Engineering Electromagnetics

PH1000
Class Day Time
1 Monday 9:00-9:50 AM
2 Wednesday 10:00-10:50 AM
3 Friday 11:00-11:50 AM

Dr. Y. Ashok Kumar Reddy

Assistant Professor of Physics
IIITDM Kancheepuram
Chennai, India
[email protected]
H41 Office: 119-L (North-East)
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Contents: Engineering Electromagnetics IIITDM
Vectors ‐ an introduction; Unit vectors in spherical and cylindrical polar co‐ordinates; Concept
of vector fields; Gradient of a scalar field; flux, divergence of a vector, Gauss’s theorem,
Continuity equation; Curl - rotational and irrotational vector fields, Stoke’s theorem
Electrostatics: Electrostatic potential and field due to discrete and continuous charge
distributions, boundary condition, Energy for a charge distribution, Conductors and capacitors,
Laplace’s equation Image problem, Dielectric polarization, electric displacement vector,
dielectric susceptibility, energy in dielectric systems
Magnetostatics: Lorentz Force law - Biot‐Savart's law and Ampere's law in magnetostatics,
Divergence and curl of B, Magnetic induction due to configurations of current‐carrying
conductors, Magnetization and bound currents, Energy density in a magnetic field, Magnetic
permeability and susceptibility
Electrodynamics: Electromotive force, Time‐varying fields, Faradays' law of electromagnetic
induction, Self and mutual inductance, displacement current, Maxwell's equations in free
space. Boundary condition, propagation in linear medium. Plane electromagnetic waves -
reflection and refraction, electromagnetic energy density, Poynting vector

Textbooks:
1. Introduction to Electrodynamics, David J. Grifiths, Prentice Hall, 2007.
2. Electromagnetic Field Theory Fundamentals, Bhag Singh Guru, Huseyin R. Hiziroglu, Cambridge
University Press, 2nd edition, 2009.
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Ampere’s Law IIITDM
Problem: In region 1 of Figure, B1 = 1.2ax + 0.8ay + 0.4az (T). Find H2 (i.e., H at z =+ 0)
and the angles between the field vectors and a tangent to the interface.

Solution:
Write H1 directly below B1.
Then write those components of H2 and B2,
which follow directly from the two rules:
B normal is continuous and H tangential is
continuous across a current-free interface.

H1 = B1/(μr1.μ0)
B1⊥= B2⊥
i.e., Bz1=Bz2

H2 = B2/(μr2.μ0)
Further,
H1‖=H2‖
i.e., Hx1=Hx2
i.e., Hy1=Hy2
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Ampere’s Law IIITDM
Problem: cont… Find H2 (i.e., H at z =+ 0) and the angles between the field vectors
and a tangent to the interface.
Solution: cont….
Now the remaining terms follow directly:

H2 = B2/(μr2.μ0)

By using
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Ampere’s Law IIITDM
Problem: A toroidal coil consists of a circular ring, or “donut,” around which a long wire is
wrapped (Left side figure). The winding is uniform and tight enough so that each turn can be
considered a plane closed loop. The cross-sectional shape of the coil is immaterial. For the sake
of simplicity made it rectangular, but it could just as well be circular or even some weird
asymmetrical form (Right side figure), as long as the shape remains the same all the way around
the ring. In that case, it follows that the magnetic field of the toroid is circumferential at all
points, both inside and outside the coil.

Proof: According to the Biot-Savart law, the field at r due to the current element at rʹ is

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Ampere’s Law IIITDM
We may as well put r in the xz plane, so its Cartesian components are (x, 0,z), while
the source coordinates are rʹ = (sʹ cos φʹ , sʹ sin φʹ, zʹ)
Then

Since the current has no φ component, I = Isŝ + Iz ẑ, or (in Cartesian coordinates)
I = (Is cos φʹ, Is sin φʹ, Iz)
Accordingly,

Apply Ampere’s law to a circle of radius s about the axis of the toroid: B2πs = µ0Ienc
Hence,

where, N is the total number of turns.

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Divergence & Curl of B IIITDM
 The Biot-Savart law for the general case of a volume current:

 This formula gives the magnetic field at a point r = (x, y, z) in terms of an integral
over the current distribution J(xʹ, yʹ, zʹ).
 It is best to be absolutely explicit at this stage:
• B is a function of (x, y, z)
• J is a function of (xʹ, yʹ, zʹ)
• ԉ = (x – xʹ) x̂ + (y - yʹ) ŷ + (z - zʹ) ẑ̂
• dτʹ = dxʹdyʹdzʹ
 The integration is over the primed coordinates.
 The divergence and the curl of B are with respect to the unprimed coordinates.

 Applying the divergence to above equation, we obtain:

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Divergence & Curl of B IIITDM
 By applying the product rule,

∇. (A×B) = B. (∇×A)-A.(∇×B)

• But ∇ × J = 0, because J doesn’t depend on the unprimed variables, while ∇×(r̂/r2) = 0.

• Thus, ∇ · B = 0; Hence, evidently the divergence of the magnetic field is zero.

 Applying the curl to equation,

• Our strategy is to expand the integrand using the product rule:

BAC-CAB rule: A×(B × C) = B(A · C) - C(A · B)

 The second term integrates to zero and

 Thus,
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Divergence & Curl of B IIITDM
Problem: Calculate the curl of H in Cartesian coordinates due to a current filament
along the z-axis with current ‘I’ in the az direction.
Solution:

We know, ∇ × B = µ0J & B=µoH

then H=B/µo
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Comparison of Magnetostatics & Electrostatics IIITDM
 The divergence and curl of the electrostatic field are

These are Maxwell’s equations for electrostatics.

 The divergence and curl of the magnetostatic field are

These are Maxwell’s equations for magnetostatics.

 Maxwell’s equations and the force law constitute the most elegant formulation of
electrostatics and magnetostatics:

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Comparison of Magnetostatics & Electrostatics IIITDM
 The electric field diverges away from a positive charge and the magnetic field line
curls around a current.

 Electric field lines originate on positive charges and terminate on negative ones.
 Magnetic field lines do not begin or end anywhere (nonzero divergence) and they
typically form closed loops or extend out to infinity.

 There are no point sources for B, as there are for E; there exists no magnetic
analog to electric charge. This is the physical content of the statement ∇ · B = 0.
 It was Ampere who first speculated that all magnetic effects are attributable to
electric charges in motion (currents).
 B is divergenceless, and there are no magnetic monopoles.
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Magnetic vector potential Vector Potential IIITDM
 Just as ∇ × E = 0 permitted us to introduce a scalar potential (V) in electrostatics:

 Here, ∇ · B = 0 invites the introduction of a vector potential A in magnetostatics:

 The potential formulation automatically takes care of ∇·B=0 (since the divergence
of a curl is always zero) and then Ampere’s law:

BAC-CAB rule: A×(B × C) = B(A · C) - C(A · B)

 Now, we can add to A any function whose curl vanishes with no effect on B.
 We can exploit this freedom to eliminate the divergence of A:

 To prove that this is always possible, suppose that our original potential, A0, is not
divergenceless.
 If we add to it the gradient of λ (A = A0 + ∇λ), the new divergence is

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Magnetic vector potential IIITDM
 We can accommodate , then, if a function λ can be found that satisfies

 But this is mathematically identical to Poisson’s equation with ∇ · A0 in

place of ρ/ε0 as the source.
 In particular, if ρ goes to zero at infinity, the solution is
 If, ∇ · A0 goes to zero at infinity, then

 If, ∇ · A0 does not go to zero at infinity, we’ll have to use other means to discover
the appropriate λ.
 But, the essential point remains: It is always possible to make the vector potential
divergenceless.
 To put it the other way around, the definition B = ∇ × A specifies the curl of A, but
it doesn’t say anything about the divergence.
 With this condition on A, Ampere’s law becomes
 This again is nothing but Poisson’s equation.
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Magnetic vector potential IIITDM
 Assuming J goes to zero at infinity, we can read off the solution

 For line and surface currents:

 If the current does not go to zero at infinity, we have to find other ways to get A.
 It must be said that A is not as useful as V and it’s still a vector.
 If we could get away with a scalar potential:

• But this is incompatible with Ampere’s law, since the curl of a gradient is always
zero.
• Since magnetic forces do not work, A does not admit a simple physical
interpretation in terms of potential energy per unit charge.
• This vector potential has substantial theoretical importance.
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Magnetization Magnetic Materials IIITDM
Origin of magnetism:
Magnetic moments arise from “electron motions” and the “spins” on electrons.

Net atomic magnetic moment = Sum of moments from all electrons

Classification of magnetic materials:

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Magnetization IIITDM
 In the presence of a magnetic field, matter becomes magnetized.
 Specifically, upon microscopic examination, it will be found to contain many tiny
dipoles with a net alignment along some direction.
 There are two mechanisms that account for this magnetic polarization:
1. Paramagnetism: The dipoles associated with the spins of unpaired electrons
experience a torque tending to line them up parallel to the field.
2. Diamagnetism: The orbital speed of the electrons is altered in such a way as to
change the orbital dipole moment in a direction opposite to the field.

 The state of magnetic polarization by the vector

quantity M ≡ magnetic dipole moment per unit volume.
mag
M 
v
Here, M is called the magnetization, it plays a role
analogous to the polarization P in electrostatics,
µtotal is the total magnetic dipole moment &
v is the volume element
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Magnetization IIITDM

• You may have a question that materials other than the famous ferromagnetic
(iron, nickel, and cobalt) are affected by a magnetic field?

 Of course, you can not pick up a piece of wood or aluminum with a magnet.
 The reason is that diamagnetism and paramagnetism are extremely weak:
It takes a delicate experiment and a powerful magnet to detect them at all.
Y: Paramagnetic
substance
 If you suspend a piece of paramagnetic material
above a solenoid, the induced magnetization would
be upward, and hence the force downward.

 By contrast, the magnetization of a

diamagnetic material would be downward X: Diamagnetic
and the force upward. substance

 When a sample is placed in a region of non-uniform field, the paramagnet is

attracted into the field, whereas the diamagnet is repelled away.
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Bound Currents IIITDM
Bound Currents: Bound volume charge ρb = -∇ · P
Bound surface charge σb = P · n̂
• Suppose we have a piece of magnetized material, the magnetic dipole moment
per unit volume, M, is given.

• What field does this object produce?

The vector potential, A(r) of a single dipole m is given by

 In the magnetized object, each volume element dτʹ

carries a dipole moment Mdτʹ, so the total vector
potential is

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Bound Currents IIITDM
 But, as in the electrical case, the integral can be direct in a more illuminating form
by exploiting the identity:

 With this,

 Integrating by parts:

 The second part of the above eqn. can be converting it to surface integral:

 The first term looks just like the potential of a volume current:

 While the second looks like the potential of a surface current:

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Bound Currents IIITDM
 Where n̂ is the normal unit vector, then:

• This means is that the potential (field) of a magnetized object is the same as would
be produced by a volume current Jb = ∇ × M throughout the material,
and a surface current Kb = M × n̂, on the boundary.

• Instead of integrating the contributions of all the infinitesimal dipoles, using

 We first determine the bound currents, and then find the field they produce.
 Similarly, we would calculate the field of any other volume and surface currents.
Notice the striking parallel with the electrical case:
There the field of a polarized object was the same as that of
A bound volume charge ρb = -∇ · P
And a bound surface charge σb = P · n̂
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Bound Currents IIITDM

Problem: Find the magnetic field of a uniformly magnetized sphere?

Solution: Choosing the z-axis along the direction of M,
we have Jb = ∇ × M = 0, Kb = M × n̂ = M sin θ φ̂

Now, a rotating spherical shell, of uniform surface

charge σ, corresponds to a surface current density
K = σv = σωR sin θ φ̂.

Therefore, it follows that the field of a uniformly magnetized sphere is identical to

the field of a spinning spherical shell, with the identification σ Rω → M.

Field inside the sphere: B = 2/3 µ0M

While the field outside is the same as that of a perfect dipole: m = 4/3 πR3M

Notice that the internal field is uniform, like the electric field inside a uniformly
polarized sphere.

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Bound Currents IIITDM
Problem: A current ‘I’ flows down a long straight wire of radius ‘a’. If the wire is made
of linear material with susceptibility, and the current is distributed uniformly. Find all
the bound currents. What is the net bound current flowing down the wire?

Solution:

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Magnetic Flux IIITDM
Problem: A cube of edge ‘2b’ is centered at the origin. A very long, straight wire
located along the z-axis carries a current ‘I’ in the z-direction. Find the flux passing
through the surface at x = b.
Solution: B.ds
I
B 0
a ; ds dydzax ; P x2 y2
2 P
0I
B.ds dydza .ax
2 P
y
a .ax sin
x2 y 2
I 0 y
B.ds dydz , where, x b
2 P x 2
y 2

0 I y
dydz
2 b2 y2

0 I b y b
Then, 2 2
dy dz
2 b b y b

1 I b 2y Ib b
2b 0
dy 0
ln b 2 y2 0
2 2 b b2 y2 2 b

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Magnetic Flux IIITDM
Problem: Find the flux crossing the portion of the plane φ = π/4 defined by 0.01 < r <
0.05 m and 0 < z < 2 m (figure). A current filament of 2.50 A along the z-axis is in the
az direction.
Solution:

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Energy in Magnetic Fields IIITDM
• The work done on a unit charge, against the back emf, in one trip around the
circuit is -ε (the minus sign records the fact that this is the work done against the emf).
• The amount of charge per unit time passing down the wire is I.
• Hence, the total work done per unit time is dW/dt = -εI = LI dI/dt
 If we start with zero current and build it up to a final value I, the work done
(integrating the above equation over time) is W = (1/2)LI2 W = (1/2)CV2
 It does not depend on how long we take to create the current, only on the
geometry of the loop (in the form of L) and the final current I.
 There is an easy way to write W, which has the advantage that it is readily
generalized to surface and volume currents.
 Remember that the flux φ through the loop is equal to LI → Φ=LI
 On the other hand,

 Where, the line integral is around the perimeter of the loop. Thus

 Therefore, Since, W = (1/2)LI2

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Energy in Magnetic Fields IIITDM
 In this form, the generalization to volume currents is obvious

• Express W entirely in terms of the magnetic field and

Ampere’s law, ∇ × B = µ0J, lets us eliminate J:

 Integration by parts transfers the derivative from B to A:

where, S is the surface bounding the volume v

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Energy in Magnetic Fields IIITDM
 In particular, if we integrate over all space, then the surface integral goes to zero,
and we get,

 In view of this result, we say the energy is “stored in the magnetic field”, in the
amount (B2/2µ0) per unit volume.

• The point is that producing a magnetic field, requires changing the field, and a
changing B-field, according to Faraday, induces an electric field.
• In the beginning, there is no E, and at the end there is no E; but in between, while
B is building up, there is an E, and it is against this that the work is done.

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Energy in Magnetic Fields IIITDM
Problem: A long coaxial cable carries current ‘I’ (the current flows down the surface
of the inner cylinder, radius ‘a’, and back along the outer cylinder, radius ‘b’). Find the
magnetic energy stored in a section of length l.

Solution:

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Energy in Magnetic Fields IIITDM
Integrating from a to b, we have:

 This suggests a very simple way to calculate the self-inductance of the cable.
 The energy can also be written as (1/2) LI2.
 Comparing the two expressions,

 This method of calculating self-inductance is especially useful when the current is

not confined to a single path, but spreads over some surface or volume.
 Hence, different parts of the current enclose different amounts of flux.

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Magnetic Inductance IIITDM
Problem: Find the inductance of an ideal solenoid with 300 turns, ℓ =0.50 m, and a
circular cross section of radius 0.02 m.

Solution:
The turns per unit length is n= 300/0.50 = 600,
so that the axial field is

Then

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Work & Power in Magnetic fields IIITDM
Problem: Find the work and power required to move the conductor shown in Figure,
one full revolution in the direction shown in 0.02 s, if B= 2.50×10-3ar T and the
current is 45.0 A. Force law: F = Q [E + (v × B)]
Solution: F = iL × Bext

Then,

The negative sign means that work is done by the magnetic field in
moving the conductor in the direction shown.
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Magnetic dipole IIITDM
 A magnetic dipole is a magnetic north pole and a magnetic south pole separated
by a small distance.
 It is the limit of either a closed loop of electric current or a pair of poles as the
size of the source is reduced to zero (at constant magnetic moment).
 It is a magnetic analogue of the electric dipole, but the analogy is not perfect.
 The field is equivalent to that from a tiny bar magnet (a magnetic dipole).

 We define the magnetic dipole moment to be equal to the product of the current
and loop area.
μ = iA p = Qd
Here, i is the current in the loop and
A is the loop area

 We can generalize the magnetic moment for ‘N’ turns of

the wire loop as μ = NiA
 The magnetic field lines of a current loop look similar to
that of an idealized electric dipole.
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Magnetic dipole IIITDM
Interaction of Magnetic Dipoles in External Fields:
Torque: F = Q [E + (v × B)]
 By the force law: F = iL × Bext, we know that a current loop (i.e., a magnetic dipole)
feels a torque when placed in an external magnetic field:
τ = μ × Bext τ=r×F

 The direction of the torque is to line up the dipole moment with the magnetic
field.
 Since the magnetic dipole wants to array/assemble with the magnetic field, it
must have higher potential energy.
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Magnetic dipole Potential Energy IIITDM

 To see this potential energy, let us calculate the work done by the magnetic field
when aligning the dipole.
 Let θ be the angle between the magnetic dipole direction and the external field
direction:

τ=r×F

 Now, the potential energy of the dipole is the negative of the work done by the
field:

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Magnetic dipole IIITDM
 The zero-point of the potential energy is arbitrary, so let’s take it to be zero when
θ=90°.
Then
τ=μ×B

 The positive sign arises because τ . dθ = τ dθ, τ and θ are oppositely aligned.
Thus,

Or, simply
 If the μ and B parallel, lowest energy configuration can be obtained.
 Work (energy) is required to re-align the magnetic dipole in an external B field.

 The change in energy required to flip a dipole from one alignment to the other:
ΔU = 2Bμ
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Magnetic dipole IIITDM
Force on a Magnetic Dipole in a Non-uniform Field:
 Two bar magnets stick/attract together when opposite poles are brought together
(N-S), and repel when the same poles are brought together (N-N, S-S).
 The magnetic field of a small bar magnet is equivalent to a small current loop.
 Hence, two magnets stacked end-to-end vertically are equivalent to two current
loops stacked.

 The potential energy on one dipole from the magnetic field from the other is

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Magnetic dipole IIITDM

Magnetic Field of Current Loop:

 For distances R >> r (the loop radius), the calculation of the magnetic field does
not depend on the shape of the current loop.
 It only depends on the current and the area (as well as R and θ).

where, μ = iA is the
magnetic dipole moment of the loop
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Magnetic dipole IIITDM
 Now, force is derived from the rate of change of the potential energy:

 For example, the gravitational potential energy of a mass at a distance ‘z’ above
the surface of the Earth can be expressed by U = mgz.
 Thus, the force is F = -mg ẑ
 For the case of the stacked dipoles:

• In general, any magnetic dipole placed in a non-uniform B-field:

τ=μ×B

 Thus, there is a force acting on a dipole when placed in a non-uniform magnetic

field.
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Magnetic Torque IIITDM
Problem: A conductor located at x =0.4 m, y =0 and 0 < z < 2.0 m carries a current of
5.0 A in the ax direction. Along the length of the conductor B = 2.5az T. Find the
torque about the z-axis.
Solution:

τ=r×F

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Magnetic Susceptibility & Permeability IIITDM
• In paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials, the magnetization is sustained by the
field, if B is removed, M disappears.
• In fact, for most substances the magnetization is proportional to the field,
provided the field is not too strong.
 For notational consistency with the electrical case, we should express the
proportionality as follows:

 In practice, it can be written in terms of H, instead of B:

• Here, M & H both have the same units, i.e., A/m
• Hence, magnetic susceptibility is a dimensionless unit
 The constant of proportionality χm is called the magnetic susceptibility.
 It is a dimensionless quantity that varies from one substance to another, i.e.,
positive for paramagnets and negative for diamagnets and the values are ~ 10-5.
 Materials that obey the above equation intended for linear media.
 Hence, for linear media:

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Magnetic Susceptibility & Permeability IIITDM

• Thus, B is also proportional to H, B = µH, where µ ≡ µ0(1 + χm)

• Here, µ is called the permeability of the material. D = εE, where ε ≡ ε0(1 + χe)

• In a vacuum, where there is no matter to magnetize, the susceptibility χm vanishes,

and the permeability is µ0.
• Hence, µ0 is called the permeability of free space.

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Magnetic Susceptibility & Permeability IIITDM
Problem: An infinite solenoid (‘n’ turns per unit length, current ‘I’) is filled with linear
material of susceptibility χm. Find the magnetic field inside the solenoid.

Solution: Since B is due in part to bound currents (which we

don’t know yet), we cannot compute it directly.
However, this is one of those symmetrical cases in which we can
get H from the free current alone, using Ampere’s law:
H = nI ẑ
Then, B = µ0(1 + χm)nI ẑ

If the medium is paramagnetic, the field is slightly enhanced.

If it’s diamagnetic, the field is somewhat reduced.
This reflects the fact that the bound surface current,
Kb = M × n̂ = χm(H × n̂)
Kb = χmnI φ̂ is in the same direction as I.
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Boundary Conditions IIITDM
 A similar figure can be constructed for magnetostatics, relating the current
density J, the field B, and the potential A.

 Just as the electric field suffers a discontinuity at a surface charge, so the

magnetic field is discontinuous at a surface current.
 Only this time it is the tangential component that changes.
 In integral form:
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Boundary Conditions IIITDM
 To a wafer-thin pillbox straddling the surface, we get

 As for the tangential components, an Amperian loop running perpendicular to the

current yields:

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Boundary Conditions IIITDM
 Therefore, the component of B that is parallel to the surface but perpendicular to
the current is discontinuous in the amount µ0K.
 A similar Amperian loop running parallel to the current reveals that the parallel
component is continuous. These results can be summarized in a single formula

where, n̂ is a unit vector perpendicular to the surface, pointing upward.

 Like the scalar potential in electrostatics, the vector potential is continuous across
any boundary Aabove = Abelow
• For ∇ · A = 0 guarantee that the normal component is continuous.
• ∇ × A = B, in the form

 It means that the tangential components are continuous (the flux through an
Amperian loop of vanishing thickness is zero).
 But the derivative of A inherits the discontinuity of B

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Formulas Magnetostatics IIITDM

 Lorentz force law for both electric and magnetic fields: F = Q [E + (v × B)]

 The continuity equation in magnetostatics:

 The magnetic field of a steady line current is given by the Biot-Savart law:

1 I dl 
dH 
4
B =(µ0I/2πs)
 Ampere’s law in differential form: ∇ × B = µ0J
 Ampere’s law in integral form:
 H  dl  I enc

 The curl of H in Cartesian coordinates in magnetic field:

 Magnetic vector potential for volume current:

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Formulas Magnetostatics IIITDM
 Comparison of Electrostatics & Magnetostatics:

 Poisson’s equation in magnetic filed:

 Volume & Surface currents in magnetic field:

 Energy & self-inductance in magnetic field:  Magnetic dipole moment:

μ = iA

 Relation b/w Magnetization & magnetic field intensity:

 Relation b/w magnetic susceptibility & permeability for linear media:
B = µH, where µ ≡ µ0(1 + χm)
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