PHYSICAL SCIENCE MODULE 1

LEARNING COMPETENCIES

- Give evidence for and describe the formation of heavier elements during star
formation and evolution.
- Explain how the concept of atomic number led to the synthesis of new elements in
the laboratory
THE FORMATION OF HEAVIER ELEMENTS
THE FORMATION OF HEAVIER ELEMENTS

The lighter elements are formed during the big bang nucleosynthesis. On the other
hand, the heavier elements are formed through the stellar nucleosynthesis. Stellar
nucleosynthesis is a formation of heavy elements within the stars. As the stars are
evolving, there is a greater possibility of formation and changes of elements.
STELLAR EVOLUTION

- The stellar evolution is an event of changes of a star during its lifetime from
evolutionary phase of protostar until its stellar death: supernova. The theory of
collapse under gravity is considered as the major theory of the star formation. The
stars are formed by the gravitational collapse of dense molecular cloud.
- As the molecular cloud collapses, the fragments from different regions are grouped
to form stellar core called protostar. As the protostar’s temperature increases, the
nuclear reaction starts up to convert hydrogen into helium in its core then star is
form into the main sequence. The star will continue converting hydrogen into helium
then it will become a main sequence star.
STELLAR EVOLUTION

PROTOSTAR MAIN SEQUENCE STAR

STELLAR EVOLUTION

- Eventually, in the main sequence star fuses so much of its hydrogen into helium, the
fusion will stop. The pressure in the core is reduced. Meanwhile, the star’s core cools
then begin to contract again. In this case, the contraction increases the pressure and
temperature of the star’s core. In the core, helium is converted to carbon while in
the shell, hydrogen is converted into helium making the star -red giant.
- The stellar evolution produces elements through iron (Fe). The star’s outer materials
are blown off into the space and the remainder of the star becomes a white dwarf.
The star’s core can no longer make energy to resist from gravity. The star now will
explode and release a large amount of energy this explosion is referred as
supernova.
STELLAR EVOLUTION

SUPERNOVA
SHELL FUSION

- The bigger the star, the heavier elements it can produce inside the core. In this case,
the massive star has enough temperature and pressure for the fusion to take place.
For instance, the formation of heavy elements. In the entire star’s lifetime, different
events will happen such as fusion of heavy elements in the core and in the shells that
surround the core. The shell fusion is a process of formation of new elements in its
layers or regions.
- For this case, carbon fusion will form oxygen, neon from the fusion of oxygen, from
neon fusion will create magnesium, silicon is the product of magnesium fusion and
iron is form from silicon fusion as seen in the above figure of shells fusion. When
new elements are produced, new layers are added up to the size of the star until it
becomes multiple shell-red giant.
EVIDENCE OF FORMATION OF HEAVY ELEMENTS

One of the significant pieces of evidence to support the formation of heavier elements
during stellar evolution is the interstellar medium. The interstellar medium is all the
collection of interstellar matter. The interstellar matter refers to the materials between
the stars. About ninety-nine percent (99%) of these materials are in the form of gases.
The most abundant gases are helium and hydrogen. And the remaining one percent
(1%) is in the form of solids which are frozen particles called interstellar grains. The
interstellar grains are made up of rock like materials.
EVIDENCE OF FORMATION OF HEAVY ELEMENTS

Another evidence to corroborate the formation of heavy elements is infrared radiation.

The infrared radiation is a form of energy detected in the process of star formation.
Astronomers used infrared radiation to estimate the pressure, temperature and energy
in the evolutionary phase of the star formation.
EVIDENCE OF FORMATION OF HEAVY ELEMENTS
ATOMIC NUMBER AND SYNTHESIS OF NEW ELEMENTS
THE ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS NUMBER

The X-ray spectroscopy of Henry Moseley, an English physicist played a significant

development in determining the atomic number of the elements. In his experiment, the
different beam of electrons bombarded with other elements produced varying
frequencies of x-ray spectral lines. He measured and concluded that these frequencies
revealed by the elements in his worked were similar location in the periodic table of
elements. Therefore, he assigned these frequencies as the atomic number of each
element. The atomic number indicates the number of protons found in the nucleus of
each element. It also serves as the identity of an atom.
THE ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS NUMBER

In a neutral atom, the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons. Thus,
atomic number is equal to the number of electrons in a neutral atom. For instance,
aluminum has an atomic number of 13, meaning each neutral atom of aluminum has 13
protons and 13 electrons. In general, the acceptable representation of atomic number
is this symbol, capital Z. The total number of neutrons and protons in the nucleus of an
atom referred mass number.
THE ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS NUMBER

For Example:

Z is the atomic number

A is the mass number
Mass number (A) = number of protons (p+) + number of neutrons (n0)
= Atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons (n0)
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons (p+) = number of electrons (e-)
Number of neutrons (n0) = Mass number (A) - number of protons (p+)
THE SYNTHESIS OF NEW ELEMENTS

- Most of the elements are found naturally, but there are some elements can be
produced in the laboratories. The scientists used particle accelerator to synthesize
new synthetic elements. The particle accelerator is a device used to speed up the
electrically charged atomic particles or subatomic particles by using magnetic and
electrical fields.
- In 1930, the element 92, Uranium was the heaviest element discovered at that time.
The eagerness of scientists to study and discover the behavior and characteristics of
the elements challenged them to create new elements. By the year 1937, Ernest
Lawrence used linear particle accelerator in creating element 43 by bombarding the
atoms of molybdenum with atomic number 42 with fast moving electrons. He
named this element 43 as Technetium. The first man-made element.
THE SYNTHESIS OF NEW ELEMENTS

PARTICLE ACCELERATOR
THE SYNTHESIS OF NEW ELEMENTS

- In 1940, the element astatine with atomic number 85 is synthesized by the collaboration of
three great scientists, Emilio Segre, Kenneth Mackenzie and Dale Corson by bombarding the
atoms of element bismuth with atomic number 83 using the fast moving alpha particle.
- In the same year, Edwin McMillan used particle accelerator to bombard uranium with
neutrons that led him to discover the element with atomic number 93. He called it
neptunium.
- In the late 1940, the four scientists namely, Glenn Seaborg, Edwin McMillan, Joseph Kennedy
and Arthur Wahl synthesized element 94 by bombarding the uranium with deuterons in the
cyclotron. The cyclotron is a particle accelerator used in alternating electric field to
accelerate particles that move in a spiral path in the presence of a magnetic field. The
deuterons are particles made of a proton and a neutron. They named the element 94 to
plutonium.
THE SYNTHESIS OF NEW ELEMENTS

In the periodic table of elements, elements with atomic number higher than 92 are
belong to the group or family of transuranium elements. Since, elements neptunium
and plutonium have atomic number 93 and 94 respectively are grouped in the family of
transuranium elements. These elements are unstable and radioactively decay into
other elements. The transuranium elements are created using nuclear reactors or
particle accelerators. The particle accelerators are used to create new elements in the
laboratory. These elements are synthesized in the laboratory and considered as
synthetic elements.
ACTIVITY
Direction. Using the periodic table of elements, complete what is missing in the table.
Use a separate sheet of paper for your answer.
QUIZ #1

1. Which of the following best describe stellar nucleosynthesis?

A. A process of producing gases in the stars.
B. A process of producing heavy elements in the molecular cloud.
C. A process of massive explosion in the stars.
D. A process of forming heavy elements within the stars.
QUIZ #1

2. Which of the following elements is not formed during the stellar evolution?
A. Neon C. Magnesium
B. Manganese D. Silicon
QUIZ #1

3. Which of the following is NOT detected using infrared radiation?

A. Pressure C. Energy
B. Temperature D. Chemical reaction
QUIZ #1

4. These are the abundant gases in the stellar evolution.

A. Nitrogen and Chlorine C. Helium and Hydrogen
B. Argon and Krypton D. Hydrogen and Nitrogen
QUIZ #1

5. When carbon fuses, what element is formed?

A. Neon C. Hydrogen
B. Oxygen D. Silicon
QUIZ #1

6. The atomic number is based on the number of__________.

A. protons and electrons in the atom’s nucleus.
B. protons in the atom’s nucleus.
C. electrons and neutrons in the atom’s nucleus.
D. electrons in the atom’s nucleus.
QUIZ #1

7. The mass number of an element is determined by________.

A. the number of protons in the nucleus.
B. the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
C. the number of electrons in the nucleus.
D. the number of protons and electrons in the nucleus.
QUIZ #1

8. The atomic number of lithium is 3, how many numbers of protons and electrons will
the lithium have?
A. 3 protons and 6 electrons C. 2 protons and 1 electron
B. 1 proton and 2 electrons D. 3 protons and 3 electrons
QUIZ #1

9. The element technetium has an atomic number of_______.

A. 43 C. 93
B. 45 D. 94
QUIZ #1

10. Which of the following elements is belong to the family of transuranium elements?
A. Carbon C. Molybdenum
B. Technetium D. Plutonium