NASA

TP
7086
c. 7

NASA Technical Paper 1086

Metallurgical Characterization
of the Fracture of Several
High Strength Aluminum Alloys

M. Dilip 'Bhandarkar and W. Barry Lisagor

DECEMBER 1977

NASA
 TECH LIBRARY KAFB, NM

NASA Technical Paper 1086

I1
11 l1IIIIIlli111I1
lIllllI0334304 l 11

Metallurgical Characterization
of the Fracture of Several
High Strength Aluminum Alloys

M. Dilip Bhandarkar and W. Barry Lisagor

Langley Research Center
Hampton, Virginia

National Aeronautics
and Space Administration

Scientific and Technical

Information Office

1977
 SUMMARY

A large volume o f i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e f r a c t u r e b e h a v i o r o f aluminum a l l o y s

h a s been g e n e r a t e d under t e s t c o n d i t i o n s which have n o t been c o n t r o l l e d i n a
systematic fashion. A s a r e s u l t , m e t a l l u r g i c a l c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of f r a c t u r e
b e h a v i o r i s incomplete and scattered i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e .

The main o b j e c t i v e o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n was t o s t u d y s y s t e m a t i c a l l y , under

c o n t r o l l e d monotonic l o a d i n g c o n d i t i o n s , t h e f r a c t u r e b e h a v i o r o f common s t r u c ­
t u r a l aluminum a l l o y s i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e i r m i c r o s t r u c t u r e s . Thin sheets and
t h i c k p l a t e s o f commercial aluminum a l l o y s 2024, 6061, 7075, and 7178 ( i n
selected heat t r e a t m e n t s ) were tested a t room t e m p e r a t u r e i n shear, t e n s i l e ,
and notch-bend t e s t s . F r a c t u r e s u r f a c e morphologies were examined f o r d i f f e r e n t
s t r a i n r a t e s and f o r both l o n g i t u d i n a l and t r a n s v e r s e o r i e n t a t i o n s . The s e v e r a l
d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of second-phase p a r t i c l e s observed on f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s and
m e t a l l o g r a p h i c s e c t i o n s were c h e m i c a l l y analyzed u s i n g s c a n n i n g e l e c t r o n micros­
copy and a s s o c i a t e d energy d i s p e r s i v e X-ray a n a l y s i s ( d e s i g n a t e d e d a x ) .

S e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f second-phase p a r t i c l e s , some n o t r e p o r t e d by
o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s , were i d e n t i f i e d i n t h e a l l o y s . The r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t
g r a i n s t r u c t u r e , s i z e and d i s t r i b u t i o n of p r e c i p i t a t e s , t y p e o f t e s t l o a d , and
t h e form o f commercial product c o n s i d e r a b l y affected f r a c t u r e morphology. Spec­
imen o r i e n t a t i o n s examined i n t h e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n had l i t t l e i n f l u e n c e on
f r a c t u r e morphology. S t r a i n r a t e changes o f two t o three o r d e r s o f magnitude
d i d n o t a l t e r t h e s t r e n g t h p r o p e r t i e s and f r a c t u r e b e h a v i o r o f t e n s i l e specimens.
One t o two o r d e r s o f magnitude change i n shear s t r a i n r a t e c o n s i d e r a b l y affected
t h e shear s t r e n g t h o f a l l t h e a l l o y s examined, and shear f r a c t u r e morphology was
a l t e r e d i n a l l a l l o y s e x c e p t 6061. T h i s unusual b e h a v i o r was e x p l a i n e d on t h e
basis o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n second-phase p a r t i c l e c r a c k i n g .

I n a n a l y z i n g f a i l u r e s t h a t o c c u r under complex s e r v i c e c o n d i t i o n s , charac­

t e r i s t i c features of t h e t y p e d e s c r i b e d i n t h i s paper should prove u s e f u l f o r
e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e f r a c t u r e mechanisms and o t h e r f a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e c a u s e
of f a i l u r e .

INTRODUCTION

F r a c t o g r a p h i c a n a l y s i s o f microscopic f r a c t u r e p r o c e s s e s h a s assumed
i n c r e a s i n g importance i n s t u d i e s o f material f a i l u r e s o c c u r r i n g i n s e r v i c e .
A complete u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e microscopic i n - s e r v i c e f r a c t u r e p r o c e s s e s t h a t
o c c u r under complex c o n d i t i o n s o f l o a d i n g and chemical environments r e q u i r e s
c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f t h e morphology o f f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s produced under s e v e r a l
c o n t r o l l e d l o a d i n g c o n d i t i o n s . Attempts have been made t o r e l a t e m i c r o s t r u c t u r e
o f materials t o t h e i r f r a c t u r e b e h a v i o r . S e v e r a l such i n v e s t i g a t i o n s have been
conducted on aluminum a l l o y s . Some i n v e s t i g a t o r s have i d e n t i f i e d c e r t a i n frac­
t u r e mechanisms i n t h e s e a l l o y s and have d i s c u s s e d t h e i n f l u e n c e of m i c r o s t r u c -
tural variables such as grain structure and precipitate distribution on fracture
morphology. (See refs. 1 to 11.) However, most reported investigations have
not been systematic in their approach to alloys and heat treatments, types of
commercial products, test specimen geometries, and testing conditions. As a
result, only scattered information exists in the literature on fracture of alu­
minum alloys.

The main objective of the present investigation was to characterize the

fracture morphology of commercial aluminum alloys 2024, 6061, 7075, and 7178 (in
selected heat treatments) as a function of several controlled loading conditions.
Attempts were made to relate fracture behavior to microstructure, form of com­
mercial product, test specimen geometry and orientation, and testing conditions.
The documented results for these aluminum alloys should aid in analyzing in-
service material failures.

The units for the physical quantities defined in this paper are given in
the International System of Units (SI) and parenthetically in U.S. Customary
Units. Measurements and calculations were made in U.S. Customary Units. Fac­
tors relating the two systems are given in reference 12.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Materia 1s

The investigation included aluminum alloys 2024, 6061, 7075, and 7178 in
sheet and plate forms which are commonly employed in structural. application in
the aerospace industry. Sheets were 1 mm (0.040 in.) thick and plates were
25.4 mm ( 1 in.) thick. Chemical compositions of the alloys are listed in
table I. Heat treatments and materials specifications of the alloys are listed
in table 11.

Specimens and Mechanical Tests

Tensile tests were conducted using thin sheet specimens 12.7 mm (0.5 in.)
wide in the gage section and round specimens 12.7 mm (0.5 in.) in diameter in
the gage section. The round specimens were machined from thick plates of the
alloys. Both the tensile sheet and the plate specimens were tested in accor­
dance with the standard American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM) tension
testing procedure (E8-69) under three strain rate conditions until fracture:
(1) 0.005/min; (2) 1.5/min; and ( 3 ) 0.005/min to yield followed by 0.05/min.
Shear tests were performed using thin sheet specimens in accordance with the
procedure detailed in appendix A. The specimens were tested at cross-head dis­
placement rates of 2.54 mm/min (0.1 in./min) and 76.2 mm/min ( 3 in./min). Ten­
sile and shear properties were determined for both longitudinal and long trans­
verse specimens. Three point bend tests were performed on single-edge-notched
fatigue-precracked specimens with a nominal thickness of 12.7 mm (0.5 in.) and
a nominal width of 25.4 mm (1.0 in.). The specimens were machined from thick
plates of the alloys with the crack plane perpendicular to both the longltudinal
and transverse directions and the crack front propagating in the short-transverse
direction. Maximum stress intensity factors (KIQ) at failure were obtained from

I1 I1 I II II
t h e t e s t d a t a . A d d i t i o n a l t e s t d e t a i l s o f notch-bend t e s t s and t h e specimen
s k e t c h can be found i n appendix B.

M e t a l l u r g i c a l and F r a c t o g r a p h i c A n a l y s i s

M e t a l l o g r a p h i c specimens were p r e p a r e d u s i n g s t a n d a r d hand p o l i s h i n g t e c h ­

n i q u e s . Specimens were s u c c e s s i v e l y ground on 180-, 240-, 320-, and 6 0 0 - g r i t
w e t s i l i c o n c a r b i d e paper and s u c c e s s i v e l y p o l i s h e d u s i n g 6 pm ( 2 x in.)
diamond, 0.3 pm ( 0 . 1 x i n . ) alumina, and 0.05 pm ( 0 . 0 2 x i n . ) alumina.
Etch-polish-etch p r o c e d u r e s were used employing Keller's r e a g e n t ( 2 . 5 p e r c e n t
HNO3, 1 . 5 p e r c e n t HC1, 0.5 p e r c e n t HF, b a l a n c e H20).
M i c r o s t r u c t u r e and f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e morphology were c h a r a c t e r i z e d u s i n g
t h e o p t i c a l microscope and t h e scanning e l e c t r o n microscope. Second-phase par­
t i c l e s t h a t were observed on f r a c t u r e surfaces and m e t a l l o g r a p h i c a l l y p o l i s h e d
s e c t i o n s o f t h e a l l o y s were analyzed u s i n g t h e scanning e l e c t r o n microscope and
a s s o c i a t e d energy d i s p e r s i v e X-ray chemical a n a l y s i s ( e d a x ) . The p a r t i c l e a n a l ­
y s i s procedure is d e t a i l e d i n appendix C.

RESULTS

Mechanical p r o p e r t y d a t a r e 8 u l t i n g from t h e v a r i o u s tests conducted t o

produce t h e f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s are p r e s e n t e d i n t a b l e s I11 t o V I . Tables I11 and
I V c o n t a i n mechanical p r o p e r t y and t e n s i l e p r o p e r t y r e s u l t s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , f o r
p l a t e and s h e e t t e s t s . T a b l e s V and V I c o n t a i n t e s t r e s u l t s on t h e e f f e c t o f
s t r a i n rate on t e n s i l e and s h e a r specimens, r e s p e c t i v e l y . These d a t a are d i s ­
cussed more f u l l y i n s e c t i o n s where t h e y are used t o s u p p o r t f r a c t u r e morphology
d e s c r i p t i o n s . T a b l e V I 1 p r o v i d e s an index r e l a t i n g m i c r o s t r u c t u r e , p a r t i c l e
a n a l y s i s , and f r a c t u r e morphology w i t h t h e numbers o f t h e f i g u r e s which c h a r a c ­
t e r i z e them. Laboratory a n a l y s i s i n c l u d e d e x t e n s i v e microscopy o f a l l t y p e s o f
f r a c t u r e s produced. Many photomicrographs which were o b t a i n e d were n o t used i n
t h e r e p o r t . The photomicrographs c o n t a i n e d i n t h e r e p o r t were s e l e c t e d because
t h e y best i l l u s t r a t e t h e t e c h n i c a l r e s u l t s p r e s e n t e d .

M i c r o s t r u c t u r e s o f Alloys

Both o p t i c a l microscopy and s c a n n i n g e l e c t r o n microscopy were used f o r

m i c r o s t r u c t u r a l examination of a l l o y s o f t h e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n . The g r a i n
s t r u c t u r e s and second-phase p a r t i c l e d i s t r i b u t i o n s were b e t t e r r e v e a l e d i n o p t i ­
cal micrographs. T h e r e f o r e , e x c e p t i n one case, o n l y o p t i c a l micrographs are
p r e s e n t e d t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e s e m i c r o s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s . The more i m p o r t a n t u s e
of scanning e l e c t r o n microscopy i n m i c r o s t r u c t u r a l examination w a s i n t h e edax
chemical a n a l y s i s o f second-phase p a r t i c l e s on p o l i s h e d and f r a c t u r e d s u r f a c e s .
The r e s u l t s of m i c r o s t r u c t u r a l examination are p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s p a p e r .

3
 P l a t e Specimens

Aluminum a l l o y 202bT351.- T y p i c a l micrographs and edax p a t t e r n s are shown

i n f i g u r e 1 f o r a p l a t e specimen o f 2024-T351. The edax p a t t e r n s show X-ray
i n t e n s i t y peaks o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c r a d i a t i o n o f each element p r e s e n t . The
e l e m e n t s are l a b e l e d w i t h t h e i r chemical symbol above or b e s i d e t h e r e s p e c t i v e
element s i g n a l . The edax p a t t e r n s d i s p l a y t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c energy l e v e l ( k e v )
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h each element on t h e a b s c i s s a and t h e i n t e n s i t y l e v e l ( r e l a t e d t o
amount o f element p r e s e n t ) on t h e o r d i n a t e o f each p l o t . The o p t i c a l micrograph
o f f i g u r e l ( a ) c l e a r l y shows t h e e l o n g a t e d g r a i n s and a h i g h d e n s i t y of large
second-phase p a r t i c l e s . A large f r a c t i o n o f t h e p a r t i c l e s v i s i b l e i n f i g u r e l ( a >
were i n two s i z e r a n es, 0.4 t o 1 pm (1.5 x 10-5 t o 4 x 10-5 i n . ) and 3 t o 10 pm
(1 x to 4 x i n . ) . Also f a i n t l y v i s i b l e , b u t n o t resolved', i n f i g ­
u r e l ( a > i s a d i s p e r s i o n o f a f i n e r p r e c i p i t a t e which formed d u r i n g t h e a g i n g
t r e a t m e n t . The s c a n n i n g e l e c t r o n micrographs o f f i g u r e s l ( b ) and l ( c > i l l u s t r a t e
some o f t h e c o a r s e p a r t i c l e s t h a t were commonly observed i n t h e a l l o y . A f e w
c o a r s e p a r t i c l e s i n t h e a l l o y were as large as 14 pm (6 x i n . 1. The c o a r s e
p a r t i c l e s i n t h e a l l o y were p r i m a r i l y o f t h r e e t y p e s :

( a ) P a r t i c l e s l a b e l e d A i n f i g u r e s l ( b ) and l ( c ) e x h i b i t e d X-ray i n t e n s i t y
peaks o f A 1 and Cu i n t h e edax p a t t e r n , as shown i n f i g u r e l ( d ) . The i n t e n s i t y
r a t i o f o r Cu and A 1 s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e p a r t i c l e s were CuA12. A Mg peak was
d e t e c t e d f o r some p a r t i c l e s s u g g e s t i n g t h e p r e s e n c e o f CuMgA12. The compounds
CuA12 and CuMgA12 are t h e hardening phases t h a t p r e c i p i t a t e d u r i n g a g i n g , b u t
n o t i n t h e large s i z e s shown i n f i g u r e 1 . Other i n v e s t i g a t o r s have r e p o r t e d
t h a t large p a r t i c l e s o f t h e s e two t y p e s r e s u l t from i n e f f e c t i v e s o l u t i o n t r e a t ­
ment ( r e f s . 13 and 1 4 ) .

( b ) P a r t i c l e s l a b e l e d B i n f i g u r e s l ( b ) and l ( c ) e x h i b i t e d X-ray i n t e n s i t y
peaks o f A l , Fe, Mn, Cu, and S i as shown i n t h e edax p a t t e r n i n f i g u r e l ( e ) .
The l i t e r a t u r e c o n t a i n s no evidence o f t h e p r e s e n c e o f p a r t i c l e s o f t h i s chemi­
c a l composition i n aluminum a l l o y 2024. However, F e a t h e r b y ( r e f . 15) h a s
r e p o r t e d p a r t i c l e s c o n t a i n i n g t h e same e l e m e n t s i n aluminum a l l o y 2219.

( c ) A small number of p a r t i c l e s observed i n t h e a l l o y were c h a r a c t e r i z e d

by X-ray i n t e n s i t y peaks o f A l , Cu, F e , and Mn. These are l a b e l e d C i n f i g ­
u r e l ( c ) . The edax p a t t e r n i s shown i n f i g u r e l ( f ) . The X-ray i n t e n s i t y r a t i o s
s u g g e s t t h a t t h e s e p a r t i c l e s are (Cu, F e , Mn) Al6. P a r t i c l e s o f t h i s t y p e have
been r e p o r t e d i n aluminum a l l o y 2024 by o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s ( r e f . 1 4 ) .

The f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s o f p l a t e t e n s i l e and p r e c r a c k e d notch-bend specimens

of t h e a l l o y contained t h e t h r e e types of p a r t i c l e s j u s t described.

Aluminum a l l o y s 6061-T4 and 6061-T651.- O p t i c a l micrographs o f p l a t e s p e c i ­

mens o f aluminum a l l o y s 6061-T4 and 6061-T651 are shown i n f i g u r e 2. The two
m i c r o s t r u c t u r e s were v e r y similar and were c h a r a c t e r i z e d by c o a r s e p a r t i c l e s o f
s i z e s 1 t o 10 p m ( 0 . 4 x to 4 x i n . and a d e n s e , uniform d i s t r i b u t i o n
o f f i n e r p a r t i c l e s . The d i s p e r s i o n of t h e s t r e n g t h e n i n g p r e c i p i t a t e w a s expected
t o be d i f f e r e n t i n t h e a l l o y s s i n c e t h e a g i n g t r e a t m e n t s were d i f f e r e n t . Grain
boundaries were r a r e l y r e v e a l e d i n t h e a l l o y s . C o n s i d e r a b l e banding o f p r e c i p i ­
t a t e s was common t o both a l l o y s a s is e v i d e n t i n t h e f i g u r e . Chemical a n a l y s i s
r e v e a l e d t h r e e t y p e s o f c o a r s e second-phase p a r t i c l e s i n t h e a l l o y s :

I
 ( a ) P a r t i c l e s e x h i b i t i n g X-ray i n t e n s i t y peaks o f A l , Fe, S i , C r , and Mn
were very common i n t h e a l l o y s . The edax p a t t e r n i n f i g u r e 2 ( c ) i l l u s t r a t e s
t h e chemical a n a l y s i s . P a r t i c l e s o f t h i s t y p e have n o t been r e p o r t e d i n t h e
literature.

( b ) A f e w well-rounded p a r t i c l e s 5 t o 7 pm ( 2 x 10-4 t o 3 x in.) i n

s i z e which e x h i b i t e d A l , Mg, and S i X-ray peaks were a l s o observed i n t h e a l l o y s .
I n t e n s i t y r a t i o s i n edax p a t t e r n s suggested t h a t t h e p a r t i c l e s were Mg2Si. A
t y p i c a l edax p a t t e r n i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 2 ( d ) . The A 1 peak i n t h e p a t t e r n
r e s u l t e d from m a t r i x c o n t r i b u t i o n . The compound Mg2Si i s t h e primary h a r d e n i n g
p r e c i p i t a t e forming d u r i n g a g i n g i n a l l o y 6061, b u t large p a r t i c l e s o f t h i s
phase are o f t e n p r e s e n t i n t h e a l l o y because o f i n e f f e c t i v e homogenization
( r e f s . 13 and 14).

( c ) A few S i p a r t i c l e s were a l s o observed i n t h e a l l o y s . The t y p e s o f

p a r t i c l e s j u s t d e s c r i b e d were observed i n large dimples on f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s
of t e n s i l e b a r s and precracked notch-bend' specimens.

Aluminum a l l o y 7075-T651.- The m i c r o s t r u c t u r e o f p l a t e specimens o f alumi­

num a l l o y 7075-T651 was c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a n e l o n g a t e d g r a i n s t r u c t u r e and heavy
banding. The bands and g r a i n b o u n d a r i e s had a h i g h d e n s i t y of second-phase par­
t i c l e s . Coarse c o n s t i t u e n t p a r t i c l e s and f i n e r s t r e n g t h e n i n g d i s p e r s o i d p a r t i ­
c l e s were v e r y common, a s i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e o p t i c a l micrographs o f f i g u r e 3.
The g r a i n dimension i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f p l a t e t h i c k n e s s e s w a s 10 t o 20 pm
(4 x to 8 x i n . 1. Chemical a n a l y s i s of second-phase p a r t i c l e s r e v e a l e d
s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f p a r t i c l e s i n t h e a l l o y p l a t e specimens. These a r e
d e s c r i b e d as f o l l o w s :

( a ) P a r t i c l e s e x h i b i t i n g X-ray i n t e n s i t y peaks o f Fe, Al, Cu, C r , Mn, Zn,

and Mg were oblong shaped and were v e r y common i n t h e a l l o y . A t y p i c a l edax
p a t t e r n is i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 4 ( a ) f o r t h i s t y p e o f p a r t i c l e . Comparison
o f t h e p a t t e r n w i t h m a t r i x a n a l y s i s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e Mg i n t e n s i t y r e s u l t e d
from m a t r i x c o n t r i b u t i o n . The l i t e r a t u r e c o n t a i n s no evidence o f t h e p r e s e n c e
of t h i s t y p e o f p a r t i c l e i n aluminum a l l o y 7075-T6. I n the present investiga­
t i o n , these p a r t i c l e s were v e r y commonly observed a s cleaved-on f r a c t u r e s u r ­
f a c e s o f precracked notch-bend specimens, b u t were rare on f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s o f
p l a t e t e n s i l e specimens.

( b ) P a r t i c l e s e x h i b i t i n g X-ray i n t e n s i t y peaks o f Al, Cu, F e , Zn, C r , Mn,

and Mg were v e r y common i n t h e a l l o y . An edax p a t t e r n f o r t h e p a r t i c l e s i s
shown i n f i g u r e 4 ( b ) . Comparison w i t h m a t r i x chemical a n a l y s i s i n d i c a t e d t h a t
t h e Mg i n t e n s i t y peak i n f i g u r e 4 ( b ) w a s caused by m a t r i x c o n t r i b u t i o n . The
p a r t i c l e s were somewhat similar t o t h o s e d e s c r i b e d i n s e c t i o n ( a ) , b u t e x h i b i t e d
a Cu peak t h a t was s t r o n g e r t h a n t h e Fe peak. T h i s t y p e o f p a r t i c l e w a s u s u a l l y
found fragmented on t h e f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s o f t e n s i l e and notch-bend specimens.
P a r t i c l e s o f t h i s t y p e have n o t been r e p o r t e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e .

( c ) P a r t i c l e s e x h i b i t i n g X-ray i n t e n s i t y peaks o f A l , Fe, C r , S i , Mn, and

Cu were sometimes observed i n dimples on f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s o f notch-bend s p e c i ­
mens. They were n o t observed on f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s o f p l a t e t e n s i l e specimens.
An edax p a t t e r n is shown i n f i g u r e 4 ( c ) f o r t h e p a r t i c l e s . Comparison w i t h a
m a t r i x p a t t e r n showed t h a t p a r t s o f t h e A 1 and Cu peaks i n f i g u r e 4 ( c ) were

5
 caused by m a t r i x c o n t r i b u t i o n . P a r t i c l e s o f t h i s t y p e have n o t been r e p o r t e d
i n the l i t e r a t u r e .

( d ) P a r t i c l e s 4 t o 6 pm ( 1 . 6 x t o 2.4 X i n . ) i n s i z e exhibiting
X-ray i n t e n s i t y peaks o f Mg, S i , and A 1 were observed f r e q u e n t l y on f r a c t u r e s u r ­
faces o f notch-bend specimens, b u t no on f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s o f p l a t e t e n s i l e speci­
mens. A t y p i c a l edax p a t t e r n f o r t h i s t y p e o f p a r t i c l e i s shown i n f i g u r e 4 ( d ) .
The aluminum peak i n t e n s i t y i n t h e p a t t e r n r e s u l t e d from m a t r i x c o n t r i b u t i o n
(see appendix C ) . The Mg t o S i i n t e n s i t y r a t i o s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e p a r t i c l e s
were Mg2Si. Low e t a l . ( r e f . 6 ) have r e p o r t e d similar p a r t i c l e s i n aluminum
a l l o y 7075.

( e ) S e v e r a l p a r t i c l e s on f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s o f precracked notch-bend s p e c i ­
mens showed X-ray i n t e n s i t y peaks o f Mg, A l , S i , Cu, and Zn. Some o f these par­
t i c l e s were r i c h i n Cu and Mg w i t h a Cu t o Mg peak r a t i o o f approximately 2. A
comparison w i t h m a t r i x a n a l y s i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e A 1 and Zn peaks r e s u l t e d , i n
p a r t , from m a t r i x c o n t r i b u t i o n . An edax p a t t e r n i s shown i n f i g u r e 4 ( e ) f o r t h e
p a r t i c l e s . The r e l a t i v e i n t e n s i t i e s o f peaks s u g g e s t t h a t these p a r t i c l e s are
CuMgA12 w i t h a small amount of S i i n s o l i d s o l u t i o n . On f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s o f
notch-bend specimens, these p a r t i c l e s were c l e a v e d b u t n o t fragmented. They
were n o t observed on f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s o f p l a t e t e n s i l e specimens.

( f ) Another t y p e of p a r t i c l e o f t e n observed on f r a c t u r e surfaces o f notch-

bend specimens o f aluminum a l l o y 7075-T651 e x h i b i t e d t h e same i n t e n s i t y peaks
as p a r t i c l e s i n s e c t i o n ( e ) . The edax p a t t e r n f o r t h e p a r t i c l e s i s shown i n
f i g u r e 4 ( f ) . A comparison of f i g u r e s 4 ( e ) and 4 ( f ) i n d i c a t e s t h a t i n f i g u r e 4 ( f )
t h e Mg and S i peaks are more prominent w i t h a n i n t e n s i t y r a t i o of approximately
2. P a r t i c l e s w i t h t h e chemical composition i l l u s t r a t e d by f i g u r e 4 ( f ) were
fragmented, n o t simply c l e a v e d , on f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s o f notch-bend specimens.
They were n o t observed on f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s of p l a t e t e n s i l e specimens. Complex
p a r t i c l e s o f t h i s composition have n o t been r e p o r t e d elsewhere.

Aluminum a l l o y 7178-T651.- O p t i c a l micrographs i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e m i c r o s t r u c ­

t u r e o f a p l a t e specimen o f aluminum a l l o y 7178-T651 are shown i n f i g u r e 5. Elon­
gated g r a i n s t r u c t u r e s and h i g h d e n s i t y o f second-phase p a r t i c l e s a t r a i n bound­
a r i e s are e v i d e n t i n t h e f i g u r e . Coarse p a r t i c l e s 3 t o 8 pm ( 1 x 10-5 t o
3 x i n . i n s i z e and f i n e p a r t i c l e s smaller t h a n 1 pm (0.4 x in. )
were p r e s e n t i n the a l l o y . A f e w c o a r s e p a r t i c l e s were as large as 15 pm
( 6 x IOs4 i n . 1. Chemical a n a l y s i s by edax showed t h a t t h e c o a r s e second-phase
p a r t i c l e s were o f three t y p e s :

( a ) P a r t i c l e s e x h i b i t i n g X-ray i n t e n s i t y peaks of A l , Fe, Zn, Cu, C r , Mn,

and Mg were commonly observed as c l e a v e d p a r t i c l e s i n dimples on t h e f r a c t u r e
s u r f a c e s o f p l a t e t e n s i l e and precracked notch-bend specimens. The edax p a t t e r n
o b t a i n e d f o r these p a r t i c l e s is shown i n f i g u r e 6 ( a ) . The Mg i n t e n s i t y and p a r t s
o f t h e A 1 and Zn i n t e n s i t i e s i n f i g u r e 6 ( a ) r e s u l t e d from m a t r i x c o n t r i b u t i o n .
No p a r t i c l e s o f t h i s t y p e have been r e p o r t e d i n t h e p u b l i s h e d l i t e r a t u r e .

( b ) Another t y p e of commonly observed p a r t i c l e was c h a r a c t e r i z e d by X-ray

i n t e n s i t y peaks o f A l , Cu, Mg, S i , and Zn, as i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 6 ( b ) . The
Mg and Zn i n t e n s i t y peaks r e s u l t e d from matrix c o n t r i b u t i o n . Particles o f t h i s
t y p e were c l e a v e d d u r i n g t h e f r a c t u r e p r o c e s s and were l e f t i n t h e dimples

6
observed on f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s o f both t h e p l a t e t e n s i l e specimens and t h e notch-
bend specimens. The S i i n t e n s i t y peak was weak and t h e r e l a t i v e peak i n t e n s i ­
t i e s s u g g e s t t h a t t h e p a r t i c l e s were CuA12, c o n t a i n i n g S i i n s o l i d s o l u t i o n .

( c ) P a r t i c l e s e x h i b i t i n g X-ray i n t e n s i t y peaks o f A l , Cu, Mg, and Zn were

o c c a s i o n a l l y observed i n t h e a l l o y . An edax p a t t e r n f o r t h e p a r t i c l e s i s shown
i n f i g u r e 6 ( c ) . The d i f f e r e n c e between these p a r t i c l e s and t h o s e i n s e c t i o n ( b )
was t h a t t h e Mg i n t e n s i t y peak w a s c o n s i d e r a b l y s t r o n g e r and w a s n o t e n t i r e l y
from m a t r i x c o n t r i b u t i o n . Also t h e S i i n t e n s i t y peak was a b s e n t . The X-ray
i n t e n s i t y r a t i o s suggested t h a t t h e p a r t i c l e s were CuMgA12.

Sheet Specimens

O p t i c a l micrographs o f l o n g i t u d i n a l s e c t i o n s o f t h e a l l o y s are i l l u s t r a t e d
i n f i g u r e 7. The g e n e r a l f e a t u r e s i n t h e m i c r o s t r u c t u r e s were t h e same as t h o s e
observed from plate specimens. The main d i f f e r e n c e w a s t h a t t h e m i c r o s t r u c t u r e s
o f sheet specimens e x h i b i t e d less banding t h a n d i d m i c r o s t r u c t u r e s o f p l a t e
specimens .

The f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s o f sheet t e n s i l e specimens o f aluminum a l l o y 2024-T3

c o n t a i n e d t h e same three t y p e s o f second-phase p a r t i c l e s as were found i n t h e
p l a t e specimens o f t h e a l l o y 2024-T351 ( a n a l y z e d i n f i g . I ) . The sheet shear
specimens of 2024-T3 c o n t a i n e d o n l y two t y p e s o f p a r t i c l e s having chemical com­
p o s i t i o n s similar t o t h o s e a n a l y z e d i n f i g u r e s l ( d ) and l ( e ) f o r 2024-T351 p l a t e
specimens .

The f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s o f aluminum a l l o y s 6061-T4 and 6061-T6 sheet t e n s i l e

and shear specimens c o n t a i n e d predominantly one t y p e o f second-phase p a r t i c l e .
The edax p a t t e r n w a s similar t o t h e one o b t a i n e d f o r t h e t y p e o f p a r t i c l e s i n
t h e p l a t e specimens o f 6061-T4 a n a l y z e d i n f i g u r e 2 ( c ) . The o n l y d i f f e r e n c e
was t h e absence o f a weak S i peak f o r p a r t i c l e s i n t h e sheet specimens.

The f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s o f sheet t e n s i l e specimens o f aluminum a l l o y 7075-T6

c o n t a i n e d three t y p e s o f second-phase p a r t i c l e s . The edax a n a l y s i s f o r one t y p e
i s shown i n f i g u r e 8 ( a ) where i n t e n s i t y peaks o f A l , Fe, Cu, and Zn a r e s e e n . A
comparison w i t h m a t r i x a n a l y s i s showed t h a t t h e Cu, Zn, and a p o r t i o n o f t h e A 1
i n t e n s i t y r e s u l t e d from m a t r i x c o n t r i b u t i o n . The X-ray i n t e n s i t y data s u g g e s t e d
t h a t these p a r t i c l e s were FeA13. The second t y p e o f p a r t i c l e s observed on frac­
t u r e s u r f a c e s o f sheet t e n s i l e specimens o f 7075-T6 were similar t o t h o s e ana­
l y z e d i n f i g u r e 4 ( e > f o r t h e p l a t e specimen o f 7075-T651. The t h i r d t y p e o f
p a r t i c l e s e x h i b i t e d A l , Cu, and Zn peaks as shown i n t h e edax p a t t e r n o f f i g ­
u r e 8 ( b ) . These p a r t i c l e s are p r o b a b l y Cu3ZnA13 which h a s been r e p o r t e d t o form
i n aluminum a l l o y s ( r e f . 1 6 ) . The sheet shear specimens o f t h e a l l o y e x h i b i t e d
a predominance o f p a r t i c l e s i d e n t i c a l t o t h o s e analyzed i n f i g u r e 8 ( a ) f o r sheet
t e n s i l e specimens. A small number o f p a r t i c l e s i n shear specimens had t h e same
chemical a n a l y s i s a s t h a t shown i n f i g u r e 4 ( c ) f o r p a r t i c l e s i n p l a t e specimens
of 7075-T651.

The sheet t e n s i l e specimens o f aluminum a l l o y 7178-T6 e x h i b i t e d two t y p e s

o f p a r t i c l e s on t h e i r f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s . One t y p e was similar t o t h e particles
found i n 7075-T6 sheet and had t h e chemical a n a l y s i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 8 ( a ) .

7
These p a r t i c l e s were more commonly observed t h a n t h e second t y p e t h a t y i e l d e d
X-ray peaks o f A l , Cu, Zn, and Mg as i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 9. The s h e e t s h e a r
specimens o f t h e a l l o y c o n t a i n e d o n l y one t y p e o f second-phase p a r t i c l e on t h e i r
f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s . These p a r t i c l e s y i e l d e d edax p a t t e r n s i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g ­
u r e 10. The predominant peaks were A l , Cu, Fe, and Zn. Weak Cr and Mn peaks
were a l s o found. The chemical compositions o f p a r t i c l e s observed on s h e e t frac­
t u r e s u r f a c e s o f 7178-T6 were d i f f e r e n t from t h e compositions o f p a r t i c l e s
observed i n 7178-T651 p l a t e specimens. T h i s d i f f e r e n c e is e v i d e n t from a com­
p a r i s o n o f t h e edax p a t t e r n s i n f i g u r e s 6 , 9 , and 10. The edax p a t t e r n shown
i n f i g u r e 10 f o r p a r t i c l e s observed on s h e a r f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s df 7178-T6
r e v e a l e d t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e same e l e m e n t s t h a t were p r e s e n t i n t h e t y p e o f
p a r t i c l e s i n t h i c k p l a t e s o f t h e a l l o y c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e edax p a t t e r n i n
f i g u r e 6 ( a ) . However, t h e r e l a t i v e i n t e n s i t i e s o f t h e peaks o f t h e e l e m e n t s
were d i f f e r e n t i n t h e two cases.

C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f t h e F r a c t u r e Morphology o f A l l o y s

P l a t e t e n s i l e specimens.- T y p i c a l s c a n n i n g e l e c t r o n f r a c t o g r a p h s are shown

i n f i g u r e 11 f o r p l a t e t e n s i l e specimens o f a l l o y s examined i n t h e p r e s e n t i n v e s ­
t i g a t i o n . The specimens were t e s t e d a t a s t r a i n rate o f 0.005/min and t h e
r e s u l t i n g mechanical p r o p e r t y d a t a are l i s t e d i n t a b l e 111. S t r a i n r a t e e f f e c t s
on u l t i m a t e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h are shown i n t a b l e V. The predominant f a i l u r e mode
observed i n t h e p l a t e specimens o f aluminum a l l o y s 2024-T351, 6061-T4, and
6061-T651 was microvoid c o a l e s c e n c e , t y p i c a l l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d by equiaxed dim­
p l e appearance. I n c o n t r a s t , t h e f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s o f a l l o y s 7075-T651 and
7178-T651 e x h i b i t e d a predominance o f r e g u l a r l y formed f a c e t s t h a t appeared
r e l a t i v e l y smooth a t low m a g n i f i c a t i o n s .

There were d i f f e r e n c e s , however, i n t h e s i z e s and s h a p e s o f dimples

observed i n t h e a l l o y s . Some unique f e a t u r e s o f t h e dimpled r u p t u r e i n a l l o y
2024-T351 are i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e s c a n n i n g e l e c t r o n f r a c t o g r a p h s i n f i g u r e 12.
The nonuniform dimple s i z e s and t h e i r r e g u l a r dimple s h a p e s are e v i d e n t i n both
f r a c t o g r a p h s . The l a r g e r dimples on f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s o f t h e a l l o y c o n t a i n e d
large second-phase p a r t i c l e s ( 2 t o ' 10 pm ( 0 . 8 x to 4 x i n . ) i n diame­
t e r ) t h a t were s h a t t e r e d i n t o s e v e r a l fragments. However, a few p a r t i c l e s a s
l a r g e as 14 v m ( 6 x i n . ) i n diameter were a l s o observed. Areas between
large dimples o f t e n appeared smooth a t low m a g n i f i c a t i o n ( f i g . I l ( a ) ) , b u t exam­
i n a t i o n a t p r o g r e s s i v e l y h i g h e r m a g n i f i c a t i o n s r e v e a l e d microscopic roughness and
e x t r e m e l y f i n e dimples. Roughness and f i n e dimples are r e a d i l y v i s i b l e i n areas
l a b e l e d A i n f i g u r e 1 2 ( a ) . The f i n e dimples v i s i b l e i n f i g u r e 1 2 ( b ) are g e n e r a l l y
smaller t h a n a b o u t 0.5 pm ( 0 . 2 x i n . ) i n d i a m e t e r , and were probably nucle­
a t e d a t t h e f i n e s t r e n g t h e n i n g p r e c i p i t a t e s t h a t form i n t h e a l l o y d u r i n g t h e
a g i n g t r e a t m e n t . Both t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l and t h e t r a n s v e r s e specimens o f t h e
a l l o y e x h i b i t e d t h e same t y p e s o f f r a c t u r e f e a t u r e s , b u t e x t e n s i v e examination
o f t h e f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s o f t h e two specimens i n d i c a t e d t h a t i n t h e t r a n s v e r s e
specimen, smooth areas w i t h f i n e dimples were l e s s predominant, and t h e f r a c t u r e
morphology was p r i m a r i l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d by l a r g e d i m p l e s .

Dimples were more d i s t i n c t and more r e g u l a r l y shaped on t h e f r a c t u r e s u r ­

f a c e s o f aluminum a l l o y 6061-T4 than on t h o s e o f aluminum a l l o y 202bT351. A s
i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e s c a n n i n g e l e c t r o n f r a c t o g r a p h s i n f i g u r e s I l ( b ) and 13, frac­

8
t u r e morphology i n t h e 6061-T4 specimen was c h a r a c t e r i z e d by c l u s t e r s o f
large dimples. The dimple c l u s t e r s were s e p a r a t e d by areas which appeared
r e l a t i v e l y smooth a t low m a g n i f i c a t i o n s as shown i n f i g u r e 1 3 ( a ) . Examination
o f t h e s e areas a t h i g h m a g n i f i c a t i o n s r e v e a l e d f i n e dimples ( l e s s t h a n 1 pxn
(0.4 x i n . ) i n d i a m e t e r ) similar t o t h o s e i n t h e p l a t e t e n s i l e specimens
o f aluminum a l l o y 202bT351. The dimples are i l l u s t r a t e d a t A i n f i g u r e 1 3 ( b ) .
Both t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l and t h e t r a n s v e r s e specimens e x h i b i t e d similar f r a c t u r e s .

As i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e s c a n n i n g e l e c t r o n f r a c t o g r a p h s i n f i g u r e s l l ( c ) and
1 4 , large equiaxed dimples i n aluminum a l l o y 6061-T651 were b e t t e r d e f i n e d and
more r e g u l a r l y shaped t h a n i n a l l o y s 202kT351 and 6061-T4. The larger dimples
c o n t a i n e d cleaved second-phase p a r t i c l e s 5 t o 10 pm ( 2 t o 4 x in.) i n size
and were s e p a r a t e d i n many i n s k a n c e s by t h i n l i g a m e n t s c o n t a i n i n g f i n e dimples
w i t h d i a m e t e r s smaller t h a n 1 pm ( 0 . 4 x IO-' i n . ) . Both t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l and
t h e t r a n s v e r s e specimens e x h i b i t e d a similar f r a c t u r e morphology.

As s t a t e d e a r l i e r , microvoid c o a l e s c e n c e , l e a d i n g t o t h e f o r m a t i o n o f dim­
p l e s , was t h e predominant f a i l u r e mode i n p l a t e t e n s i l e specimens o f aluminum
a l l o y s 2024-T351, 6061-T4, and 6061-T651. However, i n p l a t e t e n s i l e specimens
o f a l l o y s 7075-T651 and 7178-T651, t h e predominant p o r t i o n o f t h e f r a c t u r e w a s
c h a r a c t e r i z e d by r e l a t i v e l y smooth and f l a t facets. The s c a n n i n g e l e c t r o n frac­
t o g r a p h s i n f i g u r e s l l ( d ) , I l ( e > , 15, and 16 i l l u s t r a t e t h e s e f e a t u r e s . I n
b o t h a l l o y s , t h e areas between t h e smooth facets e x h i b i t e d f r a c t u r e f e a t u r e s
i n d i c a t i v e o f d u c t i l e t e a r i n g and dimple f o r m a t i o n . The dimples were n o t d i s ­
t i n c t and appeared a s p o c k e t s c o n t a i n i n g cracked second-phase p a r t i c l e s , as
i l l u s t r a t e d a t A i n f i g u r e 1 5 ( b ) . Regions of d u c t i l e t e a r i n g are i n d i c a t e d a t
B i n t h e f i g u r e . The smooth facets observed i n 7075-T651 and 7178-T651 were
a p p r o x i m a t e l y p a r a l l e l t o t h e p l a n e o f maximum s h e a r stress i n t h e t e n s i l e spec­
imens (approximately p a r a l l e l t o t h e p l a n e a t 4 5 O t o t h e a p p l i e d l o a d ) . T h i s
o r i e n t a t i o n and t h e i r smooth appearance s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e f a c e t s were s t r e t c h e d
r e g i o n s formed by e x t e n s i v e s h e a r i n g and t e a r i n g a l o n g g l i d e p l a n e s . The f a c e t s
r e v e a l e d f i n e , s h a l l o w , and p o o r l y d e f i n e d dimples which p o s s i b l y r e s u l t e d from
material f a i l u r e around t h e p r e c i p i t a t e p a r t i c l e s t h a t c o n s t i t u t e t h e s t r e n g t h ­
e n i n g d i s p e r s i o n i n t h e a l l o y . The f i n e dimples i n t h e 7178-T651 specimen are
i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e s c a n n i n g e l e c t r o n f r a c t o g r a p h i n f i g u r e 17, a more h i g h l y
magnified view o f an area n e a r t h e c e n t e r o f f i g u r e I l ( e ) . I n both 7075-T651
and 7178-T651, f r a c t u r e morphology was t h e same f o r l o n g i t u d i n a l and t r a n s v e r s e
specimens.

T e n s i l e s h e e t specimens.- Microvoid c o a l e s c e n c e , l e a d i n g t o dimpled rup­

t u r e , w a s t h e primary mode o f f a i l u r e i n t h e t h i n s h e e t specimens of a l l t h e
a l l o y s of t h e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n , as is. e v i d e n t from t h e s c a n n i n g e l e c t r o n
f r a c t o g r a p h s i n f i g u r e 18. The specimens were t e s t e d a t a s t r a i n r a t e o f
0.005/min. T e n s i l e p r o p e r t i e s are l i s t e d i n t a b l e I V , and e f f e c t s o f s t r a i n
r a t e on u l t i m a t e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h are shown i n t a b l e V. T y p i c a l l y , t h e dim­
p l e s were o f two t y p e s , equiaxed and e l o n g a t e d . Large and small equiaxed dim­
p l e s were observed i n l o c a l f r a c t u r e areas t h a t were a p p r o x i m a t e l y normal t o
t h e a p p l i e d l o a d . Large and s m a l l e l o n g a t e d dimples o c c u r r e d i n l o c a l f r a c t u r e
areas i n c l i n e d t o t h e l o a d , r e s u l t i n g from f a i l u r e produced by a s h e a r stress
component i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e normal stress component. The large dimples ( b o t h
equiaxed and e l o n g a t e d ) appeared t o be n u c l e a t e d p r i m a r i l y b
second-phase p a r t i c l e s and were g e n e r a l l y 5 t o 8 pm ( 2 x IO- fracture 8 to 3 x Of i n . 1 i n

9
diameter. The f i n e dimples were less than 1 pm (0.4 x i n . 1 i n diameter and
were n u c l e a t e d p o s s i b l y by d i s p e r s o i d s t r e n g t h e n i n g p a r t i c l e s . Although t h e
f r a c t u r e s o f sheet specimens o f a l l a l l o y s o f t h e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n exhib­
i t e d t h e f e a t u r e s d e s c r i b e d e a r l i e r , t h e a l l o y s d i f f e r e d both i n t h e macroscopic
and t h e microscopic f r a c t u r e morphologies as f o l l o w s .

M i c r o s c o p i c a l l y , t h e large dimples i n b o t h t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l and t h e

t r a n s v e r s e specimens o f aluminum a l l o y 2024-T3 were g e n e r a l l y s e p a r a t e d by t h i n
l i g a m e n t s c o n t a i n i n g f i n e d i m p l e s , as i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 19. Many l o c a l
r e g i o n s o f f a i l u r e i n sheet t e n s i l e specimens o f t h e a l l o y were similar t o t h o s e
observed i n t h e shear t e s t specimens o f t h e a l l o y ( d i s c u s s e d i n a l a t e r sec­
t i o n ) . A s i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 20 f o r a l o n g i t u d i n a l sheet t e n s i l e specimen,
t h e s e l o c a l r e g i o n s o f shear f a i l u r e e x h i b i t e d a n abundance o f r e l a t i v e l y smooth
areas which c o n t a i n e d dimples o f submicron s i z e . Such areas were n o t uniformly
d i s t r i b u t e d throughout t h e e n t i r e f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e b u t o c c u r r e d i n v a r y i n g pro­
p o r t i o n s i n d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f t h e specimen f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e . E x t e n s i v e scan­
n i n g e l e c t r o n microscopy o f t h e fracture surfaces o f t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l and t r a n s ­
v e r s e specimens showed t h a t smooth areas were more dominant f o r t h e t r a n s v e r s e
specimens t h a n f o r t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l specimens.

Both t h e 6061-T4 and t h e 6061-T6 aluminum a l l o y s e x h i b i t e d shear l i p s

e x t e n d i n g from t h e specimen surfaces up t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e p o r t i o n o f t h e s p e c i ­
men t h i c k n e s s , as i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e s 2 1 ( a ) and 2 1 ( b ) , r e s p e c t i v e l y . The
large dimples i n b o t h a l l o y s were very uniform as is e v i d e n t from f i g u r e s 2 2 ( a )
and 2 2 ( b ) f o r 6061-T4 and 6061-T6, r e s p e c t i v e l y . The a v e r a g e s p a c i n g o f t h e
dimples i n 6061-T6 w a s greater t h a n t h e s p a c i n g o f dimples i n 6061-T4.

Sheet t e n s i l e specimens o f aluminum a l l o y s 7075-T6 and 7178-T6 f a i l e d pre­

dominantly by dimpled r u p t u r e under a normal stress, and shear f a i l u r e was less
p r e v a l e n t than i n o t h e r a l l o y s . The dimples t h a t formed under a normal stress
i n these two a l l o y s appeared somewhat d i f f e r e n t from t h e dimples formed under
a normal stress i n o t h e r a l l o y s . Scanning e l e c t r o n f r a c t o g r a p h s shown i n f i g ­
u r e s 2 3 ( a ) and 2 3 ( b ) i l l u s t r a t e t h e dimpled r u p t u r e i n 7075-T6 and 7178-T6,
r e s p e c t i v e l y . A comparison o f f i g u r e s 22 and 23 shows t h a t dimples were l e s s
uniform i n 7075-T6 and 7178-T6 t h a n i n 6061-T4 and 6061-T6. I n addition, the
f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s o f 7075-T6 and 7178-T6 e x h i b i t e d grooves and secondary cracks
( l a b e l e d A i n f i g . 23) bounded by walls t h a t appeared r e l a t i v e l y smooth.

Shear specimens.- Thin sheet specimens, t e s t e d i n shear, of a l l a l l o y s o f

t h e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n were much a l i k e i n f r a c t u r e appearance. Macroscopi­
c a l l y , t h e f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s were p l a n a r and smooth w i t h no i r r e g u l a r i t i e s .
Ultimate shear s t r e n g t h s are l i s t e d i n t a b l e VI.

T y p i c a l scanning e l e c t r o n f r a c t o g r a p h s are shown i n f i g u r e 24 f o r t h e

a l l o y s . The specimens were tested under a cross-head s e p a r a t i o n r a t e of
2.54 mm/min ( 0 . 1 i n . / m i n ) . I n a l l a l l o y s , t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l and t r a n s v e r s e
specimens e x h i b i t e d s i m i l a r f r a c t u r e s . M i c r o s c o p i c a l l y , t h e f r a c t u r e s were
c h a r a c t e r i z e d by s h a l l o w shear dimples which were e l o n g a t e d i n t h e shear
d i r e c t i o n . S e v e r a l areas appeared rather smooth a t low m a g n i f i c a t i o n s ( a b o u t
X200), b u t when examined a t h i g h e r m a g n i f i c a t i o n s , t h e s e ar r e v e a l e d dimples
of submicron s i z e . The f i n e dimples are i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 25 for a 2024-T3
s h e a r specimen. The f r a c t o g r a p h was o b t a i n e d by magnifying t h e area n e a r A o f

10

.. . ._....
. ..... . . , . -,.- . I
t h e f r a c t o g r a p h shown i n f i g u r e 2 4 ( a ) . The width o f dimples on t h e s h e a r
f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s o f t h e a l l o y s v a r i e d from l e s s t h a n 1 t o 10 pm ( 0 . 4 x 10-4
t o 4 x 10-4 i n . ) .

I n s p i t e o f t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s of f r a c t u r e s shown i n f i g u r e 24, some minor

d i f f e r e n c e s were noted among t h e f r a c t u r e s o f d i f f e r e n t aluminum a l l o y s . The
aluminum a l l o y 2024-T3 e x h i b i t e d l a r g e second-phase p a r t i c l e s on t h e frac­
t u r e s u r f a c e . These p a r t i c l e s were cracked and were e v i d e n t l y t h e s i t e s of
n u c l e a t i o n o f large dimples. P a r t i c l e s i z e s v a r i e d from 1 t o 10 pm ( 0 . 4 X
to 4 x i n . ) . Cracked p a r t i c l e s were a l s o observed i n t h e large s h e a r dim­
p l e s of o t h e r a l l o y s , b u t were l e s s f r e q u e n t l y observed t h a n i n 2024-T3; a
major p a r t o f t h e f r a c t u r e propagated through t h e m a t r i x w i t h o u t d i s t u r b i n g
t h e large p a r t i c l e s . The f r a c t u r e mode r e s u l t e d i n f o r m a t i o n of f i n e s h e a r
d i m p l e s , a p p a r e n t l y n u c l e a t e d by s t r e n g t h e n i n g p r e c i p i t a t e s .

I n some areas n e a r t h e c e n t e r o f t h e t r a n s v e r s e specimen o f aluminum a l l o y

7178-T6, s t r i n g e r - l i k e f e a t u r e s were observed, as i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 2 6 ( a ) .
A c e l l u l a r t y p e o f dimple s t r u c t u r e was e v i d e n t i n t h e s t r i n g e r s as shown i n
figure 26(b).

Fatigue-precracked notch-bend specimens.- Microvoid c o a l e s c e n c e , l e a d i n g

t o dimpled r u p t u r e , w a s a predominant f a i l u r e mode i n t h e t h i c k f a t i g u e ­
precracked notch-bend specimens o f aluminum a l l o y s 2024-T351, 6061-T4, and
6061-T651 ( f i g s . 27 t o 3 0 ) . The s i z e s and s h a p e s of dimples were d i f f e r e n t
i n d i f f e r e n t a l l o y s . The f r a c t u r e o f 7075-T651 ( f i g s . 31 and 32) p r i m a r i l y
o c c u r r e d by t h e f o r m a t i o n o f r e l a t i v e l y smooth facets. The f a c e t s were sepa­
r a t e d by tear r i d g e s , p o c k e t s c o n t a i n i n g cracked p a r t i c l e s , and secondary
c r a c k s . The 7178-T651 specimens ( f i g . 33) e x h i b i t e d dimpled r u p t u r e as w e l l
as f e a t u r e s t h a t were c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e 7075-T651 specimen. Maximum stress
i n t e n s i t y v a l u e s are l i s t e d i n t a b l e 111. The f r a c t u r e morphologies are f u r ­
t h e r d i s c u s s e d i n d e t a i l l a t e r i n t h i s s e c t i o n f o r each o f t h e a l l o y s . The d i s ­
c u s s i o n is l i m i t e d t o t h e g e n e r a l appearance o f t h e s t a t i c p o r t i o n o f t h e frac­
t u r e surfaces.

I n t h e aluminum a l l o y 2024-T351, dimpled r u p t u r e o c c u r r e d by t h e f o r m a t i o n

o f dimple c o l o n i e s s e p a r a t e d by r e l a t i v e l y smooth areas as shown i n f i u r e 2 7 ( a ) .
D i m p l e s were t y p i c a l l y of two s i z e s , l a r g e dimples 6 t o 20 pm ( 2 x IO-$ t o
8 x i n . ) i n diameter and f i n e dimples l e s s t h a n 1 pm ( 0 . 4 x in. in
d i a m e t e r . Large cracked second-phase p a r t i c l e s were observed i n t h e l a r g e dim­
p l e s . P a r t i c l e s i z e s ranged from 3 t o 10 pm ( 1 x I O m 4 t o 4 x i n . ) . These
f e a t u r e s are i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e s c a n n i n g e l e c t r o n f r a c t o g r a p h s of f i g u r e s 2 7 ( b )
and 2 7 ( c ) . Both t h e l o n g t u d i n a l and t h e t r a n s v e r s e specimens e x h i b i t e d similar
f r a c t u r e s . As i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 28, t h e f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s o f b o t h specimens
were r e l a t i v e l y p l a n a r on a macroscopic scale and t h e r e were no s h e a r l i p s .

Precracked notch-bend specimens of aluminum a l l o y s 6061-T4 and 6061-T651

were similar t o each o t h e r i n f r a c t u r e morphology. M a c r o s c o p i c a l l y , b o t h frac­
t u r e s e x h i b i t e d e x t e n s i v e s h e a r l i p s as i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 29. On a micro­
s c o p i c scale, t h e f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s of b o t h a l l o y s were c h a r a c t e r i z e d by d i m ­
p l e d r u p t u r e which was somewhat similar t o t h a t i n 2024-T351. However, t h e
dimples i n 6061-T4 and 6061-T651 were equiaxed and w e l l formed u n l i k e t h e more
i r r e g u l a r dimples i n t h e 2024-T351 specimens. I n t h e 6061-T651 a l l o y specimen,
c l u s t e r s o f large (greater t h a n 10 pm ( 4 x i n . ) i n d i a m e t e r ) equiaxed dim­
p l e s were s e p a r a t e d by areas w i t h small dimples and o t h e r areas which appeared
smooth when examined a t low m a g n i f i c a t i o n s . These f e a t u r e s are i l l u s t r a t e d by
t h e scanning e l e c t r o n fractograph of figure 30(a .
On examination a t h i g h mag­
n i f i c a t i o n , s h a l l o w dimples 1 t o 2 pm ( 0 . 4 X IO-i t o 0.8 x i n . ) i n diame­
t e r were r e v e a l e d i n t h e smooth areas. An e x t r e m e l y f i n e c e l l u l a r s t r u c t u r e was
e v i d e n t i n t h e s h a l l o w dimples. The f i n e dimples and t h e c e l l u l a r s t r u c t u r e are
i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e s 3 0 ( b ) and 3 0 ( c ) . The large dimples c o n t a i n e d cracked
second-phase p a r t i c l e s 5 t o 7 pm ( 2 x to 3 x i n di?meter and frag­
mented p a r t i c l e s w i t h d i a m e t e r s a s large a s 20 Um ( 8 X f;’l
in.).

Precracked notch-bend specimens o f aluminum a l l o y 7075-T651 e x h i b i t e d some

d u c t i l e t e a r i n g and dimpled r u p t u r e , b u t microvoid c o a l e s c e n c e was n o t t h e pre­
dominant f a i l u r e mode. I n s t e a d , t h e f r a c t u r e was c h a r a c t e r i z e d p r i m a r i l y by
r e l a t i v e l y smooth and f l a t f a c e t s . F i g u r e 31(a) shows t h a t a l t h o u g h t h e f a c e t s
f o r a t r a n s v e r s e specimen were o f t h e same t y p e as t h o s e observed i n t h e p l a t e
t e n s i l e specimens o f t h e a l l o y , t h e y were more r e g u l a r l y formed t h a n t h o s e i n
t h e p l a t e specimens. The r e g u l a r formation w a s p o s s i b l y due t o t h e c o n t r o l l e d
c r a c k p r o p a g a t i o n t h a t was i n i t i a t e d a t t h e f a t i g u e c r a c k t i p . The w i d t h s o f
t h e f a c e t s were 10 t o 50 pm ( 4 X t o 20 x in.). The f a c e t s were sepa­
r a t e d by tear r i d g e s and large d i m p l e - l i k e p o c k e t s c o n t a i n i n g cracked second-
phase p a r t i c l e s 4 t o 12 pm ( 2 x to 5 X i n . ) i n s i z e . Frequently, the
p a r t i c l e s observed were fragmented. A t h i g h m a g n i f i c a t i o n s , f i n e submicron s i z e
dimples were r e v e a l e d on t h e smooth f a c e t s , as i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e scanning elec­
t r o n f r a c t o g r a p h i n f i g u r e 3 1 ( b ) . T h i s f r a c t o g r a p h i s a h i g h m a g n i f i c a t i o n image
of a f a c e t n e a r t h e c e n t e r o f t h e f r a c t o g r a p h shown i n f i g u r e 3 1 ( a ) . The small
dimples were p o s s i b l y n u c l e a t e d a t p r e c i p i t a t e p a r t i c l e s t h a t c o n s t i t u t e t h e
strengthening dispersion i n t h e alloy.

Secondary c r a c k s a p p r o x i m a t e l y normal t o t h e f r a c t u r e p l a n e , and deep

grooves were a l s o commonly observed i n precracked notch-bend specimens o f a l u ­
minum a l l o y 7075-T651. These f e a t u r e s are i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e s c a n n i n g e l e c t r o n
f r a c t o g r a p h s i n f i g u r e 32. The n a t u r e and p o s s i b l e causes o f t h e s e f e a t u r e s are
discussed i n a later section.

The precracked notch-bend f r a c t u r e of aluminum a l l o y 7178-T651 was s i m i l a r

i n many respects t o t h e f r a c t u r e of 2024-T351 notch-bend specimens. A s i l l u s ­
t r a t e d by t h e low m a g n i f i c a t i o n f r a c t o g r a p h o f f i g u r e 3 3 ( a ) , t h e f r a c t u r e was
c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a f a i r l y r e g u l a r a r r a y o f dimpled and r e l a t i v e l y smooth areas.
A t h i g h e r m a g n i f i c a t i o n s , roughness and dimples o f submicron s i z e were r e v e a l e d
i n t h e smooth areas as shown i n f i g u r e s 3 3 ( b ) and 3 3 ( c ) . Higher m a g n i f i c a t i o n
f r a c t o g r a p h s of d i m d e d areas ( f i g s . 3 3 ( d ) and 3 3 ( e ) ) r e v e a l e d l a r g e dimples
( 3 t o 8 pm ( 1 X to 3 x i n . i n d i a m e t e r ) c o n t a i n i n g second-phase p a r t i ­
c l e s ( a t A ) , f i n e dimples ( a b o u t 0 . 2 pm (0.08 x i n . ) i n d i a m e t e r ) i n areas
between large dimples ( a t B ) , and areas i n d i c a t i n g d u c t i l e t e a r i n g ( a t C ) .
Deep grooves and secondary c r a c k s o f t h e t y p e observed i n precracked notch-
bend specimens o f 7075-T651 were a l s o observed i n aluminum a l l o y 7178-T651.

M a c r o s c o p i c a l l y , precracked notch-bend specimens o f both 7075-T651 and

7178-T651 f r a c t u r e d i n a r e l a t i v e l y p l a n a r mode w i t h v e r y t h i n s h e a r l i p s .
T h i s was a l s o t r u e f o r t h e 2024-T351 notch-bend specimens.

12
 DISCUSSION

M i c r o s t r u c t u r a l Effects on F r a c t u r e

S e v e r a l i n v e s t i g a t o r s have examined t h e r o l e o f p r e c i p i t a t e s and i n c l u s i o n s

i n t h e f r a c t u r e p r o c e s s ( r e f s . 4 , 6 , 8 , 1 1 , and 1 5 ) ; t h e y g e n e r a l l y agree t h a t
such p a r t i c l e s can p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e f r a c t u r i n g p r o c e s s by a c t i n g as n u c l e a t i n g
s i t e s f o r microcracks and v o i d s . Large and b r i t t l e p a r t i c l e s c r a c k e a s i l y a t
low p l a s t i c s t r a i n s w h i l e small p a r t i c l e s c r a c k l e s s r e a d i l y . P a r t i c l e s w i t h
weak bonding t o t h e m a t r i x i n d u c e f a i l u r e by n u c l e a t i n g microvoids a t t h e
p a r t i c l e - m a t r i x i n t e r f a c e s . Under continued d e f o r m a t i o n , microcracks and micro-
v o i d s grow t o form larger v o i d s . .The f i n a l stage of f r a c t u r e u s u a l l y i n v o l v e s
e i t h e r t h e c o a l e s c e n c e o f v o i d s by continued growth o r t h e j o i n i n g o f v o i d s
a l r e a d y formed by t h e t e a r i n g of t h e l i g a m e n t s between them. Microvoid c o a l e s ­
cence r e s u l t s i n a dimpled f r a c t u r e morphology. The s i z e , shape, and s p a c i n g
o f dimples are i n f l u e n c e d by t h e n a t u r e , s i z e , and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e second-
phase p a r t i c l e s i n t h e a l l o y s . I n commercial aluminum a l l o y s , s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t
i n t e r m e t a l l i c compounds can p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e f r a c t u r e p r o c e s s . A s d i s c u s s e d
i n a n e a r l i e r s e c t i o n , several t y p e s of second-phase p a r t i c l e s were i d e n t i f i e d
i n t h e a l l o y s examined i n t h e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n . I n t h e d i s c u s s i o n t h a t
f o l l o w s , an a t t e m p t is made t o r e l a t e t h e f r a c t u r e morphology of t h e a l l o y s t o
t h e i r microstructure.

I n t h e p l a t e t e n s i l e and precracked notch-bend specimens of aluminum a l l o y

2024-T351, p r e c i p i t a t e p a r t i c l e s of a wide range of s i z e s appeared t o be i n v o l v e d
i n t h e f r a c t u r e p r o c e s s . The larger ( > 2 pm ( > 1 x i n . ) ) p a r t i c l e s nucleated
v o i d s by c r a c k i n g . The growth of such v o i d s r e s u l t e d i n t h e f o r m a t i o n of t h e
large dimples t h a t were observed on t h e f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s o f t h e s e specimens.
F i n e dimples observed i n l i g a m e n t s between large dimples were n u c l e a t e d probably
by f a i l u r e a t o r n e a r p a r t i c l e - m a t r i x i n t e r f a c e s of f i n e r p a r t i c l e s . Both l a r g e
dimples and f i n e r dimples are i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e s I l ( a ) and 12. I n t h i n
s h e e t t e n s i l e specimens o f aluminum a l l o y 2024-T3, p a r t i c l e s l a r g e r t h a n 8 ?m
(3 x i n . ) were r a r e l y observed on f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s . (See f i g s . 1 8 ( a )
and 1 9 . ) F i n e r p a r t i c l e s appeared t o n u c l e a t e microvoids more r e a d i l y i n t h i n
s h e e t s of t h e a l l o y t h a n i n t h i c k p l a t e s . A p o s s i b l e r e a s o n f o r t h i s behavior
i s t h e p l a n e stress c o n d i t i o n i n t h i n s h e e t s which promotes p l a s t i c deformation
and void n u c l e a t i o n , and t h u s l e a d t o t h e f o r m a t i o n of a l a r g e number of f i n e
dimples. T h i s was a l s o e v i d e n t i n t h e s h e a r f r a c t u r e s o f t h i n s h e e t s o f alumi­
num a l l o y 2024-T3, i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 2 4 ( a ) , where t h e s h e a r i n g p r o c e s s
involved t h e f o r m a t i o n o f dimples a t p a r t i c l e s of a wide range of s i z e s ; b u t a
large p o r t i o n o f t h e f r a c t u r e p r o p a g a t i o n o c c u r r e d through t h e m a t r i x c o n t a i n ­
i n g f i n e p a r t i c l e s and l e d t o t h e f o r m a t i o n of f i n e dimples.

T e n s i l e and notch-bend f r a c t u r e s of aluminum a l l o y s 6061-T4 and 6061-T651

e x h i b i t e d dimples t h a t were more d i s t i n c t and r e g u l a r l y formed t h a n t h e dimples
i n o t h e r a l l o y s examined i n t h e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n . ( S e e , f o r example,
f i g . 1 1 . ) The s i z e s , s h a p e s , d i s t r i b u t i o n s , and volume f r a c t i o n s o f l a r g e
( > 2 pm ( > I x i n . ) ) second-phase p a r t i c l e s i n p l a t e forms o f 6061-T4 and
6061-T651 were n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from t h o s e i n p l a t e forms o f
2024-T351 and 7075-T651. The main d i f f e r e n c e s were i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f i n t e r ­
mediate s i z e (0.2 t o 1 pm (0.08 X t o 0.4 x i n . ) ) p a r t i c l e s . (Compare
f i g s . l ( a ) , 2 ( a ) , 3, and 5 . ) I n t e r m e d i a t e p a r t i c l e s appeared t o be more d e n s e l y

13
and more homogeneously d i s t r i b u t e d i n p l a t e forms o f 6061-T4 and 6061-T651 t h a n
i n o t h e r a l l o y s . Grain boundary s e g r e g a t i o n o f p a r t i c l e s was r a r e l y observed
i n p l a t e forms o f 6061-T4 and 6061-T651 whereas i n t h e o t h e r a l l o y s , g r a i n bound­
aries c o n t a i n e d a h i g h d e n s i t y of second-phase p a r t i c l e s . I n a d d i t i o n , bands
c o n t a i n i n g h i g h d e n s i t i e s o f second-phase p a r t i c l e s were never observed i n p l a t e
forms o f 6061-T4 and 6061-T651. The more r e g u l a r dimple f o r m a t i o n i n t e n s i l e
and notch-bend specimens o f 6061-T4 and 6061-T651 was a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e more
homogeneous and d e n s e r d i s t r i b u t i o n o f v o i d n u c l e a t i n g p a r t i c l e s i n t h e two
alloys.

The 7075 and 7178 aluminum a l l o y s examined i n t h e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n

were c h a r a c t e r i z e d by high d e n s i t i e s o f second-phase p a r t i c l e s a l o n g g r a i n bound­
aries and i n bands a l i g n e d i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f r o l l i n g . H e t e r o g e n e i t y o f p a r t i ­
c l e d i s t r i b u t i o n w a s c o n s i d e r a b l y more pronounced i n t h i c k p l a t e s o f t h e a l l o y s
t h a n i n t h i n s h e e t s . (Compare f i g . 3 w i t h f i g . 7 ( d ) and f i g . 5 w i t h f i g . 7 ( e ) . )
The h e t e r o g e n e o u s d i s t r i b u t i o n o f second phase p a r t i c l e s i n f l u e n c e d t h e f r a c t u r e
behavior o f t h e s e a l l o y s . A s d e s c r i b e d i n a n e a r l i e r s e c t i o n , t h e f r a c t u r e s u r ­
faces o f p l a t e t e n s i l e and precracked notch-bend specimens o f t h e two a l l o y s
e x h i b i t e d an abundance o f r e l a t i v e l y smooth facets ( f i g s . 1 5 , 1 6 , 3 1 ( a ) , and
3 3 ( a ) ) . The facets c o n t a i n e d dimples n u c l e a t e d a t t h e f i n e r second-phase p a r t i ­
c l e s and were i n t e r r u p t e d by p o c k e t s c o n t a i n i n g large f r a c t u r e d p a r t i c l e s . The
facets were formed by e x t e n s i v e s h e a r i n g and t e a r i n g . The f a c e t dimensions were
comparable w i t h t h e g r a i n s i z e and w i t h t h e s p a c i n g o f p a r t i c l e bands. These
f e a t u r e s suggested t h a t t h e f r a c t u r i n g p r o c e s s o f t h i c k specimens o f 7075-T651
and 7178-T651 i n v o l v e d c r a c k i n g o f p a r t i c l e s i n bands and g r a i n boundaries.
S h e a r i n g and t e a r i n g o f t h e areas between bands and b o u n d a r i e s followed. Also,
as d e s c r i b e d i n a n e a r l i e r s e c t i o n , f r a c t u r e s o f t h i c k p l a t e specimens of
7178-T651 e x h i b i t e d a h i g h e r f r a c t i o n o f dimpled areas t h a n d i d similar s p e c i ­
mens o f 7075-T651. (Compare, f o r example, f i g s . 3 1 ( a ) and 3 3 ( a ) . ) T h i s d i f f e r ­
ence would be expected because t h e h i g h e r d e n s i t y of c o a r s e p a r t i c l e s w i t h i n t h e
g r a i n s i n 7178-T651 p r o v i d e a g r e a t e r number o f s i t e s f o r n u c l e a t i o n o f micro-
v o i d s and formation o f dimples.

Thin s h e e t s o f aluminum a l l o y s 2024, 7075, and 7178 e x h i b i t e d c o n s i d e r a b l y

lower g r a i n boundary s e g r e g a t i o n o f p a r t i c l e s and banding t h a n d i d t h i c k p l a t e s .
T h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s e v i d e n t when t h e m i c r o s t r u c t u r e s o f t h i c k p l a t e specimens o f
a l l o y s i n f i g u r e s l ( a ) , 2 ( a ) , 3, and 5 are compared w i t h t h e m i c r o s t r u c t u r e s o f
t h i n s h e e t s shown i n f i g u r e 7. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e p l a n e stress c o n d i t i o n was more
conducive t o dimple f o r m a t i o n . Accordingly, smooth areas o f t h e t y p e observed
on f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s o f t h i c k p l a t e specimens were rare on t e n s i l e f r a c t u r e s o f
t h i n s h e e t specimens o f t h e a l l o y s . (Compare f i g s . 11 and 2 3 . )

The s e g r e g a t i o n of second-phase p a r t i c l e s a t g r a i n b o u n d a r i e s and a l o n g

bands a l i g n e d i n t h e r o l l i n g d i r e c t i o n l e d a l s o t o t h e f o r m a t i o n o f secondary
c r a c k s and deep g r o o v e s a l o n g t h e s e b o u n d a r i e s and bands. The c r a c k s propagated
t o considerable l e n g t h s i n d i r e c t i o n s o t h e r than perpendicular t o t h e d i r e c t i o n
o f maximum t e n s i l e stress. Secondary c r a c k s and grooves o f t h e t y p e describeci
above can e a s i l y be seen i n f i g u r e s 1 5 ( a ) , 16, 23, 32, and 33(a).

14

.. . ..... .
 I n f l u e n c e o f Specimen Geometry and Type

o f T e s t on F r a c t u r e Morphology

The f r a c t u r e morphology o f aluminum a l l o y s examined i n t h e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i ­

g a t i o n was s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by t h e t y p e o f t e s t a p p l i e d and specimen geome­
t r y . The i n f l u e n c e o f t h e s e v a r i a b l e s w a s a t t r i b u t e d mainly t o t h e i r r o l e i n
changing t h e state of stress c a u s i n g f r a c t u r e .

I n t h e s h e e t t e n s i l e specimens o f t h e a l l o y s , deformation d u r i n g t e s t i n g
occurred i n a p l a n e stress c o n d i t i o n which was very conducive t o f o r m a t i o n of
microvoids a t t h e second-phase p a r t i c l e s i n t h e a l l o y s . Accordingly, t h e p r i ­
mary f a i l u r e mode w a s dimpled r u p t u r e ( f i g . 1 8 ) . D i m p l e s were equiaxed i n
r e g i o n s o f t h e specimens where a t e n s i l e stress component was predominant.
Elongated dimples were observed on t h o s e r e g i o n s o f t h e f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s where
a s h e a r stress component was predominant. Although t h e f r a c t u r e morphologies
appeared t o be similar i n t h e d i f f e r e n t a l l o y s a t low m a g n i f i c a t i o n s i n t h e
s c a n n i n g e l e c t r o n microscope ( f i g . 1 8 ) , t h e d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e a l l o y s were
r e v e a l e d a t h i g h e r m a g n i f i c a t i o n s ( f i g s . 1 9 , 22, and 2 3 ) .

The f r a c t u r e s o f s h e e t s h e a r specimens o f a l l a l l o y s t e s t e d a t t h e slower

s t r a i n r a t e appeared t o p r o p a g a t e mainly through matrices c o n t a i n i n g t h e f i n e
second-phase p a r t i c l e s ( f i g . 2 4 ) . Large p a r t i c l e s p o s s i b l y i n f l u e n c e d t h e pro­
c e s s of f r a c t u r e n u c l e a t i o n by c r a c k i n g when t h e s u r r o u n d i n g m a t r i x was sub­
j e c t e d t o a large amount o f p l a s t i c s t r a i n . Subsequent p r o p a g a t i o n o f f r a c t u r e
occurred through t h e m a t r i x . By f a r t h e most i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n f l u e n c i n g t h e
s h e a r f r a c t u r e morphology appeared t o be t h e s h e a r stress s t a t e i t s e l f ; d i f f e r ­
ences i n a l l o y compositions and m i c r o s t r u c t u r e s had o n l y minor e f f e c t s . The
s h e a r f r a c t u r e s were s o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e stress s t a t e t h a t t h e i r morphol­
ogy could be used t o i d e n t i f y t h e r e g i o n s r e p r e s e n t i n g f a i l u r e a l o n g p l a n e s o f
h i g h s h e a r stress i n t e n s i l e s h e e t specimens. One example o f t h i s b e h a v i o r i s
i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 20 f o r t h e t e n s i l e s h e e t specimen of aluminum a l l o y
2024-T3.

D i f f e r e n c e s i n f r a c t u r e morphology a s a f u n c t i o n o f a l l o y t y p e and micro­

s t r u c t u r e were more obvious i n t h i c k p l a t e s e c t i o n s t h a n i n t h i n s h e e t s . (Com­
p a r e f i g s . 11 and 18.) The t h i n s h e e t f r a c t u r e s of t h e d i f f e r e n t a l l o y s both
i n s h e a r and i n t e n s i l e t e s t s had more s i m i l a r i t i e s t h a n d i f f e r e n c e s . The frac­
t u r e s o f p l a t e t e n s i l e specimens and precracked notch-bend specimens, however,
e x h i b i t e d morphologies c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f each a l l o y . The d i f f e r e n c e s i n frac­
t u r e f e a t u r e s were e v i d e n t even a t r e l a t i v e l y low m a g n i f i c a t i o n s i n t h e s c a n n i n g
e l e c t r o n microscope. Comparison o f f r a c t u r e morphology f o r t h i n s h e e t s and
t h i c k p l a t e s r e v e a l e d t h a t some o f t h e f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e f e a t u r e s i n t h i c k p l a t e s
were d i f f e r e n t from t h o s e i n t h i n s h e e t specimens o f t h e a l l o y s , a l t h o u g h t h e r e
were s i m i l a r i t i e s i n t h e s i z e s and s h a p e s o f dimples on t h e f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s
o f t h i n s h e e t s and t h i c k p l a t e specimens.

S t r a i n Rate E f f e c t s on F r a c t u r e

The t e n s i l e p l a t e and s h e e t specimens o f t h e aluminum a l l o y s examined i n

t h e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n were t e s t e d a t t h r e e s t r a i n r a t e c o n d i t i o n s , and t h e

15
shear tests were conducted a t two d i f f e r e n t s t r a i n rates. The u l t i m a t e t e n s i l e
s t r e n g t h s are l i s t e d i n table V f o r sheet and p l a t e specimens o f t h e a l l o y s
tested a t v a r i o u s s t r a i n rates. The t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h v a r i e d l i t t l e a s . a func­
t i o n o f s t r a i n rate. F r a c t u r e morphology o f t h e a l l o y s was a l s o similar f o r
t h e d i f f e r e n t s t r a i n rates i n t e n s i o n tests. The shear s t r e n g t h o f t h e a l l o y s ,
b o t h f o r t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l and t h e t r a n s v e r s e o r i e n t a t i o n s , was reduced s u b s t a n ­
t i a l l y when t h e s t r a i n rate was raised ( t a b l e V I ) . With i n c r e a s e i n s t r a i n
rate, t h e shear s t r e n g t h s o f 2024-T3, 7075-T6, and 7178-T6 were reduced by 42
t o 56 p e r c e n t whereas t h o s e o f 6061-T4 and 6061-T6 showed r e d u F t i o n s o f 21 t o
26 p e r c e n t . The shear f r a c t u r e morphology d i d n o t change s u b s t a n t i a l l y w i t h
i n c r e a s e i n s t r a i n r a t e i n a l l o y s 6061-T4 and 606l-T6, b u t d i f f e r e n c e s were
noted between t h e slow and fast s t r a i n rate f r a c t u r e s o f a l l o y s 2024-T3,
7075-T6, and 7178-T6. The shear f r a c t u r e s of these l a t t e r a l l o y s 'showed a
somewhat rougher morphology f o r t h e f a s t s t r a i n r a t e , and f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s
e x h i b i t e d a greater f r a c t i o n o f cracked second-phase particles. These condi­
t i o n s are i l l u s t r a t e d f o r a l l o y 7075-T6 i n f i g u r e 34 by s c a n n i n g e l e c t r o n frac­
t o g r a p h s o f specimens tested a t t h e slow and f a s t s t r a i n rates.

Recall t h a t t h e sheet specimens o f a l l o y s 2024-T3, 7075-T6, and 7178-T6

e x h i b i t e d h e t e r o g e n e o u s p a r t i c l e d i s t r i b u t i o n s w i t h greater s e g r e g a t i o n and
banding o f large p a r t i c l e s t h a n observed i n sheet specimens o f 6061-T4 and
6061-T6. T h e r e f o r e , t h e e f f e c t o f s t r a i n rate on shear f r a c t u r e morphology
is related p o s s i b l y t o t h e degree o f p a r t i c l e s e g r e g a t i o n i n t h e a l l o y s . A
greater f r a c t i o n o f large p a r t i c l e s may crack when shear specimens o f a l l o y s
are tested a t t h e f a s t s t r a i n r a t e t h a n when t h e y are t e s t e d a t t h e slow s t r a i n
rate. T h i s would r e s u l t i n a r e d u c t i o n o f t h e e f f e c t i v e area c a r r y i n g t h e
l o a d and i n t u r n lead t o f r a c t u r e a t lower l o a d s . The reduced u l t i m a t e shear
s t r e n g t h a t t h e high s t r a i n rate and t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f greater f r a c t i o n o f large
cracked p a r t i c l e s on f a s t s t r a i n rate f r a c t u r e s s u p p o r t t h i s h y p o t h e s i s . How­
e v e r , o n l y a l i m i t e d amount o f work has been r e p o r t e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e on shear
f r a c t u r e mechanisms i n aluminum a l l o y s , and a d d i t i o n a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a r e needed
t o relate second-phase p a r t i c l e d i s t r i b u t i o n and shear f r a c t u r e morphology.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

The m i c r o s t r u c t u r e and the time-independent room t e m p e r a t u r e f r a c t u r e

b e h a v i o r were examined i n t h i n s h e e t s and t h i c k p l a t e s o f s t r u c t u r a l aluminum
a l l o y s 2024, 6061, 7075, and 7178 i n selected heat t r e a t m e n t s . S e v e r a l d i f f e r ­
e n t f r a c t u r e morphologies were i d e n t i f i e d and were related t o m i c r o s t r u c t u r a l
features .

M i c r o s t r u c t u r e s o f t h e a l l o y s were c h a r a c t e r i z e d by e l o n g a t e d g r a i n s and
d e n s e d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f second phase p a r t i c l e s . P a r t i c l e chemical c o m p o s i t i o n s ,
s i z e s , and d i s t r i b u t i o n s were d i f f e r e n t i n t h e a l l o y s and were dependent on t h e
form o f commercial p r o d u c t (sheet o r p l a t e ) . Chemical a n a l y s i s o f p a r t i c l e s
u s i n g energy d i s p e r s i v e X-ray (edax) and a s s o c i a t e d s c a n n i n g e l e c t r o n micros­
copy showed t h a t s e v e r a l t y p e s of second-phase p a r t i c l e s were p r e s e n t i n t h e
a l l o y s . Among these, some p a r t i c l e s such as CuA12, CuMgA12, MgzSi, and (Cu,
F e , Mn) Al6 have been r e p o r t e d by o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s . The p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a ­
t i o n a l s o showed t h e p r e s e n c e of s e v e r a l p a r t i c l e s c o n t a i n i n g v a r i o u s amounts
o f S i , Fe, Mn, and C r t h a t have n o t been r e p o r t e d i n t h e p u b l i s h e d l i t e r a t u r e .

16

I
 Examination of fracture morphology of thick plate tensile and precracked
notch-bend specimens showed several cracked particles and predominantly dimpled
fractures in alloys 2024-T351, 6061-T4, and 6061-T651. The sizes and shapes of
dimples were dependent on the precipitate distribution in the alloys. Plate
tensile and notch-bend specimens of 7075-T651 and 7178-T651 exhibited cracked
particles and an abundance of relatively smooth facets on their fracture sur­
faces. The facets were apparently formed by extensive shearing and tearing in
areas between grain boundaries and bands of second-phase particles.
Sheet tensile specimens of all alloys exhibited cracked particles and
dimpled fractures with only small differences in the dimple characteristics
between the alloys. Thin sheet shear specimens of all alloys exhibited rela­
tively smooth fracture morphologies with large portions of the fractures propa­
gating through the alloy matrices containing fine precipitates. Elongated and
shallow dimples and cracked particles were found on fracture surfaces of shear
specimens.

Microstructural variables including grain structure and second-phase parti­

cle distribution influenced fracture morphology, particularly for thick speci­
mens. The type of loading (tensile, shear, or notch-bend) also had a signficant
effect on fracture morphology. The specimen orientation examined in the present
investigation had only minor influences on fracture behavior.

Tensile strength and fracture morphology were independent of the test

strain rate over two to three orders of magnitude. One to two orders of magni­
tude of higher strain rate resulted in 21 to 26 percent lower shear strengths
of aluminum alloys 6061-T4 and 6061-T6 whereas the shear fracture morphology
was not affected. A similar rise in strain rate led to lower shear strengths
of 2024-T3, 7075-T6, and 7178-T6 (42 to 56 percent) and the lowering of shear
strength was accompanied by increasingly rough fracture surfaces which also
exhibited greater densities of second-phase particles. Second-phase particle
cracking was proposed as the mechanism responsible for low shear strength at
high strain rates.
In analyzing service failures that occur under complex conditions, charac­
teristic features of the type described in this paper should prove useful for
establishing the mechanisms and causes of failure.

Langley Research Center .

National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Hampton, VA 23665
November 18, 1977

17
 11111111 I I I 111 I II I 1 1 1 1 .111 11111.1

APPENDIX A

SHEAR TEST PROCEDURE

The t y p e o f shear specimen u s e d i n t h e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n h a s been rec­

ommended by t h e Aerospace I n d u s t r i e s A s s o c i a t i o n ( r e f s . 17 and 18) and i s shown
i n f i g u r e A l . The specimen was loaded i n a x i a l t e n s i o n , which r e s u l t e d i n shear­
i n g stresses w i t h n e g l i g i b l e normal stresses i n t h e c e n t r a l area between t h e
s l o t s . Specimens were t e s t e d a t cross-head displacement r a t e s of 2.54 mm/min
(0.1 in./min) and 76.2 mm/min (3 i n . / m i n ) .

3.1E
J

I
--
I--­
7­
3.18

! 1-25.4-1
F i g u r e AI.- Thin sheet shear specimen. All dimensions i n mm ( i n . ) u n l e s s
o t h e r w i s e noted. Nominal s h e e t t h i c k n e s s 1 mm ( 1 mm = 3.94 X i n . ).

18
 APPENDIX B

NOTCH-BEND TEST PROCEDURE

Th notch-bend specimen used in the present investiga ion was of nominal

dimensions 152.4 mm (6 in.) by 25.4 mm ( 1 in.) by 12.7 mm (0.5 in.) and is shown
in figure BI. A fatigue crack was induced at the root of the machined notch and
the specimen was then fractured under monotonic loading. The monotonic load was
applied in three-point bending with a span of 101.6 mm (4 in.) between supports.
Specimens were tested with longitudinal and transverse orientations and with the
crack propagation direction in the short transverse direction. The maximum
stress intensity factor for failure KIQ was calculated from
6Ma1/2
KIQ = Y -
Bw2

where
M maximum value of bending moment causing failure, N-mm (lb-in.)
a crack length (length of machined slot plus fatigue crack), mm (in.)

W specimen width, 25.4 mm (1 in.)

B specimen thickness, 12.7 mm (0.5 in.)

The factor Y is a compliance calibration factor. For the specimen used in

the present investigation:

Y 1.93 - 3-07(:) + 14-53(:) 2 - 25.11(:)~ + 25.8O"G)"

(See ref. 19.)

19

I
 APPENDIX B

I
N
m
rt

e4

\o
h

w 2 5 . 4 1

Figure B1.- Notch-bend test specimen. All dimensions are in

mm (in.) unless otherwise noted ( 1 mm = 3.94 X in. 1.

20
 APPENDIX C

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF SECOND PHASE PARTICLES

Scanning e l e c t r o n microscopy and a s s o c i a t e d energy d i s p e r s i v e X-ray a n a l y ­

sis (edax) were used i n t h e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n for chemical a n a l y s i s of
second-phase p a r t i c l e s i n aluminum a l l o y s . The edax p a t t e r n s are X-ray i n t e n ­
s i t y c o u n t s p l o t t e d a g a i n s t t h e energy o f t h e X-rays e m i t t e d from t h e phase
being analyzed.

I n second-phase p a r t i c l e a n a l y s i s by t h e edax t e c h n i q u e , t h e edax p a t t e r n

may c o n t a i n a matrix c o n t r i b u t i o n ; T h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n r e s u l t s when t h e e l e c t r o n
beam focused on a p a r t i c l e i r r a d i a t e s a volume t h a t i n c l u d e s n o t o n l y t h e p a r t i ­
c l e b u t a l s o t h e s u r r o u n d i n g matrix, and t h u s leads t o X-ray emission from b o t h
t h e p a r t i c l e and t h e m a t r i x . I n t h e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n , m a t r i x c o n t r i b u t i o n
i n c l u d e s t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n n o t o n l y o f t h e aluminum m a t r i x c o n t a i n i n g e l e m e n t s
i n s o l i d s o l u t i o n b u t a l s o o f t h e a g i n g p r e c i p i t a t e s t h a t are t o o f i n e t o be
observed i n t h e scanning e l e c t r o n microscope.

Determination of t h e p a r t i c l e c h e m i s t r y , even q u a l i t a t i v e l y , i s d i f f i c u l t
under c o n d i t i o n s where m a t r i x c o n t r i b u t i o n i s p o s s i b l e . I n t h e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i ­
g a t i o n , t h e problem was p a r t l y s o l v e d by a n o r m a l i z i n g procedure.

F i g u r e C l ( a ) shows a scanning e l e c t r o n f r a c t o g r a p h o b t a i n e d from a notch-

bend specimen of aluminum a l l o y 7075-T651. The p a r t i c l e marked A i n t h e f i g u r e
was analyzed as d e s c r i b e d below.

TABLE C 1 . - EDAX INTEGRATED INTENSITIES FOR PARTICLE AND M A T R I X

Integrated i n t e n s i t y counts

Element Particle pattern Matrix p a t t e r n

Mg 6 165 842 (no peak)

A1 12 963 12 947

Si 4 399 305 (no peak)

cu 167 175

Zn 367 366

F i r s t , an edax p a t t e r n was o b t a i n e d by f o c u s i n g t h e e l e c t r o n beam on t h e

p a r t i c l e . The i n t e n s i t y peaks i n t h e p a t t e r n were i d e n t i f i e d and i n t e g r a t e d
i n t e n s i t y c o u n t s were noted f o r t h e peaks. The p a t t e r n i s shown i n f i g u r e C l ( b ) ,
and t h e i n t e g r a t e d c o u n t s f o r t h e elements Mg, A l , S i , Cu, and Zn are l i s t e d i n
t h e column " P a r t i c l e p a t t e r n " i n t a b l e C 1 . A second edax p a t t e r n w a s o b t a i n e d
by f o c u s i n g t h e e l e c t r o n beam on a m a t r i x area a d j a c e n t t o t h e p a r t i c l e and per­

21

I
 APPENDIX C

forming t h e a n a l y s i s u n t i l t h e m a t r i x edax p a t t e r n developed the same i tegrat d

i n t e n s i t y a s t h e p a r t i c l e edax p a t t e r n f o r a minor c o n s t i t u e n t observed i n t h e
p a r t i c l e p a t t e r n . F i g u r e C l ( c ) shows a m a t r i x edax p a t t e r n which was o b t a i n e d
s o t h a t the i n t e g r a t e d i n t e n s i t y f o r Zn was t h e same-as t h a t o b t a i n e d i n t h e par­
t i c l e p a t t e r n . The i n t e g r a t e d i n t e n s i t y c o u n t s f o r t h e e l e m e n t a l peaks i n f i g ­
u r e C l ( c ) are l i s t e d i n t h e column "Matrix p a t t e r n " i n table C1. When absorp­
t i o n e f f e c t s are n e g l e c t e d , t h e i n t e n s i t y peaks o f e l e m e n t s i n t h e m a t r i x edax
p a t t e r n o f f i g u r e C l ( c ) r e p r e s e n t t h o s e t h a t would be g e n e r a t e d f o r a volume o f
m a t r i x i r r a d i a t e d material o n l y (no p r e c i p i t a t e o r p a r t i c l e i r r a d i a t i o n ) c o n t a i n ­
i n g t h e same amount o f Zn as was observed f o r t h e p a r t i c l e i r r a d i a t e d volume
analyzed i n f i g u r e C l ( b ) . Subtracting t h e i n t e g r a t e d i n t e n s i t y counts of t h e
e l e m e n t s i n t h e column "Matrix p a t t e r n " from t h e c o u n t s o f t h e same elements
i n t h e column " P a r t i c l e p a t t e r n " shows t h a t p a r t i c l e A i n f i g u r e C l ( a ) c o n t a i n e d
o n l y Mg and S i and t h a t t h e A l , Cu, and Zn peaks i n f i g u r e C l ( b ) r e s u l t e d from
m a t r i x c o n t r i b u t i o n s . An a c c u r a t e q u a n t i t a t i v e chemical a n a l y s i s cannot be
o b t a i n e d by t h e t e c h n i q u e d e s c r i b e d i n t h i s appendix because a b s o r p t i o n e f f e c t s
are n e g l e c t e d .

22
 APPENDIX C

(a) Scanning e l e c t r o n f r a c t o g r a p h .

( b ) Particle A. ( e ) Matrix.
L-77-335
F i g u r e C1.- Scanning e l e c t r o n f r a c t o g r a p h and edax i n t e n s i t y p a t t e r n s o b t a i n e d
from notch-bend specimen of aluminum a l l o y 7075-T651 tested i n l o n g i t u d i n a l
o r i e n t a t i o n . Numerals on h o r i z o n t a l scale are i n keV. Bars on v e r t i c a l
s c a l e i n d i c a t e i n t e n s i t y i n c o u n t s . (1 l-un = 3.94 x 10-5 i n . 1

23
 REFERENCES

1. Hunter, M. S.; and McMillan, J. C.: Fractography and Microstructure of

Aluminum Alloys 7075-T651 and 7075-T7351. Electron Fractography, ASTM
Special Tech. Publ. No. 436, American SOC. Testing and Materials, c.1968,
pp. 196-211.

2. Unwin, P. N. T.; and Smith, G. C.: The Microstructure and Mechanical

Properties of A1-6% Zn-3% Mg. J. Inst. Metals, vol. 97, Oct. 1969,
pp. 299-310­
3. Singh, S. N.; and Flemings, M. C.: Influence of Ingot Structure and Pro­
cessing on Mechanical Properties and Fracture of a High Strength Wrought
Aluminum Alloy. Trans. Met. SOC.,AIME, vol. 245, no. 8, Aug. 1969,
pp. 1811-1819.

4. Tanaka, J. P.; Pampillo, C. A.; and Low, J. R., Jr.: Fractographic Analysis
of the Low Energy Fracture of an Aluminum Alloy. Review of Developments
in Plane Strain Fracture Toughness Testing, ASTM Special Tech. Publ. 463,
c.1970, pp. 191-269.

5. Kirman, I.: The Relation Between Microstructure and Toughness in 7075 Alu­
minum Alloy. Metall. Trans., vol. 2, July 1971, pp. 1761-1770.

6 . Low, J. R., Jr.; VanStone, R. H.; and Merchant, R. H.: A n Investigation of

Plastic Fracture in Aluminum Alloy. NASA CR-131100, 1972.

7. Peel, C. J.; Wilson, R. N.; and Forsyth, P. J. E.: Relationships Between

Some Microstructural Features and the Fracture Toughness of' an Al-Zn-Mg-
Cu-Mn Forging Alloy. Met. Sci. J., vol. 6, May 1972, pp. 102-106.

8. Broek, D.: The Role of Inclusions in Ductile Fracture and Fracture Tough­
ness. Eng. Fracture Mech., vol. 5, no. 1 , Feb. 1973, pp. 55-66.

9. Rosenfield, A. R.; Price, C, W.; Martin, C. J.; Thompson, D. S.; and

Zinkham, R. E.: Research on Synthesis of High Strength Aluminum Alloys.
Part I. The Relation Between Precipitate Microstructure and Mechanical
Properties in Aluminum Alloys. AFML-TR-74-129, Part I, U.S. Air Force,
Dec. 1974. (Available from DDC as AD/A 002 875.)

10. Metals Handbook. Vol. 9 - Fractography and Atlas of Fractographs. Ameri­

can SOC. Metals, c.1974.

11. Hahn, G . T.; and Rosenfield, A. R.: Metallurgical Factors Affecting Frac­
ture Toughness of Aluminum Alloys. Metall. Trans. A, vol. 6A, Apr. 1975,
pp. 653-668. (Discussion, pp. 668-670.)

12. Metric Practice Guide. E380-72, American SOC. Testing & Mater., June 1972.

13. Van Horn, Kent R., ed.: Aluminum. Vol. I - Properties, Physical Metal­
lurgy and Phase Diagrams. American SOC. Metals, c.1967.

24
14. Metals Handbook. Vol. 7- Atlas of Microstructures of Industrial Alloys.
American SOC.Metals, c.1972.

15. Featherby, Michael: Fractography of Advanced Composites and High Strength

Aluminum. CASD-ERR-73-049, Convair/General Dynamics, Dec. 1973.
16. Fine, M. E.: Precipitation Hardening of Aluminum Alloys. Metall.
Trans. A, vol. 6A, Apr. 1975, pp. 625-630.

17. Standard Elevated Temperature Testing Progress f o r Metallic Materials. Aero­

space Industries Assoc. Standard Test Procedure, ARTC-13-5-1, July 1964.
18. Breindel, W. W.; Seale, C. L.; and Carlson, R. L.: Evaluation of a Single-
Shear Specimen f o r Sheet'Material. Proceedings ASTM, vol. 58, American
SOC. Testing Materials, 1958, pp. 862-868.
19. Brown, William F., Jr.; and Srawley, John E.: Plane Strain Crack Toughness
Testing of High Strength Metallic Materials. ASTM Special Tech. Publ.
No. 410, c.1966.

25
 TABLE I.- CHEMICAL COMPOSITIONS OF ALUMINUM ALLOYS INVESTIGATED

Aluminum alloy compositions, weight, percent

Element . .. . -

2024 6061 7075 7178

~ _ ..
._ . ~ - . __ - . __ . .- --
..-

cu 3.8 to 4.9 0.15 to 0.40 1.2 to 2.0 1.6 to 2.4

N3 1.2 to 1.8 .8 to 1.2 2.1 to 2.9 2.4 to 3.1
Zn .25 .25 5.1 to 6.1 6.3 to 7.3
Si .50 .4 to .8 .50 .50
Fe 50 - .70 .7 .7
Cr .IO .15 to .35 .18 to .40 .I8 to .40
Mn .30 to .90 .15 .30 30 -
Ti ---I------
.15 .20 .20
Others .15 .I5 .15 .15
A1 Remainder Remainder Remainder Remainder
____ - - __ . - -.

TABLE 11.- HEAT TREATMENTS AND MATERIALS SPECIFICATIONS

OF ALUMINUM ALLOYS INVESTIGATED

. . - ___. -- .- ~ -.

Aluminum alloy Product form Heat treatment Federal specification

~ .
. . -

2024 Sheet T3 QQ-A-250/4d

2024 Plate T351 QQ-A-250/4d
6061 Sheet and plate T4 QQ-A-250/11d
6061 Sheet T6 QQ-A-250/11d
6061 Plate T651 QQ-A-250/11d
7075 Sheet T6 QQ-A-250/12d
7075 Plate T651 QQ-A-250/12d
7178 Sheet T6 QQ-A-250/14d
7178 Plate T651 QQ-A-250/14d
~- - ~
-

26
 TABLE 111.- MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ALUMINUM ALLOY THICK PLATES

~~

1.2-percent lltimate tensile JIaximum stress

A 1uminum Iffset yield strength,a {longation in intensit b
alloy Orientation strength,a MN/m2 io mm (2 in.), ~~/m3/ 5,
MN/m2 (ksi) percent (ksi-in I2
(ksi)

2024-T351 Longitudinal 422.7 501.3 20 39.6

(61.3) (72.7) (36)
Transverse 369.6 484.0 18 36.3
(53.6) (70.2) (33)
6061 -T4 Longitudinal 204.8 255.8 26 ----
(29.7) (37.1) (---- I
Transverse 200.6 277.2 22 33.0
(29.1) (40.2) (30)
6061 -T651 Longitudinal 305.4 317.9 22 44.0
(44.3) (46.1) (40)
Transverse 302.7 328.2 16 44.0
(43.9) (47.6) (40)
7075-T651 Longitudinal 557.1 594.3 12 41.2
(80.8) (86.2) (37.5)
Transverse 539.2 595.0 13 b36.3
(78.2) (86.3) (33)
7178-T651 Longitud ina1 588.8 636.4 11 b28.6
(85.4) (92.3) (261
Transverse 564.0 619.2 11 b23.1
(81.8) (89.8) (21 1
aTensile tests performed at strain rate of 0.005/min; 0.05/min.
bMaximum KIQ values; specimens meet American Society of Testing Materials
thickness requirement for valid KIC. (KIQ = KIC at this thickness requirement.

27
 TABLE 1V.- TENSILE PROPERTIES OF ALUMINUM ALLOY THIN SHEETS

~. .- -~ __ - --- --
0.2-percent Ultimate tensile
Aluminum offset yield strength, Elongation in
alloy Orientation strength, MN/m2 50 mm (2 in.),
MN/m2 (ksi) percent
(ksi1
2024-T3 Longitudinal 362.0 499.9 24
(52.5) (72.5)
Transverse 313.7 475.7 27
(45.5) (69.0)
6061 -T4 Longitudinal 180.O 281.3 27
(26.1) (40.8)
Transverse 170.3 275.8 30
(24.7) (40.0)
6061 -T6 Longitudinal 300.6 331 .O 22
(43.6) (48.0)
Transverse 284.8 324.7 16
(41-3) (47.1)
7075-T6 Longitudinal 518.5 566.8 23
(75.2) (82.2)
Transverse 588.1 663.3 17
(85.3) (96.2)
7178-T6 Longitudinal 568.1 617.1 19
(82.4) (89.5)
Transverse 550.2 635.7 19
-~ __
(79.8) (92.2)
-. -__- . -. . -

28
 TABLE V.- ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH OF ALUMINUM ALLOYS

AT VARIOUS S T R A I N RATES

Jltimate t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h , MN/m2 (ksi),

Rluminum 'roduct Specimen f o r s t r a i n rate o f -
alloy form ir i e n t a t ion
).005/min I .5/min

2024-T3 Sheet ,ongi t ud i n a l 496.4 499.9 493.0

(72.0) (72.5) (71.5)
2024-T3 Sheet Transverse 482.6 475.7 466.1
(70.0) (69.0) (67.6)
202'.+-T351 Plate Longitudinal 505.4 501.9 491.6
(73.3) (72.8) (71.3)
2024-T35 1 Plate Transverse 488.8 486.8 477.8
(70.9) (70.6) (69.3)
606 1-T4 Sheet Longitudinal 282.0 281.3 277.9
(40.9) (40.8) (40.3)
606 1-T4 Sheet Transverse 279.2 276.5 273.0
(40.5) (40.1) (39.6)
606 1-T4 Plate Longitudinal 253.0 254.4 250.3
(36.7) (36.9) (36.3)
606 1-T4 Plate Transverse 274.4 274.4 272.3
(39.8) (39.8) (39.5)
606 1-T6 Sheet Longitudinal 336.5 329.6 331 .O
(48.8) (47.8) (48.0)
606 1-T6 Sheet Transverse 326.1 324 7 - 324.7
(47.3) (47.1) (47.1)
606 1-T651 Plate Longitudinal 316.5 317.2 315.8
(45.9) (46.0) (45.8)
606 1 -T65 1 Plate Transverse 328.9 329.6 327.5
(47.7) (47.8) (47.5)
7075-T6 Sheet Longitudinal 569.5 566.8 568.1
(82.6) (82.2) (82.4)
7075-T6 Sheet Transverse 665.3 667.4 653.6
(96.5) (96.8) (94.8)
7075-T651 Plate Longitudinal 591.6 591.6 586.1
(85.8) (85.8) (85.0)
7075-T651 Plate Transverse 610.9 595.0 585.4
(88.6) (86.3) (84.9)
7 178-T6 Sheet Longitudinal 627.4 621.9 606.7
(91 .o> (90.2) (88.0)
7 178-T6 Sheet Transverse 634.3 635.7 624.0
(92.0) (92.2) (90.5)
7178-T651 Plate Longitudinal 633.6 632.9 635.0
(91.9) (91.8) (92.1)
7 178-T65 1 Plate Transverse 613.6 618.5 613.6
(89.0) (89.7) (89.0)
a 0 00. min t o e l d followed y 0.05/min t o f a i l u r e .
29
 TABLE VI.- ULTIMATE SHEAR STRENGTHS OF ALUMINUM ALLOY T H I N SHEETS

rGage lengths varied between 4.27 mm (0.1680 in. ) and

4.57 mm (0.1801 in.>l
J

Cross-head speed Ultimate shear strength, MN/m2 (ksi)

designation
Longitudinal Transverse

2024-T3 2.54 mm/min 355.8 356.7

( 0 . 1 in. /min) (51.6) (51.8)
76.2 mm/min 198.5 207.3
( 3 in./min) (28.8) (30.1)
606 1-T4 2.54 mm/min 216.6 215.8
(0.1 in./min) (31 - 4 ) (31.3)
76.2 mm/min 167.3 169.7
( 3 in./min) (24.3) (24.6)
606 1-T6 2.54 mm/min 235.0 239.1
( 0 . 1 in./min) (34.1) (34.7)
76.2 mm/min 174.3 185.1
( 3 in./min) (25.3) (26.8)
7075-T6 2.54 mm/min 401.1 405.4
( 0 . 1 in./min) (58.2) (58.8)
76.2 mm/min 177.6 185.8
( 3 in./min) (25.8) (27.0)
7178-T6 2.54 mm/min 424.4 443.0
(0.1 in./min) (61.6) (64.3)
76.2 mm/min 209.5 202.9
( 3 in./min) (30.4) (29.4)
~
 TABLE V I 1 . - INDEX OF MICROSTRUCTURE INCLUDING SECOND-PHASE PARTICLE A N A L Y S I S

AND FRACTURE MORPHOLOGY FOR ALLOYS, HEAT TREATMENTS, PRODUCT FORMS,

AND TEST SPECIMENS AS INDICATED

Reference f i g u r e s and d e s c r i p t i o n
A l l o y and 'roduc t Test
h e a t treatment form specimen l i c r o s t r u c t u r e and second ' r a c t u r e morphology,
)base p a r t i c l e a n a l y s i s , f i g u r e number
f i g u r e number

2024 -T3 Sheet Tensile 7 1 8 , 1 9 , 20

2024-T3 Sheet Shear 7 2 4 , 25
2024-T35 1 Plate Tensile 1 1 1 , 12
2024-T351 Plate ?ot ch-bend 1 27, 28
606 1 -T4 Sheet Tensile 7 18, 2 1 , 22
606 1-T4 Sheet Shear 7 24
606 1-T4 Plate Tensile 2 11, 13
606 I -T4 Plate iotch-bend 2 29
606 1 -T6 Sheet Tensile 7 18, 21, 22
606 1-T6 Sheet Shear 7 24
606 1 -T65 1 Plate Tensi 1e 2 11, 14
606 1-T651 Plate ? o tch- bend 2 29, 30
7075-T6 Sheet Tensile 7, 8 18, 23
7075-T6 Sheet Shear 7 24, 34
7075-T651 Plate Tensile 3, 4 11, 15
7075-T651 Plate iotch-bend 3, 4 3 1 , 32
7 178-T6 Sheet Tensile 7, 9 18, 23
7 178-T6 Sheet Shear 7 , 10 24, 26
7 178-T65 1 Plate T e n s i 1e 5, 6 11, 1 6 , 17
7 178-T651 Plate Jot ch- bend 5, 6 33

31
w
Iu

( a ) Longitudinal s e c t i o n . ( b ) Transverse s e c t i o n . ( c Transverse section.

(d) (f)
L-33-336
F i g- u r e 1.- O p t i c a l micrograph ( a ) and scanning e l e c t r o n micrographs
( b ) and ( c ) of a 2024-T351 p l a t e specimen. Energy d i s p e r s i v e X-ray
a n a l y s i s ( e d a x ) p a t t e r n s from second-phase p a r t i c l e s A , B , and C
are shown i n ( d ) , ( e ) , and ( f ) , r e s p e c t i v e l y . Numerals on horizon­
t a l scale are i n keV. Bars on v e r t i c a l scale i n d i c a t e i n t e n s i t y i n
counts. ( I u m 3.94 x 105 i n . )
 ( a ) Longitudinal s e c t i o n . (b) Transverse s e c t i o n .

(d)
L-77-337
Figure 2.- Optical micrographs ( a ) and (b) and edax p a t t e r n s of second-phase
p a r t i c l e s ( c ) and ( d ) from t h i c k p l a t e of aluminum a l l o y s 6061-T4 and
6061-T651. Numerals on h o r i z o n t a l scale are i n keV. Bars on v e r t i c a l
W
W
scale i n d i c a t e i n t e n s i t y i n counts. ( 1 pm = 3.94 x in.)
 (a)

(b)
L-77-338
Figure 3.- O p t i c a l micrographs o f aluminum alloy 7075-T651 l o n g i t u d i n a l p l a t e
specimen. ( I ym = 3.94 x 10-5 i n . )

34
 (d) (e) (f)
L-77-339
. .__
Figure 4.- Edax p a t t e r n s for second-phase p a r t i c l e s p r e s e n t i n aluminum a l l o y
7075-T651 p l a t e specimens. Numerals on h o r i z o n t a l scale are i n keV. Bars
on v e r t i c a l scale i n d i c a t e i n t e n s i t y i n counts.

W
LJl
 (b)
L-77-340
Figure 5.- Optical micrographs of aluminum alloy 7178-T651 transverse plate
specimen. ( I pm = 3.94 x 10-5 in.)

36
 (C)
L-77-34 1
Figure 6.- Edax patterns for second phase particles present in aluminum alloy
7178-T651 plate specimens. Numerals on horizontal scale are in keV. Bars
on vertical scale indicate intensity in counts.
37

I
I1 II1 I 11.1111,. 1.11.1 -. , , ,, ~

1 , .
. "' .
- - I

C
\ , *

(a) 2024-T3.

(b) 6061-T4.
L-77-342
Figure 7.- Optical micrographs of longitudinal sheet s ecimens of aluminum
alloys investigated. ( 1 pm = 3.94 x IOeg in.

38

.... .. . . I
 (e> 6061-1'6.

(d) 7075-T6-
L-77-343
Figure 7.- Continued.

39
 (e) 7178-T6.

F i g u r e 7 . - Concluded.

40
 (b)
L-77-345
F i g u r e 8.- Edax p a t t e r n s for second-phase p a r t i c l e s i n 7075-T6 s h e e t t e n s i l e
specimens. Numerals on h o r i z o n t a l scale are i n keV. Bars on v e r t i c a l
scale i n d i c a t e i n t e n s i t y i n c o u n t s .

41
 L-77-346
F i g u r e 9.- Edax p a t t e r n f o r a t y p e o f second-phase p a r t i c l e observed on
f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s o f 7178-T6 sheet t e n s i l e specimens. Numerals on
h o r i z o n t a l scale are i n keV. Bars on v e r t i c a l s c a l e i n d i c a t e i n t e n ­
s i t y i n counts.

L-77-347
F i g u r e 10.- Edax p a t t e r n f o r second-phase p a r t i c l e s observed on f r a c t u r e
s u r f a c e s o f 7178-T6 s h e e t shear specimens. Numerals on h o r i z o n t a l scale
are i n keV. Bars on v e r t i c a l scale i n d i c a t e i n t e n s i t y i n c o u n t s .

42
 ( a > 202LT351 t r a n s v e r s e (b) 6061-T4 l o n g i t u d i n a l ( c > 6061-T651 l o n g i t u d i n a l
specimen. specimen. specimen.

(d) 7075-T65 1 l o n g i t u d i n a l ( e > 7178-T651 l o n g i t u d i n a l

specimen. specimen.
L-77-348
Figure 11.- Scanning e l e c t r o n f r a c t o g r a p h s of p l a t e t e n s i l e specimens of
&
w aluminum a l l o y s i n v e s t i g a t e d . ( 1 pm = 3.94 x 10-5 i n . >
 A

( a ) L o n g i t u d i n a l specimen.

( b ) T r a n s v e r s e specimen.
L-77-349
F i g u r e 12.- S c a n n i n g e l e c t r o n f r a c t o g r a p h s o f 2024-T351 p l a t e t e n s i l e specimens.
Areas l a b e l e d A i d e n t i f y f i n e d i m p l e s . ( 1 lJm = 3.94 X in.

44
 A

(b)
L-77-350
F i g u r e 13.- Scanning e l e c t r o n f r a c t o g r a p h s of aluminum a l l o y 6061-T4 lon­
g i t u d i n a l p l a t e t e n s i l e specimen. F r a c t o g r a p h i n ( b ) was o b t a i n e d by
magnifying area marked i n ( a ) . Area l a b e l e d A i d e n t i f i e s f i n e dimples.
( 1 pm = 3.94 x 10-5 i n . )
45
 ( a ) L o n g i t u d i n a l specimen.

(b) L o n g i t u d i n a l specimen.
L-77-351
F i g u r e 14.- Scanning e l e c t r o n f r a c t o g r a p h s o f aluminum a l l o y 6061-T651 p l a t e
t e n s i l e specimens. ( I u m = 3.94 x 10-5 i n . I

46
i

(b)
L-77-352
Figure 15.- Scanning electron fractographs of aluminum alloy 7075-T651
longitudinal plate tensile specimen. Areas labeled A identify dim­
ples containing cracked particles; areas labeled B identify ductile
tear. ( I pm = 3.94 x 10-5 in.)

47
 L-77-353
Figure 16.- Scanning electron fractograph~of aluminum alloy 7178-T651
longitudinal plate tensile specimen.

L-77-354
Figure 17.- High magnification scanning electron fractograph of aluminum alloy
7178-T651 longitudinal plate tensile specimen. ( 1 pm = 3.94 x 10-5 in.)

48
(a) 2024-T3. (b) 6061-T4. (c) 6061-T6.

(d) 7075-T6. (e> 7178-T6.

L-77-355
Figure 18.- Scanning electron fractographs of longitudinal sheet tensile
= 3.94 x 10-5 in.)
specimens of aluminum a l l o y s investigated. ( 1 1 . ~
 (b)
L-77-356
F i g u r e 19.- Scanning e l e c t r o n f r a c t o g r a p h s o f aluminum a l l o y 2024-T3 l o n g i t u d i ­
n a l sheet t e n s i l e specimen. F r a c t o g r a p h i n ( b ) was o b t a i n e d by magnifying
area marked i n ( a ) . ( 1 pm 3.94 x 10-5 i n . )

50
 L-77-357
F i g u r e 20.- Scanning e l e c t r o n f r a c t o g r a p h of aluminum a l l o y 2024-T3
l o n g i t u d i n a l s h e e t t e n s i l e specimen showing r e g i o n t h a t f a i l e d i n
s h e a r . ( 1 pm = 3.94 x 10-5 i n . )

51
 ( a > 6061-T4.

(b) 6061-T6.
L-77-358
F i g u r e 21.- Scanning e l e c t r o n f r a c t o g r a p h s o f two l o n g i t u d i n a l sheet t e n s i l e
specimens of aluminum a l l o y 6061. ( 1 p m = 3.94 x 10-5 i n . )

52
 (a) 6061-T4.

(b) 6061-T6.
L-77-359
F i g u r e 22.- Scanning e l e c t r o n f r a c t o g r a p h s o f two l o n g i t u d i n a l sheet t e n s i l e
specimens of aluminum a l l o y 6061. ( 1 pm 3.94 x 10-5 i n . 1

53
 A

(a> 7075-T6 transverse specimen.

(b) 7178-T6 longitudinal specimen.

L-77-360
Figure 23.- Scanning electron fractograph of two sheet tensile specimens of
7000 series aluminum alloys. Areas labeled A identify grooves and secon­
dary cracks. ( 1 pm = 3.94 x 10-5 in.)
54
(a) 2024-T3 longitudinal (b) 606 1 -T4 longitudinal (c 606 1 -T6 transverse
specimen. specimen. specimen.

(d) 7075-T6 longitudinal (e) 7 178-T6 longitudinal

specimen. specimen.
L-77-36 1
Figure 24.- Scanning electron fractographs of sheet shear specimens of aluminum
alloys investigated, tested at cross-head separation rate of 2.54 mm/min
(0.1 in./min). Area labeled A is shown at higher magnification in figure 25.
( I pm = 3.94 x 10-5 in.)
I 111111l111I1l1111

L-77-362
F i g u r e 25.- Scanning e l e c t r o n ' f r a c t o g r a p h o f aluminum a l l o y 2024-T3 l o n g i t u d i ­
n a l sheet shear specimen t e s t e d a t cross-head s e p a r a t i o n r a t e of 2.54 mm/min
(0.1 i n . / m i n ) . ( I p m = 3.94 x 10-5 i n . )

56
 (b)
L-77-363
Figure 26.- Scanning electron fractographs of aluminum alloy 7178-T6 trans­
verse sheet shear specimen tested at cross-head separation rate of
2.54 mm/min (0.1 in./min). Fractograph in (b) was obtained by magnify­
ing area marked in (a). ( 1 pm = 3.94 x 10-5 in.)
57
 L-77-364
( a > T r a n s v e r s e specimen o r i e n t a t i o n .

F i g u r e 27.- Scanning e l e c t r o n f r a c t o g r a p h s of precracked aluminum a l l o y

202kT351 notch-bend specimens. ( 1 pm = 3.94 x 10-5 i n .

58
(b) Longitudinal specimen orientation.

( c > Longitudinal specimen orientation.

L-77-365
Figure 27.- Concluded.

59
 (a) Longitudinal specimen orientation.

( b ) Transverse specimen orientation.

L-77-366
Figure 28.- Optical macrographs of fracture surfaces of aluminum alloy
2024-T351 precracked notch-bend specimens. ( 1 mm = 3.94 x in.

60
(a> 6061-T4 l o n g i t u d i n a l specimen o r i e n t a t i o n .

61
 L-77-368
F i g u r e 30.- Scanning e l e c t r o n f r a c t o g r a p h s of precracked aluminum a l l o y
6061-T651 notch-bend specimen tested i n t r a n s v e r s e specimen o r i e n t a ­
t i o n . F r a c t o g r a p h s i n ( b ) and ( c > were obtained by magnifying areas
marked i n ( a ) and (b) , r e s p e c t i v e l y . ( 1 pm = 3.94 x 10-5 i n . )
63
 (b)
L-77-370
F i g u r e 32.- Scanning e l e c t r o n f r a c t o g r a p h s showing deep grooves and secondary
c r a c k i n g i n aluminum a l l o y 7075-T651 precracked notch-bend specimen t e s t e d
i n longitudinal orientation. ( 1 pm = 3.94 x in.)

64
F i g u r e 3 3 . - Scanning e l e c t r o n f r a c t o g r a p h s of aluminum a l l o y 7178-T651
precracked notch-bend specimen tested i n t r a n s v e r s e o r i e n t a t i o n .
Areas A , B , and C i n ( d ) and ( e ) i d e n t i f y large d i m p l e s , f i n e dim­
p l e s , and d u c t i l e t e a r i n g , r e s p e c t i v e l y . ( 1 pm = 3.94 x in.)

65
 (C)
L-77-372
Figure 33.- Continued.

66
 (e>
L-77-373
Figure 33.- Concluded.
 (a) Tested at cross-head separation rate of 2.54 mm/min (0.1 in./min).

( b ) Tested at cross-head separation rate of 76.2 mm/min (3 in./min).

L-77-37';
Figure 34.- Scanning electron fractographs of' aluminum alloy 7075-T6
longitudinal sheet shear specimens tested at different cross-head
separation rates-. (1 p = 3.94 x 10-5 in.

6%
 ~- - . .. .~ . - .. . . .-. . - .

I
~

1. Report No. 2. Government Accession No. 3. Recipient's Catalog No.

NASA TP-1086
~- -~ . ~ ~ -___ ~
. . .~
4. Title and Subtitle 5. Report Date
METALLURGICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF THE FRACTURE OF December 1977 -. -
SEVERAL HIGH STRENGTH ALUMINUM ALLOYS 6. Performing OrganizationCode

. - - . . --. .. -. - -_ ­
7. Authorls) 8. PerformingOrganization Report No.

M. Dilip Bhandarkar and W. Barry Lisagor L-11255 ~ ..~- .

. . . .

-
9. Performing Organization Name and Address
~__- - 10. Work Unit No.
505-01-34-03
NASA Langley Research Center ----
_.. .. .-.-.-
11. Contract or Grant No.
Hampton, VA 23665
. ..= .- -.

_.____.- - 13. Type of Report and Period Covered

12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address Technical Paper

I-_.iir.*
National Aeronautics and Space Administration ~ - - . ~ .

Washington, DC 20546 14. Sponsoring Agency Code

es --_

Di%p Bhandarkar: National Research Postdoctoral fellow, now with ANAMET

Laboratories, Inc., Berkeley, California.
W. Barry Lisagor: Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia.
-- - .___I-___-.

16. Abstract
The fracture behavior for structural aluminum alloys (2024, 6061, 7075, and
7178) has been examined in selected heat treatments. The investigation included
tensile, shear, and precracked notch-bend specimens fractured at ambient tempera­
ture under monotonic loading. Specimens'wereobtained from thin sheets and thick
plates and were tested in longitudinal and transverse orientations at different
strain rates. Microstructures of alloys were examined using the optical microscope
and the scanning electron microscope with associated energy dispersive X-ray chemi­
cal analysis. Several different types of second-phase particles, some not reported
by other investigators, were identified in the alloys. Fracture morphology was
related to microstructural variables, test variables, and type of commercial prod­
uct. Specimen orientation examined in the present investigation had little effect
on fracture morphology. Test strain rate changes resulted in some change in shear
fracture morphology, but not in fracture morphology of tensile specimens.

__ - . . .. __ --
1 - -
17. Key Words (Suggested by Authoris) I
-. . . -. . - - - -.-
18. Distribution Statement
. -. ~

Fracture (materials) Microstructure Unclassified - Unlimited

Tensile Aluminum alloys
Shear
Notch bend
Fractography Subject Category 25
__
19. Security Clanif. (of this report)
Unclassified
.
1
I
.- -
20. Security Classif. (of this page1
Unclassified

* For sale by the National Technical Information Service, Springfield. Virginia 22161
- -

~ -
-

68
--
-
21. No. of Pages

1.
I 22. Price'

$5.25
..
..
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-
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._. ­

NASA-Langley, 1977
 [Z)
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