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RM MOD 5 - Research Methodology

Research Methodology (Mahatma Gandhi University)

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INTERPRETATION AND REPORT WRITING

DATA INTERPRETATION
Data interpretation refers to the implementation of processes through which data is reviewed
for the purpose of arriving at an informed conclusion. The interpretation of data assigns a
meaning to the information analyzed and determines its signification and implications. In other
words, Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected facts after an
analytical and or experimental study. In fact, it is a search for broader meaning of research
findings.
It is through interpretation that the researcher can well under- stand the abstract principle that
works beneath his findings. Interpretation leads to the establishment of explanatory concepts
that can serve as a guide for future research studies; it opens new avenues of intellectual
adventure and stimulates the quest for more knowledge. Researcher can better appreciate only
through interpretation why his findings are what they are and can make others to under- stand
the real significance of his research findings.

TECHNIQUES OF INTERPRETATION
Interpretation often involves the following steps:

(i ) Researcher must give reasonable explanations of the relations which he has found and he
must interpret the lines of relationship in terms of the underlying processes and must try to find
out the thread of uniformity that lies under the surface layer of his diversified research findings.

(ii) Extraneous information, if collected during the study, must be considered while interpreting
the final results of research study, for it may prove to be a key factor in understanding the
problem under consideration.

(iii) consultation will result in correct interpretation and, thus, will enhance the utility of
research results.

(iv) Researcher must accomplish the task of interpretation only after considering all relevant
factors affecting the problem to avoid false generalization.

PRECAUTIONS IN INTERPRETATION
Researcher must pay attention to the following points for correct interpretation:

( i ) (a ) the data are appropriate, trustworthy and adequate for drawing inferences; (b) the data
reflect good homogeneity; and that (c) proper analysis has been done through statistical
methods.

(ii) The researcher must remain cautious about the errors that can possibly arise in the process
of interpreting results. He should be well equipped with and must know the correct use of
statistical measures for drawing inferences concerning his study.

(iii) interpretation is intertwined with analysis and cannot be distinctly separated.

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(iv) He must never lose sight of the fact that his task is not only to make sensitive
observations of relevant occurrences, but also to identify and disengage the factors that are
initially hidden to the eye.
(v) The researcher must remember that <ideally in the course of a research study, there should
be constant interaction between initial hypothesis, empirical observation and theoretical
conceptions. It is exactly in this area of interaction between theoretical orientation and
empirical observation that opportunities for originality and creativity lie.= He must pay
special attention to this aspect while engaged in the task of interpretation.
RESEARCH REPORT
Research report is a written document containing key aspects of research project. Mostly,
research work is presented in a written form. The practical utility of research study depends
heavily on the way it is presented to those who are expected to act on the basis of research
findings.
Research report is a medium to communicate research work with relevant people. It is also a
good source of preservation of research work for the future reference. Many times, research
findings are not followed because of improper presentation. Preparation of research report is
not an easy task. It is an art. It requires a good deal of knowledge, imagination, experience,
and expertise. It demands a considerable time and money.
TYPES OF RESEARCH REPORT
There are two types of research report-
1. ORAL REPORT
2. WRITTEN REPORT
1.ORAL REPORT (ORAL PRESENTATION)
The presentation of information regarding the research work through spoken words is termed
as oral report or oral presentation.it creates an interactive environment. It helps to give and
take information. For a researcher, it is an opportunity to sell his idea and express his
competence in the research topic. For a successful presentation, the report must be completed
within the stipulated time. Oral presentation is sometimes termed as oral briefings.
2.WRITTEN REPORT
It is the presentation of information regarding the research work in writing. It provides a
permanent record of the research work. If the reader has any doubt or confusion in future, he
can refer the report.
Following are the important types of written report-
1.Technical Report
In the technical report the main emphasis is on
i. the methods employed,
ii. assumptions made in the course of the study,

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iii. the detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations and supporting
data.
A general outline of a technical report can be as follows:
1. Summary of results: A brief review of the main findings just in two or three pages.
2. Nature of the study: Description of the general objectives of study, formulation of
the problem in operational terms, the working hypothesis, the type of analysis and
data required, etc.
3. Methods employed: Specific methods used in the study and their limitations. For
instance, in sampling studies we should give details of sample design viz., sample
size, sample selection, etc.
4. Data: Discussion of data collected, their sources, characteristics and limitations. If
secondary data are used, their suitability to the problem at hand be fully assessed. In
case of a survey, the manner in which data were collected should be fully described.
5. Analysis of data and presentation of findings: The analysis of data and presentation
of the findings of the study with supporting data in the form of tables and charts be
fully narrated. This, in fact, happens to be the main body of the report usually
extending over several chapters.
6. Conclusions: A detailed summary of the findings and the policy implications drawn
from the results be explained.
7. Bibliography: Bibliography of various sources consulted be prepared and attached.
8. Technical appendices: Appendices be given for all technical matters relating to
questionnaire, mathematical derivations, elaboration on particular technique of
analysis and the like ones.
9. Index: Index must be prepared and be given invariably in the report at the end.
The order presented above only gives a general idea of the nature of a technical report; the
order of presentation may not necessarily be the same in all the technical reports. This, in
other words, means that the presentation may vary in different reports; even the different
sections outlined above will not always be the same, nor will all these sections appear in any
particular report.

2.Popular Report
The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and attractiveness. The
simplification should be sought through clear writing, minimization of technical, particularly
mathematical, details and liberal use of charts and diagrams. Attractive layout along with
large print, many subheadings, even an occasional cartoon now and then is another
characteristic feature of the popular report. Besides, in such a report emphasis is given on
practical aspects and policy implications. A general outline of a popular report includes:
1. The findings and their implications: Emphasis in the report is given on the findings
of most practical interest and on the implications of these findings.

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2. Recommendations for action: Recommendations for action on the basis of the

findings of the study is made in this section of the report.
3. Objective of the study: A general review of how the problem arise is presented along
with the specific objectives of the project under study.
4. Methods employed: A brief and non-technical description of the methods and
techniques used, including a short review of the data on which the study is based, is
given in this part of the report.
5. Results: This section constitutes the main body of the report wherein the results of the
study are presented in clear and non-technical terms with liberal use of all sorts of
illustrations such as charts, diagrams and the like ones.
6. Technical appendices: More detailed information on methods used, forms, etc. is
presented in the form of appendices. But the appendices are often not detailed if the
report is entirely meant for general public.
3.Interim Report
It is a report of a long-term project after completion of a part of the work. It is a summary of
the findings of the completed part of the work.
STEPS IN REPORT WRITING
Research reports are the product of slow, painstaking, accurate inductive work. The usual
steps involved in writing report are:
a. logical analysis of the subject-matter;
b. preparation of the final outline;
c. preparation of the rough draft;
d. rewriting and polishing;
e. preparation of the final bibliography; and
f. writing the final draft.
Though all these steps are self-explanatory, yet a brief mention of each one of these will be
appropriate for better understanding.
a. Logical analysis of the subject matter: It is the first step which is primarily concerned
with the development of a subject. There are two ways in which to develop a subject
a. logically and
b. chronologically.
The logical development is made on the basis of mental connections and associations
between the one thing and another by means of analysis. Logical treatment often consists in
developing the material from the simple possible to the most complex structures.
Chronological development is based on a connection or sequence in time or occurrence. The
directions for doing or making something usually follow the chronological order.

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b.Preparation of the final outline: It is the next step in writing the research report <Outlines
are the framework upon which long written works are constructed. They are an aid to the
logical organization of the material and a reminder of the points to be stressed in the report.=
c.Preparation of the rough draft: This follows the logical analysis of the subject and the
preparation of the final outline. Such a step is of utmost importance for the researcher now
sits to write down what he has done in the context of his research study. He will write down
the procedure adopted by him in collecting the material for his study along with various
limitations faced by him, the technique of analysis adopted by him, the broad findings and
generalizations and the various suggestions he wants to offer regarding the problem
concerned.
d.Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft: This step happens to be most difficult part of
all formal writing. Usually this step requires more time than the writing of the rough draft.
The careful revision makes the difference between a mediocre and a good piece of writing.
While rewriting and polishing, one should check the report for weaknesses in logical
development or presentation. In addition the researcher should give due attention to the fact
that in his rough draft he has been consistent or not. He should check the mechanics of
writing4grammar, spelling and usage.
e.Preparation of the final bibliography: Next in order comes the task of the preparation of
the final bibliography. The bibliography, which is generally appended to the research report,
is a list of books in some way pertinent to the research which has been done. It should contain
all those works which the researcher has consulted. The bibliography should be arranged
alphabetically and may be divided into two parts; the first part may contain the names of
books and pamphlets, and the second part may contain the names of magazine and newspaper
articles. Generally, this pattern of bibliography is considered convenient and satisfactory
from the point of view of reader, though it is not the only way of presenting bibliography.
The entries in bibliography should be made adopting the following order:
For books and pamphlets the order may be as under:
1. Name of author, last name first.
2. Title, underlined to indicate italics.
3. Place, publisher, and date of publication.
4. Number of volumes.
Example
Kothari, C.R., Quantitative Techniques, New Delhi, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., 1978.
For magazines and newspapers, the order may be as under:
1. Name of the author, last name first.
2. Title of article, in quotation marks.
3. Name of periodical underlined to indicate italics.
4. The volume or volume and number.

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5. The date of the issue.

6. The pagination.
Example
Robert V. Roosa, <Coping with Short-term International Money Flows=, The
Banker, London, September 1971, p. 995.
f.Writing the final draft: This constitutes the last step. The final draft should be written in a
concise and objective style and in simple language, avoiding vague expressions such as <it
seems=, <there may be=, and the like ones. While writing the final draft, the researcher must
avoid abstract terminology and technical jargon. Illustrations and examples based on common
experiences must be incorporated in the final draft as they happen to be most effective in
communicating the research findings to others. A research report should not be dull, but must
enthuse people and maintain interest and must show originality. It must be remembered that
every report should be an attempt to solve some intellectual problem and must contribute to
the solution of a problem and must add to the knowledge of both the researcher and the
reader.
LAYOUT/CONTENT/FORMAT OF RESEARCH REPORT
The Research report layout must necessarily be conveyed enough about the study so that the
researcher can place it in its general scientific context, judge the adequacy of its methods and
thus form an opinion of how seriously the findings are to be taken.
For this purpose, there is the need of proper layout of the report. The layout of the report
means as to what the research report should contain in other words the content of a research
report is referred as layout of research report. A research report contains a set of components
arranged in a logical order. Each report is unique. So, a section may be dropped or added or
the sequence may be changed depending on the need of the audience.
A comprehensive layout of the research report should comprise -
1. PRELIMINARY SECTION
2. MAIN TEXT AND
3. END SECTION
1.PRELIMINARY SECTION
It is the first part of a research report. It introduces a reader to the research project. It contains
the following-
A. TITLE PAGE
It states the title of the report, the name and address of the researcher, the name of the
organisation to which the report is to be submitted and the date of submission.
B. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT PAGE
It indicates the acknowledgement of the researcher to all the people who have contributed in
completing the project.

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C. PREFACE OR FOREWORD
it states the benefits of the research project.
D. TABLE OF CONTENTS
It states the list of all topics with their page numbers.
E. LIST OF TABLES AND GRAPHS
It sates the names of tables and graphs used in the report with their page numbers.
2.MAIN TEXT
It indicates all the details of the research work.it consists of the following sections-
A. INTRODUCTION
It states the context and importance of the research study.
B. STATEMENT OF PROBLEM.
It indicates the research problem. The problem should be clearly defined. The area of
investigation and sources of information should be mentioned. The objectives of research
should also be stated.
C.METHODOLOGY
This is the most important part of the main body. It contains details regarding the following-
1.Research hypothesis
2. Research design
3. Universe and sample
4.sources of data and methods of data collection
5.Tools used for analysis of data
6. Interpretation of data.
D. FINDINGS
The results of the research study are called findings. The results should be presented in a
logical sequence with supporting data. Both positive and negative results should be presented
in the report.
E. LIMITATIONS
It states the limitations of the study. The limitations may be due to lack of time, money and
sampling.
F. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The results are interpreted, and conclusions are drawn. From the conclusions,
recommendations useful for decision making are developed. In academic research, the
recommendations are in the form of suggestions for doing further research. The

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recommendations should be feasible. The acceptance or rejection of hypothesis should be

stated.
3.END SECTION
It contains information supporting the main text of the research report. It consists of the
following-
A. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bibliography is a list of all books and articles used by the researcher for conducting research.
The books and articles are arranged in alphabetical order of authors with last name appearing
first.
B. APPENDICES
It contains the details of various statistical tools used for collection of data. Questionnaires,
schedules and tables are places in the appendices.
C.GLOSSARY
It contains the meaning of all technical terms and words and phrases with special meaning
used in the report.
REFERENCE STYLES/CITING REFERENCES/CITATION
A citation is a way of giving credit to individuals for their creative and intellectual works that
you utilized to support your research. It can also be used to locate particular sources and
combat plagiarism. Typically, a citation can include the author's name, date, location of the
publishing company, journal title etc.
A citation style dictates the information necessary for a citation and how the information is
ordered, as well as punctuation and other formatting.
There are many ways of citing resources from your research. The citation style sometimes
depends on the academic discipline involved.
A citation style is a set of rules on how to cite sources in academic writing. Whenever the
researcher refer to someone else’s work, a citation is required to avoid plagiarism.

Citation style guidelines are often published in an official handbook containing explanations,
examples, and instructions. The most common citation styles include:

• MLA style in the humanities.

• APA style in psychology and education.
• Chicago notes and bibliography in history.
• Chicago author-date in the sciences.

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Below is an overview of the systems used in the most common citation styles.

Citation style Disciplines Type of citation

MLA Humanities Parenthetical (author-page

number)

APA Psychology, education, Parenthetical (author-date)

social sciences

Chicago A History, humanities Notes

Chicago B Sciences, social Parenthetical (author-date)

sciences, humanities

Turabian Humanities, social Notes or author-date

sciences, sciences

Harvard Economics Parenthetical (author-date)

Vancouver Medicine Numeric

OSCOLA Law Notes

IEEE Engineering, IT Numeric

AMA Medicine Numeric

ACS Chemistry Numeric, Author-page

number or Notes

NLM Medicine Numeric

AAA Anthropology, social Numeric

studies

APSA Political science Parenthetical (author-date)

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REFERENCE LIST ENTRIES

At the end of your paper, you include a list of all the sources you cited. Each entry on the list
corresponds to an in-text citation and gives the reader full publication information to easily
find the source.
Citation styles differ in the naming of this list: in APA it is the reference page, in MLA it is
the works cited, and in Chicago A it is the bibliography.

MLA
MLA style (currently in its 8th edition) was developed by the Modern Language
Association and is especially popular in language and literary studies. MLA uses
parenthetical citations containing the author and page number.

APA
APA style was created by the American Psychological Association and was originally used in
psychology and social sciences. Today many other disciplines also use it. APA citation style
uses an author-date system of parenthetical citation.

CHICAGO
Chicago style is published by The Chicago Manual of Style. There are two variations:

• Chicago A: You cite the source in a footnote or endnote.

• Chicago B: You use a parenthetical author-date citation in the text.

TURABIAN
Turabian was developed based on Chicago style. It is specifically designed for students
writing a research paper.

Just like Chicago style, Turabian has two citation options: a note system and an author-date
system. The notation system is used in humanities (literature, history and the arts), while the
author-date system is used in social sciences.

HARVARD
Harvard referencing style is often used in the field of economics. There is no official style
guide, which means there are a few variations. Some organizations have published their own
style guides for Harvard style:

• British Standards Institution

• Australian Government Publishing Service (AGPS)

Like APA style, Harvard style is based on an author-date system.

VANCOUVER
Vancouver style was developed by the International Committee of Medical Journal
Editors (ICMJE) and is mostly used in medical disciplines.

Vancouver style works with a numeric system. In the text, the source is indicated by a
number, and the full source details appear next to that number in the reference list.

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OSCOLA
OSCOLA referencing is used in law schools. It is the predominant citation style for legal
academic writing in English. OSCOLA uses a note system; you include full details of the
source in the footnote.

IEEE
IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) is a citation style often used in
technical studies, such as IT and electrical engineering. IEEE style has guidelines for specific
types of sources. For source types that are not covered in IEEE, Chicago style is used. IEEE
uses a numeric system.

AMA
AMA style is often used in medical sciences and uses a numeric system. The numbering in
the text is set in superscript, with the page number included in parentheses.

ACS
ACS (American Chemical Society) is used primarily in chemistry papers. ACS style has three
variations for in-text citation. The choice of style depends on the journal. In the overview
on page 288 you can find out which variation is used by which journal.

NLM
NLM (National Library of Medicine) is used primarily in the medical world. NLM uses a
numeric system.

AAA
AAA (American Anthropological Association) is based on Chicago style and is primarily
used in social studies. AAA style uses an author-date system.

APSA
APSA (American Political Science Review) is primarily used in political science, with
specific rules for documents from the United States government. APSA uses an author-date
system.

PLAGIARISM

Plagiarism is presenting someone else’s work or ideas as your own, with or without their
consent, by incorporating it into your work without full acknowledgement. All published and
unpublished material, whether in manuscript, printed or electronic form, is covered under this
definition. Plagiarism may be intentional or reckless, or unintentional. Under the regulations
for examinations, intentional or reckless plagiarism is a disciplinary offence.

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