultant of two  If angle between and is 45°,

vectors is equal to the sum of their magnitude. then

When the magnitudes of two vectors are  If and
unequal, then
then the adjacent vector

are inclined to each other at angle .

 If and , then the angle

Thus, two vectors and having different
between and is 90°. Also A, B and C can
magnitudes can never be combined to give zero
have the following values.
resultant. From here, we conclude that the
 Vectors

(i) A = 3, B = 4, C = 5
(ii) A = 5, B = 12, C = 13
(iii) A = 8, B = 15, C = 17.