Demography: Understanding Human Populations ▪ Instead of census,

demographic information can

Demography, at its core, is the statistical study of still be collected from a
human populations. It's a dynamic science, sample of a given population,
applicable to any population that changes over time called sample survey.
or across geographical spaces. We're interested in
understanding the size, structure, and distribution of 2. Vital Statistics Registration Systems:
populations, and how these aspects change due to
births, deaths, migration, and aging. o These systems continuously record
vital events like births, deaths,
Key Components of Demography marriages, and divorces.
1. Size: How many people are in a specific o The civil registrar's office typically
population? manages these records.
2. Structure: What is the composition of the Both censuses and vital statistics registration collect
population in terms of age, sex, marital data on:
status, education, etc.?
• Age
3. Distribution: Where are people located
geographically? • Sex

4. Changes: How do populations grow, shrink, • Marital status

or shift due to births, deaths, and migration? • Education/literacy
Data Collection Methods • Employment status
How do we gather all this information about • Geographical location
populations? There are two primary direct methods:
They may also gather data on:
1. Census:
• Migration
o A complete enumeration of every
person in a country, typically • Language
conducted by a national government. • Religion
o It's like taking a snapshot of the entire • Nationality/ethnicity
population at a specific point in time.
• Citizenship
o Censuses usually occur every 10
years or so. Population Data: Uses in Health Administration
o Two ways to assign people: Population data is super useful, especially in
healthcare. Here are three key ways it's used:
▪ *De jure*: people are counted
at their usual place of 1. Calculating Vital Statistics:
residence, regardless of where
o We use population data to calculate
they are during the census.
rates and ratios like birth rates, death
▪ *De facto:* people are rates, and mortality rates.
counted where they are
o These rates help us understand the
physically present on census
health status of a population.
day, regardless of their usual
residence. o It also helps in setting up coverage of
activities and setting up norms for
o Problems in Census-taking:
assignment of health facilities, staff,
▪ Expensive undertaking and funds.
▪ Requires money 2. Estimating Population Size:
 o Essential for planning and resource • Replacement Level Fertility: Average
allocation. number of children a woman must have to
replace herself with a daughter in the next
o Continuous Population Registration: generation (around 2.1 in developed
Consists of registering births, deaths, countries).
emigration, and immigration, making
necessary additions and subtractions • Gross Reproduction Rate: Number of
to the existing population. daughters who would be born to a woman
completing her reproductive life at current
3. Estimating Population in Smaller Areas: age-specific fertility rates.
o We can estimate population by • Net Reproduction Ratio: Expected number
counting houses and conducting a of daughters per newborn prospective mother
census for every ten houses. who may survive through childbearing ages.
o Based on the censused household, • Stable Population: Constant crude birth and
estimate the average occupant per
death rates for a long time, resulting in a
house and then multiply this figure by constant age class distribution.
the number of households.
• Stationary Population: A stable population
Mathematical Estimates that is also unchanging in size (birth rate
• Arithmetic Increase Method: Assumes a equals death rate).
constant amount of population increase per Population Change: The Three Factors
year.
Populations change through three fundamental
• Geometric Increase Method: Assumes a processes:
constant rate of population increase per year.
1. Fertility: Number of children women have
Vital Statistics: Key Measures (different from fecundity, which is a woman's
Vital statistics give us insights into the health and potential to have children).
reproductive patterns of a population. Here are some 2. Mortality: Study of the causes,
key measures: consequences, and measurement of death in
• Crude Birth Rate: Annual number of live a population.
births per 1,000 people. 3. Migration: Movement of people from one
• General Fertility Rate: Annual number of live place to another across a political boundary,
births per 1,000 women of childbearing age intended to be somewhat permanent.
(15-49 years). Measuring Population Size
• Age-Specific Fertility Rates: Annual number We can measure population size by looking at:
of live births per 1,000 women in specific age
groups. 1. Natural Increase:
• Crude Death Rate: Annual number of deaths o The difference between the number of
per 1,000 people. births and deaths in a specific period.
• Infant Mortality Rate: Annual number of o Natural Increase = Births - Deaths
deaths of children under 1 year old per 1,000
live births. 2. Rate of Natural Increase:

• Expectation of Life: Number of years an o The difference between the crude

individual at a given age is expected to live birth rate (CBR) and the crude death
based on current mortality levels. rate (CDR).

• Total Fertility Rate: Number of live births per o Rate of Natural Increase = CBR - CDR
woman completing her reproductive life, 3. Absolute Increase Per Year:
based on current age-specific fertility rates.
 o Measures the number of people Population Pyramid
added to the population per year.
The population pyramid is a powerful tool. It visually
o Formula: (Pt - Po) / t displays the age and sex structure of a population.
Typically:
▪ Pt = Population size at a later
time • Males are shown on one side (usually the
left).
▪ Po = Population size at an
earlier time • Females are shown on the other side (usually
the right).
▪ t = Number of years between
time 0 and time t • Age groups are stacked vertically.
4. Relative Increase: The shape of the pyramid can tell us a lot about a
population's history, current situation, and future
o The actual difference between two prospects. For example:
census counts, expressed as a
percentage relative to the earlier • A wide base indicates high birth rates.
census.
• A narrow top indicates high death rates and
o Formula: (Pt - Po) / Po low life expectancy.
Population Composition • Bulges or constrictions can reflect past
events like wars, famines, or baby booms.
Understanding the composition of a population is
crucial. We often describe it in terms of:
1. Sex Composition:
o We use the sex ratio to compare the
number of males to females.
o Sex Ratio = (Number of males /
Number of females) x 1000
o This tells us the number of males for
every 1,000 females.
2. Age Composition:
o Median Age: Divides the population
into two equal parts (half older, half
younger).
o Dependency Ratio: Compares the
number of economically dependent
people (0-14 and 65+ age groups) to
the economically productive group
(15-64 age group).
▪ Dependency Ratio = (Number
of dependents / Number of
productive) x 100
3. Age and Sex Composition:
o We use a population pyramid, which
is a graphical representation of the
age and sex composition.
Ratios and Rates: The Basics o Formula: (Number of live births in a
year / Midyear population) x 1,000
• Ratio: At its core, a ratio is simply a
comparison of two numbers. For example, • Crude Death Rate (CDR): A basic measure of
the number of deaths per population. mortality, or the risk of dying in a population.
Like the CBR, it's "crude" because it uses the
• Rate: A rate is a special type of ratio that total population.
involves a time period. It tells us how
frequently something is happening over time o Formula: (Number of deaths in a year
within a population. For example, the number / Midyear population) x 1,000
of new cases of a disease per year.
• Infant Mortality Rate (IMR): This is a big one.
Incidence vs. Prevalence It measures the number of deaths of infants
under one year of age per 1,000 live births. It's
These are two key measures of disease occurrence: a key indicator of the overall health and well-
• Incidence Rate: This measures the new being of a population, reflecting access to
cases of a disease that develop in a healthcare, nutrition, and sanitation.
population over a specific period. It's like o Formula: (Number of deaths under 1
counting how many fresh cases pop up. We year of age / Number of live births) x
use this a lot for understanding acute 1,000
conditions like the flu or food poisoning.
• Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR): This
o Formula: (Number of new cases measures the risk of death related to
during a time period / Population at pregnancy, childbirth, and the period
risk during that period) x 100 (or immediately after delivery. It reflects the
1,000, 100,000, etc., depending on quality of maternal healthcare services.
how rare the disease is)
o Formula: (Number of maternal
• Prevalence Rate: This measures the total deaths / Number of live births) x 1,000
number of existing cases (both old and new)
of a disease in a population at a specific point • Neonatal Mortality Rate: Measures the risk
in time. Think of it as a snapshot of how many of dying in the first four weeks of life of the
people are currently living with the condition. infant (newborn)
Prevalence is really useful for chronic
conditions like diabetes or heart disease. o Formula: (Number of infant death /
number of life birth) X 1000
o Formula: (Number of existing cases
at a specific time / Population at that • Fetal Death Rate: Measures the risk of dying
time) x 100 (or 1,000, 100,000, etc.) before birth

Key Difference: Incidence tells us about the risk of • Peri-Natal Mortality Rate: Measures the loss
developing a disease, while prevalence tells us about of life in later pregnancy and early infancy.
the burden of the disease in a population. Other Important Measures
Common Vital Statistics • General Fertility Rate: More specific than the
These are rates related to births and deaths, CBR, this uses the number of women of
providing insights into population dynamics and childbearing age (usually 15-44 years) in the
health: denominator.

• Crude Birth Rate (CBR): A simple measure of o Formula: (Number of live births /
fertility. It's called "crude" because it uses the Midyear population of women aged
total population as the denominator, 15-44) x 1,000
including people who aren't able to give birth • Specific Mortality Rate: This looks at deaths
(children, older adults, and men). within a specific group (e.g., by age, sex, or
cause).
 o Formula: (Number of deaths in a • Planning and resource allocation: Deciding
specific group / Midyear population of where to focus efforts and resources.
the same group) x 1,000
• Research: Investigating the causes and
• Cause-Specific Mortality Rate: This focuses patterns of disease.
on deaths from a particular cause.
o Formula: (Number of deaths from a
specific cause / Midyear population) x
1,000
• Proportionate Mortality Rate: This tells you
what proportion of all deaths are due to a
specific cause.
o Formula: (Number of deaths from a
specific cause / Total number of
deaths) x 100
• Swaroop’s Index: This indicates the
proportion of deaths occurring among older
people (50 years and over). It can be an
indicator of the aging of a population.
o Formula: (Number of deaths among
those 50+ / Total number of deaths) x
100
• Case Fatality Rate: This measures the
proportion of people with a specific disease
who die from that disease. It's a measure of
the severity of the disease.
o Formula: (Number of deaths from a
specific disease / Number of cases of
the same disease) x 100
Morbidity Rates
• Incidence Rate: number of new cases of
disease developing from a period of time /
Population at risk of developing the disease X
100
• Prevalence Rate: number of Old and new
cases of a disease / Population examined X
100
Why are these important?
These rates and ratios are essential for:
• Monitoring public health: Tracking trends in
disease, mortality, and fertility.
• Identifying health problems: Spotting
emerging health threats or disparities.
• Evaluating interventions: Assessing the
impact of public health programs.
What is Epidemiology? • Agent: This is the thing that causes the
disease. It could be a virus, bacteria,
In simple terms, epidemiology is the study of how chemical, or even a physical force like
diseases and other health-related events are radiation.
distributed in populations, and what factors
influence this distribution. It's like being a disease • Host: This is the person or animal that gets
detective, figuring out the who, what, when, where, the disease. Factors like age, sex, genetics,
and why of health issues. and immune status can influence
susceptibility.
Here's a breakdown of key aspects:
• Environment: This includes all the external
• Focus on populations: Epidemiology isn't factors that can affect the agent and the host.
about individual patients; it's about This could be the climate, geography,
understanding patterns in groups of people. socioeconomic conditions, or even access to
• Distribution: This refers to how health events healthcare.
are spread out across a population. Are
The interaction between these three factors
certain groups more affected than others? determines whether or not a disease will occur.
Are there geographic clusters?
3. Modes of Transmission
• Determinants: These are the factors that
influence health. They can be anything from Understanding how an agent spreads is crucial for
genetics and lifestyle to environmental controlling disease. Here are the main modes:
exposures and social conditions.
• Direct Transmission: This involves
• Application: Epidemiology isn't just about immediate transfer of the agent from an
understanding; it's about using that infected person to a susceptible person (e.g.,
knowledge to control and prevent health touching, kissing, droplet spread).
problems.
• Indirect Transmission: This involves an
C-E.A. Winslow, a prominent figure in public health, intermediate step:
called epidemiology "the diagnostic discipline of
public health," highlighting its role in assessing the o Vehicle-borne: The agent is carried
health of communities. by contaminated objects like food,
water, or fomites (inanimate objects).
Key Concepts in Epidemiology
o Vector-borne: The agent is carried by
1. Epidemics vs. Endemic a living organism, like insects (e.g.,
mosquitoes carrying malaria).
• Endemic: This refers to the usual and
expected rate of a disease in a population. It's o Airborne: The agent is spread through
the baseline level. the air via droplet nuclei (small
particles from coughs or sneezes) or
• Epidemic: This is an increase in the dust.
frequency (incidence) of a disease above the
endemic rate. It's an outbreak, a surge in Uses of Epidemiology
cases.
Epidemiology has a wide range of applications in
When epidemiologists see a potential epidemic, they public health:
start asking those critical questions: Who is getting
sick? Where is it happening? When did it start? These • Studying the History of Health:
questions help them understand the potential Understanding how diseases have changed
causes. over time.

2. The Epidemiological Triad • Diagnosing Community Health: Assessing

the current health status of a population.
To understand the cause of a disease,
epidemiologists often look at three key factors: • Improving Health Services: Evaluating the
effectiveness of healthcare programs.
 • Estimating Risks: Identifying factors that • Age: Very young and very old are often more
increase the risk of disease or injury. susceptible.
fearture
• Completing the Clinical Picture: Describing • Sex: Some diseases are more common in one
the full spectrum of a disease, including its sex than the other.
natural history.
• Race: Genetic or social factors may influence
• Searching for Causes: Investigating the susceptibility.
factors that cause disease.
• Habits, Customs, and Religions: Lifestyle
Important Figures choices can impact health.
• John Snow: Often considered the father of • Exposure to Agent: Prior exposure can lead
modern epidemiology, Snow famously to immunity.
investigated a cholera outbreak in London in
the 1850s, tracing the source to a • Defense Mechanisms:
contaminated water pump. o Humoral Defense: Antibodies
Agent Factors of Disease produced by plasma cells and
lymphocytes
The agent is any factor (living or non-living) whose
presence or absence can initiate a disease process. o Cellular Defense: Macrophages and
neutrophils involved in phagocytosis
lodgemen: dito na nakatira
Types of Agents and dumadami yung bacteria
Environmental Factors of Disease
• Living: Bacteria, viruses, parasites
The environment includes all external conditions that
• Non-living: Chemicals (toxins, pollutants), affect the host and the agent.
physical factors (radiation, trauma)
endogenous and exogenous Types of Environmental Factors:
Characteristics of Agents
• Physical Environment:
• Inherent Characteristics: Physical features,
biological requirements, chemical o Climate (temperature, rainfall)
composition, resistance to environmental o Geography and location
factors
• Biologic Environment:
• Characteristics in Relation to the
Environment: Reservoir (where the agent o Plants, animals, and other humans
lives), source of infection, modes of • Socio-economic Environment:
transmission
o Economic status, education, access
• Characteristics Directly Related to Man: to healthcare
o Infectivity: Ability to invade and Incubation Period
multiply in a host
The incubation period is the time between exposure
o Pathogenicity: Ability to cause to an infectious agent and the appearance of the first
disease signs and symptoms of disease.
o Virulence: Severity of disease • Clinical Incubation Period: Time between
o Antigenicity: Ability to stimulate an exposure and symptom onset
immune response to produce antibody • Biological Incubation Period: Time required
Host Factors of Disease for the agent to develop in the vector before it
can be transmitted to humans
The host is the individual who is susceptible to the
disease. Isolation and Quarantine

Factors Influencing Host Susceptibility:

These are measures used to control the spread of Notifiable Diseases
infectious diseases.
These are diseases that are required by law to be
• Isolation: Separation of infected individuals reported to public health authorities. This allows for
from others during the period of early detection of outbreaks and implementation of
communicability. control measures.
• Quarantine: Restriction of activities of In Conclusion
healthy individuals who have been exposed to
a communicable disease to prevent disease Epidemiology is a vital field that provides the tools to
transmission during the incubation period. understand and address health problems in
communities. By studying the distribution and
Categories of Isolation: determinants of disease, epidemiologists can
develop strategies to prevent disease, promote
• Strict Isolation health, and protect the public's well-being.
• Contact Isolation Remember, it's all about asking the right questions
and using data to inform action.
• Respiratory Isolation
• Tuberculosis Isolation (AFB Isolation)
• Enteric Precautions
• Drainage/Secretion Precautions
• Blood/Body Fluid Precautions
Categories of Quarantine:
• Absolute or Complete Quarantine: Limitation
of movement for the longest usual incubation
period of the disease.
• Modified Quarantine: Selective, partial
limitation of freedom of movements.
Phases of Infection
The process of infection can be divided into two main
phases:
• Pre-pathogenesis: The period before the
agent interacts with the host.
• Pathogenesis: The period after the agent has
successfully invaded the host.
Requirements for Successful Invasion:
1. Favorable environment for the agent
2. Suitable reservoirs
3. Susceptible host
4. Satisfactory portal of entry
5. Accessible portal of exit
6. Appropriate means of dissemination and
transmission
In biostatistics, we often work with populations, but ✔ Advantages:
studying every individual in a population is usually Easier than SRS
impractical or impossible. Instead, we use Ensures even distribution
sampling, where we select a representative group
from the population to study. Disadvantages:
If the list follows a pattern, it can introduce bias
✔ Why is Sampling Important?
• Saves time and resources
Stratified Sampling
• Provides accurate estimates of the
population Definition: The population is divided into
• Helps in making conclusions about health subgroups (strata), and a random sample is taken
trends from each group.
Example: You divide students into first-years,
second-years, and third-years and take random
samples from each year level.
Types of Sampling Methods
There are two major types of sampling: ✔ Advantages:
1. Probability Sampling – Each individual has an Ensures representation of all groups
equal chance of being selected. Provides more precise results
2. Non-Probability Sampling – Some individuals Disadvantages:
have a higher chance of being chosen than others.
Requires detailed grouping information

1⃣ Probability Sampling Methods

Cluster Sampling
These methods ensure random selection, making
Definition: The population is divided into
them more reliable for research.
clusters, and entire clusters are randomly selected.
Simple Random Sampling (SRS) Example: Instead of sampling individual students
from different universities, you randomly select
Definition: Every individual in the population has whole universities to represent the population.
an equal chance of being selected.
Example: You randomly select 50 students from ✔ Advantages:
a list of all students in your university. Cost-effective
Useful for large populations
✔ Advantages:
Eliminates bias Disadvantages:
Easy to understand May increase sampling error if clusters are not
diverse
Disadvantages:
May not capture all subgroups well
Requires a complete list of the population 2⃣ Non-Probability Sampling Methods
These methods do not involve random selection,
Systematic Sampling making them less generalizable.

Definition: Selects every k-th individual from a Convenience Sampling / NON RANDOM SAMPLING
VOLUNTEERS
list after choosing a random starting point. Definition: Selecting individuals who are easily
Example: If you want 100 samples from a accessible.
population of 1000, you pick every 10th person Example: Surveying students in your own class
(1000/100 = 10). because they are available.
✔ Advantages: Category 1 – Immediately Reportable
Fast and easy Diseases/Syndromes/Events
Low cost These are diseases or health events that must be
reported immediately because they pose a serious
Disadvantages:
and urgent threat to public health. Immediate
High bias
reporting helps prevent outbreaks and ensures a fast
Not representative of the whole population response.

Purposive (Judgmental) Sampling

Definition: Selecting individuals based on

specific criteria chosen by the researcher.
Example: Selecting only patients with diabetes
for a study on insulin use.

✔ Advantages:
Focused on the target group
Good for qualitative research

Disadvantages:
Subjective – may reflect researcher bias

Snowball Sampling

Definition: Participants recommend others for

the study, creating a “snowball” effect.
Example: Studying a rare disease, where you ask
patients to refer others with the same condition.

✔ Advantages:
Helps study hard-to-reach populations

Disadvantages:
Not random
Results are not generalizable Examples:
1. Acute flaccid paralysis ("hot case") – A
sudden weakness or paralysis, often linked to
Choosing the Right Sampling Method poliovirus. lock jaw
The choice of method depends on: 2. Anthrax – A bacterial infection that can
✔ The research goal spread through spores.
✔ The population size
3. Human avian influenza – A severe flu caused
✔ The available resources by bird flu viruses.
Quick Tip: If you want accuracy, probability 4. Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)
sampling is best. If you need quick data collection, – A viral respiratory illness.
non-probability sampling works.
5. Adverse event following immunization
(AEFI) – Unusual reactions after vaccines.
6. Any disease outbreak – Any sudden increase
in cases of a particular disease.
 7. Clusters of patients with similar symptoms 9. Influenza (Flu) – A common viral respiratory
– Groups of people showing the same disease infection, but can be dangerous for
signs. vulnerable populations.
8. Meningococcal disease – A bacterial 10. Japanese encephalitis – A viral brain
infection that can cause meningitis and infection spread by mosquitoes.
sepsis.
11. Leptospirosis – A bacterial infection spread
Why report immediately? by contaminated water, often after floods.

• These diseases spread fast and can cause 12. Malaria – A mosquito-borne disease that
severe illness or death. causes fever and chills.

• Immediate action can prevent epidemics. 13. Neonatal tetanus – A severe bacterial
infection affecting newborns.
Additionally, some diseases require immediate
reporting upon lab confirmation, like: 14. Non-neonatal tetanus – Tetanus occurring in
children or adults.
• Poliomyelitis (polio)
15. Paralytic shellfish poisoning – Caused by
• Cholera eating contaminated shellfish.
• Measles 16. Pertussis (Whooping cough) – A bacterial
• HIV/AIDS (added to the HIV registry) infection that causes severe coughing fits.
17. Rabies – A deadly viral disease transmitted
through animal bites.
CATEGORY 2: WEEKLY REPORTABLE DISEASES
18. Typhoid and paratyphoid fever – Bacterial
These diseases are still serious, but they don’t infections from contaminated food or water.
require immediate reporting. Instead, they are
reported weekly for monitoring trends and
outbreaks. How to Memorize This?
List of Weekly Reportable Diseases: 1. Focus on the difference between Category
1. Acute bloody diarrhea – Often caused by 1 and 2:
bacterial infections like Shigella or E. coli. o Category 1 = IMMEDIATE (because
2. Acute hemorrhagic fever syndrome – Can they spread fast or are life-
be caused by diseases like Ebola or Dengue threatening).
hemorrhagic fever. o Category 2 = Weekly reporting (still
3. Acute viral hepatitis – Liver inflammation important, but less urgent).
caused by hepatitis viruses (A, B, C, etc.). 2. Group diseases by type:
4. Acute flaccid paralysis – If not classified as a o Mosquito-borne: Dengue, Malaria,
"hot case," it is reported weekly. Japanese encephalitis.
5. Bacterial meningitis – A severe bacterial o Bacterial infections: Cholera,
infection affecting the brain and spinal cord. Diphtheria, Leptospirosis, Meningitis.
6. Cholera – Also in Category 1, but if not o Viral diseases: Measles, Influenza,
urgent, it is reported weekly. Hepatitis, Rabies.
7. Dengue – A mosquito-borne viral disease that o Foodborne diseases: Typhoid,
causes high fever, rash, and joint pain. Paralytic shellfish poisoning.
8. Diphtheria – A bacterial infection that can 3. Use acronyms or mnemonics:
cause breathing problems and heart failure.
 o For immediate reporting (Category 13 Climate Action – Take action against climate
1): change.
"AAA-SPAMM" (Anthrax, Avian flu, 14 Life Below Water – Protect marine life and ocean
AEFI, SARS, Polio, Any outbreak, resources.
Meningococcal, Measles). 15Life on Land – Protect ecosystems, forests, and
o For weekly reporting (Category 2), biodiversity.
try this pattern: 16 Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions –
"Dengue Meningitis Causes Terrible Promote peace, justice, and effective institutions.
Fevers and Deadly Paralysis" 17 Partnerships for the Goals – Strengthen global
(Dengue, Meningitis, Cholera, partnerships to achieve these goals.
Tetanus, Flu, Diphtheria, Paralysis).
Why Are These Goals Important?
These goals guide global efforts to create a more
Summary sustainable, fair, and healthier world. Governments,
businesses, and individuals must work together to
• Category 1 diseases are urgent and must be
achieve them by 2030.
reported immediately.
• Category 2 diseases are still important but
can be reported weekly. Breakdown of the Flowchart:
• Reporting these diseases helps protect 1. Cases from the Community
public health and prevent outbreaks.
o Barangay Health Stations (BHS) are
the first to receive reports of illnesses
from the public.
o These stations gather information on
Breakdown of the 17 SDGs:
suspected cases.
1No Poverty – End poverty in all its forms
2. Two Main Reporting Paths
everywhere.
2Zero Hunger – Ensure food security and nutrition for o The next step depends on whether the
all. case comes from a chartered city or
3Good Health and Well-being – Promote healthy a non-chartered city/province.
lives and well-being for all.
4Quality Education – Provide inclusive and equitable Non-Chartered Cities & Rural Areas:
education. o Cases from BHS go to Rural Health
5 Gender Equality – Achieve gender equality and Units (RHUs) and City Health
empower women and girls. Offices.
6 Clean Water and Sanitation – Ensure access to
safe water and sanitation. o Then, they report to the Provincial
7Affordable and Clean Energy – Promote Epidemiology and Surveillance
sustainable and accessible energy. Units (PESU).
8 Decent Work and Economic Growth – Promote
economic growth and productive employment. Chartered Cities:
9 Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure – Build o Cases from BHS go directly to City
sustainable industries and infrastructure. Epidemiology and Surveillance
10.Reduced Inequalities – Reduce inequality within Units (CESU).
and among countries. 3. Cases from Hospitals, Clinics, and Ports
11 Sustainable Cities and Communities – Make
cities safe and sustainable. o Local hospitals, clinics, airports, and
12 Responsible Consumption and Production – seaports also detect notifiable
Ensure sustainable consumption and production. diseases.
 o These cases are reported to either
PESU (for provincial cases) or CESU
(for chartered cities).
4. Regional & National Reporting
o PESU and CESU forward reports to
the Regional Epidemiology and
Surveillance Units (RESU).
o RESU then consolidates data and
submits it to the National
Epidemiology Center, which
monitors disease trends and
outbreaks nationwide.
5. Other Sources of Reports
o Provincial, district, referral, and Level
3 hospitals, laboratories, airports,
and ports also contribute to the
reporting process.
o These institutions send their data to
PESU or RESU, ensuring
comprehensive disease surveillance.

Summary:

Local cases → Barangay Health Stations →

City/Provincial Health Offices
Hospital & port cases → Provincial/City
Epidemiology Units
All reports go to Regional Epidemiology Units
(RESU) → Final reporting to the National
Epidemiology Center