Game Playing

Mini-Max Algorithm

Mini-max algorithm is a recursive or backtracking algorithm which is used in decision-making and game theory.
It provides an optimal move for the player assuming that opponent is also playing optimally.

o Mini-Max algorithm uses recursion to search through the game tree.

o The Min-Max algorithm is mostly used for game playing in AI. Such as Chess, Checkers, tic-tac-toe,
go, and various tow-players game. This Algorithm computes the minimax decision for the current state.

o In this algorithm two players play the game, one is called MAX and other is called MIN.

o Both the players fight it as the opponent player gets the minimum benefit while they get the maximum
benefit.

o Both Players of the game are opponents of each other, where MAX will select the maximized value
and MIN will select the minimized value.

o The minimax algorithm performs a depth-first search algorithm for the exploration of the complete
game tree.

o The minimax algorithm proceeds down to the terminal node of the tree, then backtracks the tree as the
recursion.

Working of Min-Max Algorithm:

o The working of the minimax algorithm can be easily described using an example. Below we have taken
an example of game-tree which represents the two-player game.

o In this example, there are two players one is called Maximizer and the other is called Minimizer.

o The maximizer will try to get the Maximum possible score, and Minimizer will try to get the minimum
possible score.

o This algorithm applies DFS, so in this game tree, we have to go all the way through the leaves to reach
the terminal nodes.

o At the terminal node, the terminal values are given so we will compare those value and backtrack the
tree until the initial state occurs. The following are the main steps involved in solving the two-player
game tree:

Step-1: In the first step, the algorithm generates the entire game-tree and apply the utility function to get the
utility values for the terminal states. In the below tree diagram, let's take A is the initial state of the tree. Suppose
maximizer takes first turn which has worst-case initial value =- infinity, and the minimizer will take next turn
which has worst-case initial value = +infinity.
Step 2: Now, first we find the utility value for the Maximizer, its initial value is -∞, so we will compare each
value in the terminal state with an initial value of the Maximizer and determine the higher node values. It will
find the maximum among the all.

o For node D max(-1, -∞) => max(-1,4)= 4

o For Node E max(2, -∞) => max(2, 6)= 6

o For Node F max(-3, -∞) => max(-3,-5) = -3

o For node G max(0, -∞) = max(0, 7) = 7

Step 3: In the next step, it's a turn for minimizer, so it will compare all nodes value with +∞, and will find the
3rd layer node values.
 o For node B= min(4,6) = 4

o For node C= min (-3, 7) = -3

Step 4: Now it's a turn for Maximizer, and it will again choose the maximum of all nodes value and find the
maximum value for the root node. In this game tree, there are only 4 layers, hence we reach immediately to the
root node, but in real games, there will be more than 4 layers.

o For node A max(4, -3)= 4

That was the complete workflow of the minimax two player game.

Properties of Mini-Max algorithm:

o Complete- Min-Max algorithm is Complete. It will definitely find a solution (if exist), in the finite
search tree.

o Optimal- Min-Max algorithm is optimal if both opponents are playing optimally.

o Space Complexity- Space complexity of Mini-max algorithm is also similar to DFS which is O(bm).

Limitation of the minimax Algorithm:

The main drawback of the minimax algorithm is that it gets really slow for complex games such as Chess, go,
etc. This type of games has a huge branching factor, and the player has lots of choices to decide. This limitation
of the minimax algorithm can be improved from alpha-beta pruning which we have discussed in the next
topic.

Alpha-Beta Pruning

o Alpha-beta pruning is a modified version of the minimax algorithm. It is an optimization technique for
the minimax algorithm.

o As we have seen in the minimax search algorithm that the number of game states it has to examine are
exponential in depth of the tree. Since we cannot eliminate the exponent, but we can cut it to half.
Hence there is a technique by which without checking each node of the game tree we can compute the
correct minimax decision, and this technique is called pruning. This involves two threshold parameter
Alpha and beta for future expansion, so it is called alpha-beta pruning. It is also called as Alpha-Beta
Algorithm.

o Alpha-beta pruning can be applied at any depth of a tree, and sometimes it not only prune the tree
leaves but also the entire sub-tree.

o The two-parameter can be defined as:

a. Alpha: The best (highest-value) choice we have found so far at any point along the path of
Maximizer. The initial value of alpha is -∞.

b. Beta: The best (lowest-value) choice we have found so far at any point along the path of
Minimizer. The initial value of beta is +∞.

o The Alpha-beta pruning to a standard minimax algorithm returns the same move as the standard
algorithm does, but it removes all the nodes which are not really affecting the final decision but making
algorithm slow. Hence by pruning these nodes, it makes the algorithm fast.

Note: To better understand this topic, kindly study the minimax algorithm.

Condition for Alpha-beta pruning:

The main condition which required for alpha-beta pruning is:

Key points about alpha-beta pruning:

o The Max player will only update the value of alpha.

o The Min player will only update the value of beta.

o While backtracking the tree, the node values will be passed to upper nodes instead of values of
alpha and beta.

o We will only pass the alpha, beta values to the child nodes.

Working of Alpha-Beta Pruning:

Let's take an example of two-player search tree to understand the working of Alpha-beta pruning

Step 1: At the first step the, Max player will start first move from node A where α= -∞ and β= +∞, these value
of alpha and beta passed down to node B where again α= -∞ and β= +∞, and Node B passes the same value to
its child D.

Step 2: At Node D, the value of α will be calculated as its turn for Max. The value of α is compared with firstly
2 and then 3, and the max (2, 3) = 3 will be the value of α at node D and node value will also 3.

Step 3: Now algorithm backtrack to node B, where the value of β will change as this is a turn of Min, Now β=
+∞, will compare with the available subsequent nodes value, i.e. min (∞, 3) = 3, hence at node B now α= -∞,
and β= 3.
In the next step, algorithm traverse the next successor of Node B which is node E, and the values of α= -∞, and
β= 3 will also be passed.

Step 4: At node E, Max will take its turn, and the value of alpha will change. The current value of alpha will be
compared with 5, so max (-∞, 5) = 5, hence at node E α= 5 and β= 3, where α>=β, so the right successor of E
will be pruned, and algorithm will not traverse it, and the value at node E will be 5.

Step 5: At next step, algorithm again backtrack the tree, from node B to node A. At node A, the value of alpha
will be changed the maximum available value is 3 as max (-∞, 3)= 3, and β= +∞, these two values now passes to
right successor of A which is Node C.

At node C, α=3 and β= +∞, and the same values will be passed on to node F.

Step 6: At node F, again the value of α will be compared with left child which is 0, and max(3,0)= 3, and then
compared with right child which is 1, and max(3,1)= 3 still α remains 3, but the node value of F will become 1.

Step 7: Node F returns the node value 1 to node C, at C α= 3 and β= +∞, here the value of beta will be changed,
it will compare with 1 so min (∞, 1) = 1. Now at C, α=3 and β= 1, and again it satisfies the condition α>=β, so
the next child of C which is G will be pruned, and the algorithm will not compute the entire sub-tree G.
Step 8: C now returns the value of 1 to A here the best value for A is max (3, 1) = 3. Following is the final game
tree which is the showing the nodes which are computed and nodes which has never computed. Hence the

optimal value for the maximizer is 3 for this example.

Move Ordering in Alpha-Beta pruning:

The effectiveness of alpha-beta pruning is highly dependent on the order in which each node is examined. Move
order is an important aspect of alpha-beta pruning.

It can be of two types:

o Worst ordering: In some cases, alpha-beta pruning algorithm does not prune any of the leaves of the
tree, and works exactly as minimax algorithm. In this case, it also consumes more time because of
alpha-beta factors, such a move of pruning is called worst ordering. In this case, the best move occurs
on the right side of the tree. The time complexity for such an order is O(bm).

o Ideal ordering: The ideal ordering for alpha-beta pruning occurs when lots of pruning happens in the
tree, and best moves occur at the left side of the tree. We apply DFS hence it first search left of the tree
and go deep twice as minimax algorithm in the same amount of time. Complexity in ideal ordering is
O(bm/2).

Rules to find good ordering:

Following are some rules to find good ordering in alpha-beta pruning:

o Occur the best move from the shallowest node.

o Order the nodes in the tree such that the best nodes are checked first.
 o Use domain knowledge while finding the best move. Ex: for Chess, try order: captures first, then
threats, then forward moves, backward moves.

o We can bookkeep the states, as there is a possibility that states may repeat.

The Two Water Jug Puzzle

You are on the side of the river. You are given a m liter jug and a n liter jug where 0 < m < n. Both the jugs are
initially empty. The jugs don’t have markings to allow measuring smaller quantities. You have to use the jugs to
measure d liters of water where d < n. Determine the minimum no of operations to be performed to obtain d
liters of water in one of jug.
The operations you can perform are:
1. Empty a Jug
2. Fill a Jug
3. Pour water from one jug to the other until one of the jugs is either empty or full.
There are several ways of solving this problem including BFS and DP. In this article, an arithmetic approach to
solving the problem is discussed. The problem can be modeled using the Diophantine equation of the form mx +
ny = d which is solvable if and only if gcd(m, n) divides d. Also, the solution x,y for which equation is satisfied
can be given using the Extended Euclid algorithm for GCD.
For example, if we have a jug J1 of 5 liters (n = 5) and another jug J2 of 3 liters (m = 3) and we have to measure
1 liter of water using them. The associated equation will be 5n + 3m = 1. First of all this problem can be solved
since gcd(3,5) = 1 which divides 1 (See this for detailed explanation). Using the Extended Euclid algorithm, we
get values of n and m for which the equation is satisfied which are n = 2 and m = -3. These values of n, m also
have some meaning like here n = 2 and m = -3 means that we have to fill J1 twice and empty J2 thrice.
Now to find the minimum no of operations to be performed we have to decide which jug should be filled first.
Depending upon which jug is chosen to be filled and which to be emptied we have two different solutions and
the minimum among them would be our answer.
Solution 1 (Always pour from m liter jug into n liter jug)
1. Fill the m litre jug and empty it into n liter jug.
2. Whenever the m liter jug becomes empty fill it.
3. Whenever the n liter jug becomes full empty it.
4. Repeat steps 1,2,3 till either n liter jug or the m liter jug contains d litres of water.
Each of steps 1, 2 and 3 are counted as one operation that we perform. Let us say algorithm 1 achieves the task
in C1 no of operations.
Solution 2 (Always pour from n liter jug into m liter jug)
1. Fill the n liter jug and empty it into m liter jug.
2. Whenever the n liter jug becomes empty fill it.
3. Whenever the m liter jug becomes full empty it.
4. Repeat steps 1, 2 and 3 till either n liter jug or the m liter jug contains d liters of water.
Let us say solution 2 achieves the task in C2 no of operations.
Now our final solution will be a minimum of C1 and C2.
Now we illustrate how both of the solutions work. Suppose there are a 3 liter jug and a 5 liter jug to measure 4
liters water so m = 3,n = 5 and d = 4. The associated Diophantine equation will be 3m + 5n = 4. We use pair (x,
y) to represent amounts of water inside the 3-liter jug and 5-liter jug respectively in each pouring step.
Using Solution 1, successive pouring steps are:
(0,0)->(3,0)->(0,3)->(3,3)->(1,5)->(1,0)->(0,1)->(3,1)->(0,4)
Hence the no of operations you need to perform are 8.
Using Solution 2, successive pouring steps are:
(0,0)->(0,5)->(3,2)->(0,2)->(2,0)->(2,5)->(3,4)
Hence the no of operations you need to perform are 6.
Therefore, we would use solution 2 to measure 4 liters of water in 6 operations or moves.
Chess Problem in Artificial Intelligence
Definition:
It is a normal chess game. In a chess problem, the start is the initial configuration of chessboard. The final state
is the board configuration, which is a winning position for any player. There may be multiple final positions and
each board configuration can be thought of as representing a state of the game. Whenever any player moves any
piece, it leads to a different state of game.

Procedure:

The above figure shows a 3x3 chessboard with each square labeled with integers 1 to 9. We simply enumerate
the alternative moves rather than developing a general move operator because of the reduced size of the
problem.

Using a predicate called move in predicate calculus, whose parameters are the starting and ending squares, we
have described the legal moves on the board.

For example, move (1, 8) takes the knight from the upper left-hand corner to the middle of the bottom row.
While playing Chess, a knight can move two squares either horizontally or vertically followed by one square in
an orthogonal direction as long as it does not move off the board.

The all possible moves of figure are as follows.

Move (1, 8) move (6, 1)

Move (1, 6) move (6, 7)

Move (2, 9) move (7, 2)

Move (2, 7) move (7, 6)

Move (3, 4) move (8, 3)

Move (3, 8) move (8, 1)

Move (4, 1) move (9, 2)

Move (4, 3) move (9, 4)

The above predicates of the Chess Problem form the knowledge base for this problem. An unification algorithm
is used to access the knowledge base.

Suppose we need to find the positions to which the knight can move from a particular location, square 2.

The goal move (z, x) unifies with two different predicates in the knowledge base, with the substitutions {7/x}
and {9/x}. Given the goal move (2, 3), the responsible is failure, because no move (2, 3) exists in the knowledge
base.

The "tiles problem"

Here's a basic outline of how you might approach solving the tiles problem using AI techniques:

1. **State Representation**: Define a way to represent the current configuration of the puzzle. This could
be done using a data structure such as a 2D array or a list.

2. **Initial State**: Start with an initial configuration of the puzzle. This could be a randomly generated
state or a user-defined starting configuration.

3. **Goal State**: Define the goal configuration of the puzzle that you want to achieve. This could be a
specific arrangement of the tiles, such as ascending order from left to right, top to bottom

4. **Actions**: Determine the possible moves or actions that can be taken from a given state. In the tiles
problem, this typically involves sliding a tile into an adjacent empty space.

5. **Transition Model**: Define how the state changes when an action is taken. For example, if you slide
a tile to the right, the position of the tile and the empty space will change accordingly.

6. **Search Algorithm**: Choose a search algorithm to explore the state space and find a sequence of
actions that leads from the initial state to the goal state. Common search algorithms include Breadth-First
Search (BFS), Depth-First Search (DFS), A* search, and Iterative Deepening Depth-First Search
(IDDFS).

7. **Heuristic Function (for informed search)**: If using an informed search algorithm like A*, define a
heuristic function that estimates the cost of reaching the goal from a given state. This heuristic can help
guide the search towards more promising paths.

8. **Search Strategy**: Decide on a search strategy based on the chosen algorithm and heuristic function.
This might involve exploring nodes in a specific order (e.g., based on their estimated cost) or using
techniques like pruning to avoid exploring unpromising paths.

9. **Solution**: Once a goal state is reached, extract the sequence of actions taken to reach that state.
This sequence represents the solution to the tiles problem.

10. **Optimization (optional)**: Depending on the size and complexity of the puzzle, you may need to
optimize your search algorithm or heuristic function to improve efficiency and reduce the time taken to
find a solution.

By following these steps, you can develop an AI-based solution to the tiles problem that efficiently finds a
sequence of moves to rearrange the tiles into the desired configuration.