COURSE FILE INDEX

1 Academic Calendar

2 Syllabus

3 Time Table

4 Teaching Schedule/Lesson Plan

5 Program Outcomes (PO’s) & Program Specific Outcomes (PSO’s) – Course Information Sheet

Mapping Of Course Outcomes (CO’s) With Program Outcomes (PO’s) & Program Specific
6
Outcomes (PSO’s)

7 Students Nominal Roll List

8 Lecture Notes

9 Previous Question Papers

10 Mid Question Papers I & II with Scheme of valuation

11 Assignment Questions

12 Topics beyond the syllabus

13 Assessment Sheet – CO Wise (Direct Attainment)

14 Tutorials or Remedial classes details

15 Course End Survey Form

 ri.

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU IVEKSII Y ANAN

Acodemic Colendar

B.Tech/B If & III Yeor - II Semester (2020

I Spell of nstructions: 08.04.2021 to 03.06.202 I (08 weeks)

f Mid-term xominations:
04.06.2021 I o LO.O6.2O?| (06 doys)
(l"i Objective 1'r dascriptive)

II Spell of [nstructions: l,l.06.2O?I to 05.08.202 I (08 weeks)

II Mid-term Examinotions;
06.08.2021 t o r2.O8.2O21 (06 doys)
(?nd Objective ' 2nd descriptive)

Preporotion nd Procticols: 13 08.2021 to 21.08.2021 (06 doys)

End Exo ninotions: 23.08.2021 t o 04.09.2021 (02 weeks)

Commencement f Closs Work for

t6.09.20?t
ilI & IV yeors B.TechlB.Phorm
(Thursdoy)
f semester fo ' AY 2021-2022

Note!
(i) The Mid-terr Exominoti ns should be conducted ond completed os per the sche dule
given.

(ii ) All the midtr rm exomino' ions shall be of both objective ond descriptive type as Per
the ocodemic regulations.

(ii i f semester : upplementor 'v examinotions will be conducted immediotely ofter II

semester end exominotior

L Yl---
Dote: )7.04.2021 DH{ffi.# EuaLUArro N
 JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY ANANTAPUR

B.Tech – II-II Sem L T P C

3 0 0 3

19A04402T ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS-ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

Course Objectives:

 To design and analyze single and multi stage amplifiers using BJT & FET at low and
high frequencies.
 To discuss cascading of single stage amplifiers.
 To explain effect of negative feedback on amplifier characteristics.
 To teach basic principles for analysing RC & LC oscillator circuits.
 To introduce different types of large signal amplifiers and tuned amplifiers.

Unit I

Small Signal Amplifiers Using MOSFETS: Graphical analysis, Load line and small signal
parameters, Small signal equivalent circuit, Small signal analysis of Common source, Common
drain, Common gate amplifiers, Comparison of the three basic amplifier configurations, Problem
solving.
JFET Small Signal Amplifiers: Small signal analysis of common source, common drain,
common gate amplifiers, JFET as voltage variable resistor, Problem solving.
BJT Small Signal Models: Bipolar linear amplifier, Graphical and ac equivalent circuit, Small
signal hybrid-∏equivalent circuit, Hybrid-∏equivalent circuit including the early effect, other
small signal parameters and equivalent circuits-h-parameters.
Small Signal Analysis: Basic CE amplifier circuit, Circuit with Emitter resistance, ac load line
analysis, maximum symmetrical swing, Small signal analysis-input and output impedances,
Voltage gain, Current gain of CB, CC amplifiers, Problem solving.

Unit Outcomes:

 Understand the concepts and equivalent circuit models of small signal amplifiers. (L1)
 Analyze low frequency and high frequency models of BJT and FET. (L3)
 Design BJT and FET amplifier circuits.(L4)
 Determine performance parameters of BJT and FET amplifiers. (L2)
Unit II

Frequency Response: Amplifier frequency response-different ranges, short circuit and open
circuit time constants, time response, transistor amplifiers with circuit capacitors-coupling
capacitor effects, load capacitor effects, Bypass capacitor effects, Problem solving, combined
effects of coupling and bypass capacitor, high-frequency response model for BJT and
MOSFETs, short circuit current gain, Miller effect and its applications, unity-gain bandwidth in
BJT and FET amplifiers, CE and CS circuits, CB and CG circuits, Cascode amplifier analysis,
emitter and source follower circuits, high frequency response- design application.

Unit Outcomes:

 Analyze the frequency response of single stage amplifiers using BJT & FET at high and
low frequencies. (L3)
 Design of single stage amplifiers using BJT and FET with and without coupling
capacitors. (L4)
 Explore the various effects of load , bypass and coupling capacitor on the performance of
amplifier circuits.(L5)

Unit III

Differential and Multistage Amplifiers: Differential amplifier, basic BJT differential pair and
its qualitative description, DC transfer characteristics, small signal equivalent circuit analysis,
CMRR, differential and common mode gains, differential and common mode input impedances.
Basic differential FET pair, small signal equivalent circuit analysis, JFET differential amplifier,
differential amplifier with active load, MOSFET differential amplifier with active load, two
stage RC coupled amplifier, Darlington pair and simple emitter follower output, voltage gain,
input and output impedances, simplified BJT operational amplifier circuit, design applications-
CMOS differential amplifier.

Unit Outcomes:

 Understand basic concepts and need of Differential and multistage amplifiers. Also
various inter-stage coupling in multi-stage amplifiers. (L1)
 Analyze and examine few common two stage transistor amplifier circuits viz., Cascade
amplifiers, Cascode amplifiers, Darlington pairs. (L3)
 Design multiple stage amplifier circuits. (L4)
Unit IV

Feedback Amplifiers: General Considerations, Properties of Negative Feedback, Types of

Amplifiers, Sense and Return Techniques, Polarity of Feedback , Feedback Topologies, Effect
of Nonideal I/O Impedances, Stability in Feedback Systems , Analysis of a feedback Amplifiers
- Voltage – Series, Current Series, Current-shunt and Voltage-shunt , Illustrative problems.
Oscillators: General Considerations, LC Oscillators, Phase Shift Oscillator, Wien-Bridge
Oscillator, Crystal Oscillators, Illustrative Problems.

Unit Outcomes:

 Understand concept of different feedback topologies. (L1)

 Determine the effect of feedback on amplifier characteristics .(L2)
 Analyse characteristics of various types of feedback configurations (L3)
 Explore working principle of oscillator. Also examine different types of oscillators, RC &
LC, with detailed mathematical analysis and illustrations. (L2)

Unit V

Power Amplifiers:
Classes of amplifiers-Operations of Class A, B, AB, C, class-A: Inductively coupled amplifier,
transformer-coupled common emitter amplifier, transformer-coupled emitter-follower amplifier,
Class-AB Push-pull complementary output stages-class-AB output stage with diode biasing,class-
AB biasing using the VBE multiplier, class-AB output stage with input buffer transistors,class
–AB output stage utilizing the Darlington configuration, Illustrative Problems.
Tuned Amplifiers: Introduction to tuned amplifiers, Role of Q-Factor, Single-tuned, Double-
tuned and Stagger-tuned amplifiers.

Unit Outcomes:

 Know most common classes of power amplifier and their basic characteristics. (L2)
 Understand various distortions of amplifiers and the concept of heat sink.(L1)
 Analyse complementary symmetry topologies. (L3)
 Evaluate conversion efficiency of various topologies. (L4)
 Analyse different types of distortions in power amplifiers. (L3)
 Evaluate the resonant frequency for tuned amplifiers. Analyse characteristics of tuned
amplifiers (L5)
Course Outcomes:

CO1: Understand the working principle of multistage amplifiers, Feedback amplifiers, power
amplifiers, tuned amplifiers, Multivibrator and Time base generators (L1)
CO2: Analyse multistage amplifiers, multistage amplifiers, feedback amplifiers, power
amplifiers, tuned amplifier and Multivibrators. (L3)
CO3: Design multistage amplifiers, feedback amplifiers, oscillators, Multivibrator, power
amplifiers and tuned amplifiers for given specification.(L4)
CO5: Evaluate efficiency of large signal (power) amplifiers and voltage regulators (L5)

TEXT BOOKS:

1. Donald A Neamen, “Electronic Circuits – Analysis and Design,” 3rdEdition, McGraw

Hill (India), 2019.
2. J. Millman, C Chalkias, “Integrated Electronics”, 4th Edition, McGraw Hill Education
(India) Private Ltd., 2015.
3. K.Lal Kishore, “Electronic Circuit Analysis”, 2nd Edition, B S Publications, 2008.

REFERENCE BOOKS:

1. Behzad Razavi, “Fundamentals of Micro Electronics”, Wiley, 2010.

2. Millman and Taub, Pulse, “Digital and Switching Waveforms”, 3rd Edition, TataMcGraw-
Hill Education, 2011
3. Robert L. Boylestad and Louis Nashelsky, “Electronic Devices and Circuits Theory”, 9th
Edition, Pearson/Prentice Hall, 2006.
 GATES INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Accredited by NAAC
(Approved By A.I.C.T.E, New Delhi & Affiliated to JNTUA, 6TV E; YHH)
N.H-44, Gootyanantapuram (V), Peddavadugur (M), Anantapuramu (Dist), Gooty-515401.
Andhra Pradesh (State), Tel: 08552-200444, Website: www.gatesit.ac.in
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
LESSON PLAN
Subject Name of the Class/Sem Name of the No. of the Total Periods per
Code Subject Faculty/Designation students Semester/Year
Lectures Tutorials
19A04402T Electronic Circuits-Analysis And
II - II SEM Mr. A. Amareswara
76 8
Design ECE A,B & C Kumar

Teachiong
Unit Lecture Dates of Dates of &
Topic Co’s Evaluation
no no Schedule Completion
Learnion
Process
UNIT I :Small Signal Amplifiers Using MOSFETS
1 Graphical analysis, Load line PPT 1 MID - I
08/04/2021
and small signal parameters
2 Small signal equivalent circuit, PPT, Chalk 1 MID - I
Small signal analysis of 09/04/2021 and Board
Common source
Common drain amplifiers PPT, Chalk 1 MID - I
3 10/04/2021 and Board
Common gate amplifiers Chalk and 1 MID - I
4 12/04/2021
Board
5 Characteristic equation and cutoff PPT, Chalk 1 MID - I
14/04/2021
frequencies and Board
6 Comparison of the three basic PPT, Chalk 1 MID - I
15/04/2021 and Board
amplifier configurations
7 Problems PPT, Chalk 1 MID - I
16/04/2021 and Board
1 8 Small signal analysis of common PPT, Chalk 1 MID - I
17/04/2021 and Board
source
9 common drain amplifiers, 19/04/2021 PPT 1 MID - I
10 common gate amplifiers 20/04/2021 PPT 1 MID - I
11 JFET as voltage variable PPT 1 MID - I
22/04/2021
resistor,
12 Problem solving PPT, Chalk 1 MID - I
23/04/2021
and Board
13 Bipolar linear amplifier, PPT, Chalk 1 MID - I
Graphical and ac equivalent 24/04/2021 and Board
circuit
14 Small signal hybrid-∏equivalent PPT, Chalk 1 MID - I
26/04/2021 and Board
circuit
15 Hybrid-∏equivalent circuit 27/04/2021 PPT, Chalk 1 MID - I
 including the early effect and Board
16 other small signal parameters PPT 1 MID - I
and equivalent circuits-h- 28/04/2021
parameters
17 Basic CE amplifier circuit 29/04/2021 PPT 1 MID - I
18 Circuit with Emitter resistance 30/04/2021 PPT 1 MID - I
19 ac load line analysis, maximum PPT, Chalk 1 MID - I
01/05/2021 and Board
symmetrical swing
20 Small signal analysis-input and PPT, Chalk 1 MID - I
03/05/2021 and Board
output impedances
21 Voltage gain, Current gain of PPT, Chalk 1 MID - I
CB, CC amplifiers, Problem 04/05/2021 and Board
solving
UNIT II : FREQUENCY RESPONSE
22 Amplifier frequency response- PPT 2 MID - I
05/05/2021
different ranges
23 short circuit and open circuit time PPT, Chalk 2 MID - I
constants
06/05/2021 and Board
24 time response, transistor amplifiers PPT, Chalk 2 MID - I
with circuit capacitors-coupling 08/05/2021 and
capacitor effects
25 load capacitor effects, Bypass PPT, Chalk 2 MID - I
10/05/2021
capacitor effects and Board
26 Problem solving, combined effects PPT, Chalk 2 MID - I
11/05/2021
2 of coupling and bypass capacitor and Board
27 high-frequency response model for PPT, Chalk 2 MID - I
12/05/2021
BJT and MOSFETs and Board
28 short circuit current gain, Miller PPT, Chalk 2 MID - I
13/05/2021
effect and its applications and Board
29 unity-gain bandwidth in BJT and PPT 2 MID - I
15/05/2021
FET amplifiers
30 CE and CS circuits, CB and CG PPT 2 MID - I
17/05/2021
circuits
31 Cascode amplifier analysis 18/05/2021 PPT 2 MID - I
32 emitter and source follower circuits PPT, Chalk 2 MID - I
19/05/2021 and Board
33 high frequency response- design PPT, Chalk 2 MID - I
20/05/2021
application and Board
34 Flip Class PPT, Chalk 2 MID - I
24/05/2021 and Board
35 Unit Test PPT, Chalk 2 MID - I
28/05/2021
and Board
UNIT III : DIFFERENTIAL AND MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIERS
36 Differential amplifier, basic BJT PPT 3 MID - II
differential pair and its qualitative 11/06/2021
description
DC transfer characteristics, small PPT 3 MID - II
37 12/06/2021
signal equivalent circuit analysis
 CMRR, differential and common PPT 3 MID - II
38 11/06/2021
mode gains
39 differential and common mode PPT, Chalk 3 MID - II
11/06/2021
input impedances and Board
40 Basic differential FET pair PPT, Chalk 3 MID - II
11/06/2021
and Board
small signal equivalent circuit PPT, Chalk 3 MID - II
41 11/06/2021
analysis and Board
42 JFET differential amplifier PPT, Chalk 3 MID - II
11/06/2021
and Board
3 43 differential amplifier with active PPT, Chalk 3 MID - II
11/06/2021
load and Board
44 MOSFET differential amplifier PPT 3 MID - II
11/06/2021
with active load
45 two stage RC coupled amplifier 11/06/2021 PPT 3 MID - II
46 Darlington pair and simple emitter PPT 3 MID - II
11/06/2021
follower output
47 voltage gain, input and output PPT, Chalk 3 MID - II
11/06/2021
impedances and Board
48 simplified BJT operational PPT, Chalk 3 MID - II
11/06/2021
amplifier circuit and Board
49 Flip Class PPT, Chalk 3 MID - II
11/06/2021 and Board
50 Unit Test PPT, Chalk 3 MID - II
11/06/2021
and Board
UNIT IV : FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS
51 General Considerations, Properties PPT 4 MID - II
23/12/2021
of Negative Feedback
52 Types of Amplifiers, Sense and PPT 4 MID - II
24/12/2021
Return Techniques
53 Polarity of Feedback , Feedback PPT 4 MID - II
27/12/2021
Topologies
54 Effect of Nonideal I/O Impedances, PPT, Chalk 4 MID - II
28/12/2021
Stability in Feedback Systems and Board
55 Voltage – Series, Current Series PPT, Chalk 4 MID - II
29/12/2021 and Board
56 Current-shunt and Voltage-shunt PPT, Chalk 4 MID - II
30/12/2021
4 and Board
57 Illustrative problems. PPT, Chalk 4 MID - II
31/12/2021 and Board
58 General Considerations PPT, Chalk 4 MID - II
03/01/2022
and Board
59 LC Oscillators, Phase Shift PPT 4 MID - II
04/01/2022
Oscillator
60 Wien-Bridge Oscillator 05/01/2022 PPT 4 MID - II
61 Crystal Oscillators 06/01/2022 PPT 4 MID - II
62 Illustrative Problems PPT, Chalk 4 MID - II
07/01/2022 and Board
 63 Flip Class PPT, Chalk 4 MID - II
08/01/2022
and Board
64 Unit Test 10/01/2022 PPT, Chalk 4 MID - II
and Board
UNIT V : POWER AMPLIFIERS
65 Classes of amplifiers-Operations of PPT, Chalk 5 MID - II
11/01/2022
Class A, B, AB, C and Board
66 class-A: Inductively coupled PPT 5 MID - II
12/01/2022
amplifier
67 transformer-coupled common PPT 5 MID - II
17/01/2022
emitter amplifier
68 transformer-coupled emitter- PPT 5 MID - II
18/01/2022
follower amplifier
69 Class-AB Push-pull complementary PPT, Chalk 5 MID - II
5 output stages-class-AB output stage 19/01/2022 and Board
with diode biasing
70 class-AB biasing using the VBE PPT, Chalk 5 MID - II
20/01/2022
multiplier and Board
71 class-AB output stage with input PPT, Chalk 5 MID - II
21/01/2022
buffer transistors and Board
72 class –AB output stage utilizing the PPT, Chalk 5 MID - II
Darlington configuration, 22/01/2022 and Board
Illustrative Problems
73 Single-tuned, Double- tuned and PPT, Chalk 5 MID - II
25/01/2022
Stagger-tuned amplifiers and Board
74 Flip Class 27/01/2022 PPT 5 MID - II
75 Unit Test 28/01/2022 PPT 5 MID - II
76 Revision 29/01/2022 PPT 5 MID - II

TEXT BOOKS:
1. 1. Donald A Neamen, “Electronic Circuits – Analysis and Design,” 3rdEdition, McGraw
Hill (India), 2019.
2. J. Millman, C Chalkias, “Integrated Electronics”, 4th Edition, McGraw Hill Education
(India) Private Ltd., 2015.
3. K.Lal Kishore, “Electronic Circuit Analysis”, 2nd Edition, B S Publications, 2008.

REFERENCES:
1. 1. Behzad Razavi, “Fundamentals of Micro Electronics”, Wiley, 2010.
2. Millman and Taub, Pulse, “Digital and Switching Waveforms”, 3rd Edition, TataMcGraw-
Hill Education, 2011
3. Robert L. Boylestad and Louis Nashelsky, “Electronic Devices and Circuits Theory”, 9th
Edition, Pearson/Prentice Hall, 2006.

I
Signature of the Faculty HOD
 COURSE INFORMATION SHEET
Course Code : 19A04402T
Course Title : ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS-ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
Syllabus Regulation : R19
Type of Course : Professional Core
Course Prerequisites : Knowledge on EDC
Performance of the students in Prerequisites by Course & Topic: Good based on results in EDC.
Course Materials:
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Donald A Neamen, “Electronic Circuits – Analysis and Design,” 3rdEdition, McGraw
Hill (India), 2019.
2. J. Millman, C Chalkias, “Integrated Electronics”, 4th Edition, McGraw Hill Education
(India) Private Ltd., 2015.
3. K.Lal Kishore, “Electronic Circuit Analysis”, 2nd Edition, B S Publications, 2008.
REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. Behzad Razavi, “Fundamentals of Micro Electronics”, Wiley, 2010.
2. Millman and Taub, Pulse, “Digital and Switching Waveforms”, 3rd Edition, TataMcGraw-
Hill Education, 2011
3. Robert L. Boylestad and Louis Nashelsky, “Electronic Devices and Circuits Theory”, 9th
Edition, Pearson/Prentice Hall, 2006.
Course Schedule: 08-04-2021 to 05-08-2021
Course Contribution:
This course is designed for those specializing in electronic, electrical, mechatronics, instrumentation,
bioelectronics, and related disciplines.Each chapter outlines the advantages and limitations of the circuits
discussed, accompanied by techniques for circuit modifications. Importantly, a mathematical analysis is
provided at each step to obtain crucial parameters like the transfer function (magnitude and phase response)
of the circuit as a function of frequency.
Course allotted to:-----------------------------------
Faculty Specialization: ---------------------------------
Course Assessment Measures:
A) Assignments B) Projects
C) Tests D) Quizzes
E) Student seminars F) Laboratory reports G) Students Feedback H) Faculty evaluations
I) Exit interviews J) Senior assignment evaluations
K) Peer evaluation L) Classroom participation
Major Topics Covered in the Course:
With this course, you can enhance your skills by delving into the fundamentals of analog circuit
analysis and design. The course commences by covering the basics of analog signals and elementary
circuits. Subsequently, it progresses to advanced analysis, focusing on amplifiers, both active and passive
filters, operational amplifiers, and instrumentation amplifiers.
Course Outcomes:
At the end of this course, student will be able to
CO1. Understand the concepts and equivalent circuit models of small signal amplifiers. (L1)
CO2: Design of single stage amplifiers using BJT and FET with and without coupling
capacitors. (L4)
CO3: Design multiple stage amplifier circuits. (L4)
CO4: Analyse characteristics of various types of feedback configurations (L3)
CO5: Analyse different types of distortions in power amplifiers. (L3)
List of the Programme Outcomes (POs):
On successful completion of UG in Electronics & Communication Engineering, The graduate will have an
ability to
1. Apply the knowledge of Mathematics, Science and Engineering to solve the engineering problems in
analog and digital electronic systems.
2. Identify, formulate and analyze the problems from the various issues of communication systems.
3. Design analog and digital systems to meet the desired needs within a realistic constraint.
4. Design a circuit, conduct experiments, analyze and interpret the results to provide valid conclusions.
5. Use modern tools to simulate electronic systems and analyze the performance of various models.
6. Develop electronic systems and solutions to meet the societal needs, considering awareness of security,
health and legal issues. Developments.
7. Provide innovative ideas by understanding the impact of engineering solutions for the sustainable
8. Function with professional ethics and social responsibilities.
9. Work as an individual, member of a team or leader in multi-disciplinary activities.
10. Communicate effectively with outside world and engineering fraternity.
11. Demonstrate the knowledge of project and finance management skills to carry out projects in
multidisciplinary environment.
12. Engage lifelong learning and to adapt rapidly changing technologies.
Programme Specific Outcomes (PSO’s):
PSO1: To design and implement application specific electronic systems to provide real time
Solutions combating societal, ecological and economical issues in the areas of communication, networking,
embedded systems and VLSI.
PSO2: To demonstrate proficiency by quickly adapting to changes in technology and tools
and administer professional engineering practice through lifelong Learning and contributing
immensely to research and development.

Course Instructor Course Co-ordinator Programme Co-ordinator

 GATES INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Electronics And Communication Engineering

Year &Sem: B.Tech II – I Sem

Course name: ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS & DESIGN
Course Code: 19A04402T
Batch: 2019 - 2023 admitted batch
Regulation: R19
COURSE OUTCOMES:
After completing this course the student must demonstrate the knowledge and Ability to

CO 1
Understand the working principle of multistage amplifiers, , power amplifiers, tuned
amplifiers, Multivibrator and Time base generators
CO 2 Analyse feedback amplifiers & oscillators.
CO 3 Design multivibrator, power amplifiers for given specification.

CO 4 Evaluate efficiency of large signal (power) amplifiers and voltage regulators

CO 5 Analyze the different tuned amplifiers

CO –PO MAPPING:

PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12

CO1 3 2 3 3 3 2 - - - - - 2

CO2 3 2 3 3 3 2 - - - - - 2

CO3 3 2 3 3 2 2 - - - - - 2

CO4 3 2 3 3 2 2 - - - - - 2

CO5 3 2 3 3 2 2 - - - - - 2

AVG 3 2 3 3 2 2 - - - - - 2

CO - PSO MAPPING:

PSO1 PSO2
3 3
CO1
3 3
CO2
3 3
CO3
3 3
CO4
3 3
CO5
3 3
AVG
Smartzworld.com Smartworld.asia

ELETRONIC CIRCUIT ANALTSIS & DESIGN (19A04402T)

II B.Tech II semester (JNTUA-R19)

GATES INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

1|Page

GATES, ECE Mr. ARCHAKAM AMARESWARA KUMAR

Smartzworld.com Unit-1 Smartworld.asia
SINGLE & MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIERS

Introduction
An electronic amplifier circuit is one, which modifies the characteristics of the input signal, when delivered the
output side. The modification in the characteristics of the input signal can be with respect to voltage, current, power
or phase. Anyone or all these characteristics power, or phase may be changed by the amplifier circuit.

Classification of Amplifiers

There are many forms of electronic circuits classed as amplifiers, from Operational Amplifiers and Small Signal
Amplifiers up to Large Signal and Power Amplifiers. The classification of an amplifier depends upon the size of the
signal, large or small, its physical configuration and how it processes the input signal that is the relationship between
input signal and current flowing in the load.

The type or classification of an amplifier is given in the following table.

Type of Based on Number of

Type of Type of Frequency of coupling the output stages
Classification
Signal Configuration Operation
a. RC coupled a. Voltage a. Single
Small Class A amplifiers amplifiers stage
Common Emitter Direct Current (DC)
Signal Amplifier amplifiers

b. Inductive b. Power b. Two stage

Large Class B Audio Frequencies coupled amplifiers amplifiers
Common Base
Signal Amplifier (AF) amplifiers

c. Transformer c.
Class AB Radio Frequencies coupled Multistage
Common Collector amplifiers and amplifiers.
Amplifier (RF)

d. Direct coupled the number

Class C VHF, UHF and SHF amplifiers. of stages,
Amplifier Frequencies

Characteristics of amplifiers:

Amplifiers can be thought of as a simple box or block containing the amplifying device, such as a Transistor, Field
Effect Transistor or Op-amp, which has two input terminals and two output terminals (ground being common)
with the output signal being much greater than that of the input signal as it has been “Amplified”.

Generally, an ideal signal amplifier has three main properties, Input Resistance or ( Rin ), Output
Resistance or ( Rout ) and of course amplification known commonly as Gain or ( A ). No matter how complicated
an amplifier circuit is, a general amplifier model can still be used to show the relationship of these three properties.

GATES, ECE Mr. ARCHAKAM AMARESWARA KUMAR

SmartzwoTrlod.cchoom
ose a right kind of amplifier for a purpose it is necessary to know the general characteristics of ampSlm
ifiaerrst.world.asia
They are: Current gain, Voltage gain, Power gain, Input impedance, Output impedance, Bandwidth.

1. Voltage gain:
Voltage gain of an amplifier is the ratio of the change in output voltage to the corresponding change in the input
voltage.
AV= ΔV0 / ΔVI

2. Current gain: Current gain of an amplifier is the ratio of the change in output current to the corresponding
change in the input current
AI= ΔI0 / ΔII

3. Power gain: Power gain of an amplifier is the ratio of the change in output power to the corresponding change in
the input power. where po and pi are the output power and input power respectively. Since power p = v × i, The
power gain
AP= PO / PI

AP= AV x AI
(Power amplification of the input signal takes place at the expense of the d.c. energy.)

4. Input impedance (Zi): Input impedance of an amplifier is the impedance offered by the amplifier circuit as seen
through the input terminals and is given by the ratio of the input voltage to the input current
ZI = ΔVI / ΔII

5. Output impedance (Z0): Output impedance of an amplifier is the impedance offered by the amplifier circuit as
seen through the output terminals and is given by the ratio of the output
ZO = ΔVO / ΔIO (At Vs=0)

6. Band width (BW):The range of frequencies over which the gain (voltage gain or current gain) of an amplifier is
equal to and greater than 0.707 times the maximum gain is called the bandwidth.

In figure shown, fL and fH are the lower and upper cutoff frequencies where the voltage or the current gain falls to
70.7% of the maximum gain.

Bandwidth BW=( fH- fL).

Bandwidth is also defined as the range of frequencies over which the power gain of amplifier is equal to and greater
than 50% of the maximum power gain.
The cutoff frequencies are also defined as the frequencies where the power gain falls to 50% of the maximum gain.
Therefore, the cutoff frequencies are also called as Half power frequencies.

GATES, ECE Mr. ARCHAKAM AMARESWARA KUMAR

SmartzwoC
rlodm
.cpoamrison of CB, CE and CC amplifiers: Smartworld.asia

Small signal analysis of transistor amplifier

Fig shows a basic amplifier circuit. It can be noticed that to form a transistor amplifier it is necessary to connect an
external load and signal source, along with proper biasing. Fig represents a transistor in any one of the three possible
configurations

Replacing transistor circuit with its small signal model as shown then analyzing hybrid model to find the current
gain, i/p resistance, the voltage gain and the o/p resistance.

GATES, ECE Mr. ARCHAKAM AMARESWARA KUMAR

Smartzworld.com Smartworld.asia

The tabular column for parameters shown in the tabular column:

The above formulae is applicable to all the configurations. An appropriate subscript to h-parameters corresponding
to configuration must be added for the expressions.

Table below shows the typical values of h-parameters for 3 configurations at room temperature

GATES, ECE Mr. ARCHAKAM AMARESWARA KUMAR

SmartzwoPrlrdo.cceodmure for the analysis of transistor amplifier circuit Smartworld.asia

Converting from one configuration to another configuration

Most of the times h-parameters are specified in CE configuration, therefore for analyzing of CC & CB
configurations it is require to first convert the given h-parameters for CE configuration into the required
configuration by using conversion formulae as given the table below.

GATES, ECE Mr. ARCHAKAM AMARESWARA KUMAR

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Sim ified analysis of CE Configuration Smartworld.asia

The hybrid parameter equivalent circuit of a common-emitter transistor is shown in Fig.

The approximation hre ≈ 0 is sometimes utilized which yields a 3-parameter model shown in Figure
The two approximations of hre≈ 0 and hoe≈0 are frequently utilized and result in the common
2-parameter model shown in Fig.

The values of hie , hfe. hre hoe for a specifci bipolar junction transistor are typically found in the manufacturer’s small-
signal specifications. The values can also be determined from the common-emitter output characteristic curves.

Utilizing a single transistor model it is possible to analyze common-emitter, common-base, or common- collector amplifier
circuits.

Approximate Hybrid Analysis for CE Transistor Amplifier

The h-parameter formulas (CE configuration) can be approximated to a form that is easier to handle. While these
approximate formulas will not give results that are as accurate as the original formulas, they can be used for many
applications. The CE approximate model is as shown in fig.

GATES, ECE Mr. ARCHAKAM AMARESWARA KUMAR

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(i) Input impedance

In actual practice, the second term in this expression is very small as compared to the first term.

… approximate formula

(ii) Current gain:

In actual practice, hoe rL is very small as compared to 1.

… approximate formula
(iii) Voltage gain:

Now approximate formula for Zin is hie. Also hoe rL is very small as compared to 1.

... approximate formula

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(iv) Output impedance:

Output impedance of transistor

The second term in the denominator is very small as compared to hoe.

... approximate formula

The output impedance of transistor amplifier

If the amplifier is unloaded (i.e. RL = ∞ ), rL = RC.

Approximate Hybrid Analysis for CC Transistor Amplifier

Amplifier Distortion

From the previous tutorials we that for a signal amplifier to operate correctly without any distortion to the output
signal, it requires some form of DC Bias on its Base or Gate terminal so that it can amplify the input signal over its
entire cycle with the bias “Q-point” set as near to the middle of the load line as possible. This then gave us a “Class-
A” type amplification configuration with the most common arrangement being the “Common Emitter” for Bipolar
transistors and the “Common Source” for unipolar FET transistors.

We also learnt that the Power, Voltage or Current Gain, (amplification) provided by the amplifier is the ratio of the
peak output value to its peak input value (Output ÷ Input). However, if we incorrectly design our amplifier circuit
and set the biasing Q-point at the wrong position on the load line or apply too large an input signal to the amplifier,
the resultant output signal may not be an exact reproduction of the original input signal waveform. In other words
the amplifier will suffer from what is commonly called Amplifier Distortion. Consider the Common Emitter
Amplifiercircuit below.

Common Emitter Amplifier

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Distortion of the output signal waveform may occur because:

 1. Amplification may not be taking place over the whole signal cycle due to incorrect biasing levels.

 2. The input signal may be too large, causing the amplifiers transistors to be limited by the supply voltage.

 3. The amplification may not be a linear signal over the entire frequency range of inputs.
This means then that during the amplification process of the signal waveform, some form ofAmplifier
Distortion has occurred.

Amplifiers are basically designed to amplify small voltage input signals into much larger output signals and this
means that the output signal is constantly changing by some factor or value, called gain, multiplied by the input
signal for all input frequencies. We saw previously that this multiplication factor is called the Beta, β value of the
transistor.

Common emitter or even common source type transistor circuits work fine for small AC input signals but suffer
from one major disadvantage, the calculated position of the bias Q-point of a bipolar amplifier depends on the same
Beta value for all transistors. However, this Beta value will vary from transistors of the same type, in other words,
the Q-point for one transistor is not necessarily the same as the Q-point for another transistor of the same type due to
the inherent manufacturing tolerances.

Then amplifier distortion occurs because the amplifier is not linear and a type of amplifier distortion
called Amplitude Distortion will result. Careful choice of the transistor and biasing components can help minimise
the effect of amplifier distortion.

Amplitude Distortion

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ude distortion occurs when the peak values of the frequency waveform are attenuated causing distortion due
to a shift in the Q-point and amplification may not take place over the whole signal cycle. This non-linearity of the
output waveform is shown below.

Amplitude Distortion due to Incorrect Biasing

If the transistors biasing point is correct, the output waveform should have the same shape as that of the input
waveform only bigger, (amplified). If there is insufficient bias and the Q-point lies in the lower half of the load line,
then the output waveform will look like the one on the right with the negative half of the output waveform “cut-off”
or clipped. Likewise, if there is too much bias and the Q-point lies in the upper half of the load line, then the output
waveform will look like the one on the left with the positive half “cut-off” or clipped.

Also, when the bias voltage is set too small, during the negative half of the cycle the transistor does not fully
conduct so the output is set by the supply voltage. When the bias is too great the positive half of the cycle saturates
the transistor and the output drops almost to zero.

Even with the correct biasing voltage level set, it is still possible for the output waveform to become distorted due to
a large input signal being amplified by the circuits gain. The output voltage signal becomes clipped in both the
positive and negative parts of the waveform an no longer resembles a sine wave, even when the bias is correct. This
type of amplitude distortion is called Clipping and is the result of “over-driving” the input of the amplifier.

When the input amplitude becomes too large, the clipping becomes substantial and forces the output waveform
signal to exceed the power supply voltage rails with the peak (+ve half) and the trough (-ve half) parts of the
waveform signal becoming flattened or “Clipped-off”. To avoid this the maximum value of the input signal must be
limited to a level that will prevent this clipping effect as shown above.

Amplitude Distortion due to Clipping

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Amplitude Distortion greatly reduces the efficiency of an amplifier circuit. These “flat tops” of the distorted output
waveform either due to incorrect biasing or over driving the input do not contribute anything to the strength of the
output signal at the desired frequency.

Having said all that, some well known guitarist and rock bands actually prefer that their distinctive sound is highly
distorted or “overdriven” by heavily clipping the output waveform to both the +ve and -ve power supply rails. Also,
increasing the amounts of clipping on a sinusoid will produce so much amplifier distortion that it will eventually
produce an output waveform which resembles that of a “square wave” shape which can then be used in electronic or
digital synthesizer circuits.

We have seen that with a DC signal the level of gain of the amplifier can vary with signal amplitude, but as well as
Amplitude Distortion, other types of amplifier distortion can occur with AC signals in amplifier circuits, such
as Frequency Distortion and Phase Distortion.

Frequency Distortion

Frequency Distortion is another type of amplifier distortion which occurs in a transistor amplifier when the level of
amplification varies with frequency. Many of the input signals that a practical amplifier will amplify consist of the
required signal waveform called the “Fundamental Frequency” plus a number of different frequencies called
“Harmonics” superimposed onto it.

Normally, the amplitude of these harmonics are a fraction of the fundamental amplitude and therefore have very
little or no effect on the output waveform. However, the output waveform can become distorted if these harmonic
frequencies increase in amplitude with regards to the fundamental frequency. For example, consider the waveform
below:

Frequency Distortion due to Harmonics

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In the example above, the input waveform consists a the fundamental frequency plus a second harmonic signal. The
resultant output waveform is shown on the right hand side. The frequency distortion occurs when the fundamental
frequency combines with the second harmonic to distort the output signal. Harmonics are therefore multiples of the
fundamental frequency and in our simple example a second harmonic was used.

Therefore, the frequency of the harmonic is twice the fundamental, 2 x ƒ or 2ƒ. Then a third harmonic would be 3ƒ,
a fourth, 4ƒ, and so on. Frequency distortion due to harmonics is always a possibility in amplifier circuits containing
reactive elements such as capacitance or inductance.

Phase Distortion

Phase Distortion or Delay Distortion is a type of amplifier distortion which occurs in a non-linear transistor
amplifier when there is a time delay between the input signal and its appearance at the output.

If we say that the phase change between the input and the output is zero at the fundamental frequency, the resultant
phase angle delay will be the difference between the harmonic and the fundamental. This time delay will depend on
the construction of the amplifier and will increase progressively with frequency within the bandwidth of the
amplifier. For example, consider the waveform below:

Phase Distortion due to Delay

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Other than high end audio amplifiers, most Practical Amplifiers will have some form of Amplifier Distortion being
a combination of both “Frequency Distortion” and “Phase Distortion”, together with amplitude distortion. In most
applications such as in audio amplifiers or power amplifiers, unless the amplifiers distortion is excessive or severe it
will not generally affect the operation or output sound of the amplifier.

In the next tutorial about Amplifiers we will look at the Class A Amplifier. Class A amplifiers are the most
common type of amplifier output stage making them ideal for use in audio power amplifiers.

Amplifiers Tutorial Summary

Amplifiers are used extensively in electronic circuits to make an electronic signal bigger without affecting it in
any other way. Generally we think of Amplifiers as audio amplifiers in the radios, CD players and stereo’s we
use around the home. In this amplifier tutorial section we looked at the amplifier which is based on a single
bipolar transistor as shown below, but there are several different kinds of transistor amplifier circuits that we
could use.

Typical Single Stage Amplifier Circuit

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Small Signal Amplifiers

 Small Signal Amplifiers are also known as Voltage Amplifiers.

 Voltage Amplifiers have 3 main properties, Input Resistance, Output Resistance and Gain.

 The Gain of a small signal amplifier is the amount by which the amplifier “Amplifies” the input signal.

 Gain is a ratio of input divided by output, therefore it has no units but is given the symbol (A) with the most
common types of transistor gain being, Voltage Gain (Av), Current Gain (Ai)and Power Gain (Ap)

 The power Gain of the amplifier can also be expressed in Decibels or simply dB.

 In order to amplify all of the input signal distortion free in a Class A type amplifier, DC Base Biasing is
required.

 DC Bias sets the Q-point of the amplifier half way along the load line.

 This DC Base biasing means that the amplifier consumes power even if there is no input signal present.

 The transistor amplifier is non-linear and an incorrect bias setting will produce large amounts of distortion to
the output waveform.

 Too large an input signal will produce large amounts of distortion due to clipping, which is also a form of
amplitude distortion.

 Incorrect positioning of the Q-point on the load line will produce either Saturation Clippingor Cut-off
Clipping.

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 The Common Emitter Amplifier configuration is the most common form of all the general purpose voltage
amplifier circuit using a Bipolar Junction Transistor.

 The Common Source Amplifier configuration is the most common form

of all the general purpose voltage amplifier circuit using a Junction Field Effect Transistor.

Simplified common emitter hybrid model:

1.3 Common Emitter Amplifier

Common Emitter Circuit is as shown in the Fig. 1.2. The DC supply, biasing resistors and coupling
capacitors are not shown since we are performing an AC analysis.

The typical values of the h-parameter for a transistor in Common Emitter Configuration are,

Fig. 1.3 h-parameter Equivalent Circuit

Since,
V be is a fraction of volt O.2V, Ib in ~A, 1 00 ~A and so on.
0.2V
h· = =4KO
Ie 50xlO-6
Single Stage Amplifiers
hfe == Ic/Ib :: 100.
Ie is in rnA and Is in 1lA.
hfe » 1:: P
hre == 0.2 x 10-3. Because, it is the Reverse Voltage Gain.
and

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hre = Vee
Vee> Vbe;
Input
h = -"'---
re Output
Output is » input, because amplification takes place. Therefore hre « 1.
ho e= 8 Il 7v0;: and ho e == ~ .
Vee

1.3.1 Input Resistance of the Amplifier Circuit (Ri)

Common Common Common

Definitions
Base Emitter Collector

Input Impedance with

Output Short Circuit

Reverse Voltage Ratio

Input Open Circuit

Forward Current Gain

Output Short Circuit

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Output Admittance
Input Open Circuit

In most practical cases it is appropriate to obtain approximate values of A V , A i etc rather than calculating exact
values. How the circuit can be modified without greatly reducing the accuracy. Fig. 4 shows the CE amplifier
equivalent circuit in terms of h-parameters Since 1 / hoe in parallel with RL is approximately equal to RL if 1 / hoe >>
RL then hoe may be neglected. Under these conditions.

Ic = hfe IB .

hre vc = hre Ic RL = hre hfe Ib RL .

Fig. 4

Since h fe.h re 0.01, this voltage may be neglected in comparison with h ic Ib drop across h ie provided RL is not
very large. If load resistance RL is small than hoe and hre can be neglected.

Output impedence seems to be infinite. When Vs = 0, and an external voltage is applied at the output we fined I b = 0,
I C = 0. True value depends upon RS and lies between 40 K and 80K.

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same lines, the calculations for CC and CB can be done. Smartworld.asia

CE amplifier with an emitter resistor:

The voltage gain of a CE stage depends upon h fe. This transistor parameter depends upon temperature, aging and the
operating point. Moreover, h fe may vary widely from device to device, even for same type of transistor. To stabilize
voltage gain A V of each stage, it should be independent of h fe. A simple and effective way is to connect an emitter
resistor Re as shown in fig. 5. The resistor provides negative feedback and provide stabilization.

Fig. 5

An approximate analysis of the circuit can be made using the simplified model.

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Subject to above approximation A V is completely stable. The output resistance is infinite for the approximate
model.

Common Emitter Amplifier Example No1

A common emitter amplifier circuit has a load resistance, RL of 1.2kΩs and a supply voltage of 12v. Calculate the
maximum Collector current (Ic) flowing through the load resistor when the transistor is switched fully “ON”
(saturation), assume Vce = 0. Also find the value of the Emitter resistor, REwith a voltage drop of 1v across it.
Calculate the values of all the other circuit resistors assuming an NPN silicon transistor.

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This then establishes point “A” on the Collector current vertical axis of the characteristics curves and occurs
when Vce = 0. When the transistor is switched fully “OFF”, their is no voltage drop across either resistor R E or RL as
no current is flowing through them. Then the voltage drop across the transistor, Vce is equal to the supply
voltage, Vcc. This establishes point “B” on the horizontal axis of the characteristics curves.

Generally, the quiescent Q-point of the amplifier is with zero input signal applied to the Base, so the Collector sits
half-way along the load line between zero volts and the supply voltage, (Vcc/2). Therefore, the Collector current at
the Q-point of the amplifier will be given as:

This static DC load line produces a straight line equation whose slope is given as: -1/(RL + RE) and that it crosses the
vertical Ic axis at a point equal to Vcc/(RL + RE). The actual position of the Q-point on the DC load line is
determined by the mean value of Ib.

As the Collector current, Ic of the transistor is also equal to the DC gain of the transistor (Beta), times the Base
current (β x Ib), if we assume a Beta (β) value for the transistor of say 100, (one hundred is a reasonable average
value for low power signal transistors) the Base current Ib flowing into the transistor will be given as:

Instead of using a separate Base bias supply, it is usual to provide the Base Bias Voltage from the main supply rail
(Vcc) through a dropping resistor, R1. Resistors, R1 and R2 can now be chosen to give a suitable quiescent Base
current of 45.8μA or 46μA rounded off. The current flowing through the potential divider circuit has to be large
compared to the actual Base current, Ib, so that the voltage divider network is not loaded by the Base current flow.

A general rule of thumb is a value of at least 10 times Ib flowing through the resistor R2. Transistor Base/Emitter
voltage, Vbe is fixed at 0.7V (silicon transistor) then this gives the value of R2 as:

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urrent flowing through resistor R2 is 10 times the value of the Base current, then the current flowing through
resistor R1 in the divider network must be 11 times the value of the Base current. The voltage across resistor R1 is
equal to Vcc – 1.7v (VRE + 0.7 for silicon transistor) which is equal to 10.3V, therefore R1 can be calculated as:

The value of the Emitter resistor, RE can be easily calculated using Ohm’s Law. The current flowing through RE is a
combination of the Base current, Ib and the Collector current Ic and is given as:

Resistor, RE is connected between the Emitter and ground and we said previously that it has a voltage of 1 volt
across it. Then the value of RE is given as:

So, for our example above, the preferred values of the resistors chosen to give a tolerance of 5% (E24) are:

Then, our original Common Emitter Amplifier circuit above can be rewritten to include the values of the
components that we have just calculated above.

Completed Common Emitter Circuit

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Coupling Capacitors

In Common Emitter Amplifier circuits, capacitors C1 and C2 are used as Coupling Capacitors to separate the AC
signals from the DC biasing voltage. This ensures that the bias condition set up for the circuit to operate correctly is
not effected by any additional amplifier stages, as the capacitors will only pass AC signals and block any DC
component. The output AC signal is then superimposed on the biasing of the following stages. Also a bypass
capacitor, CE is included in the Emitter leg circuit.

This capacitor is an open circuit component for DC bias meaning that the biasing currents and voltages are not
affected by the addition of the capacitor maintaining a good Q-point stability. However, this bypass capacitor short
circuits the Emitter resistor at high frequency signals and onlyRL plus a very small internal resistance acts as the
transistors load increasing the voltage gain to its maximum. Generally, the value of the bypass capacitor, C E is
chosen to provide a reactance of at most, 1/10th the value of RE at the lowest operating signal frequency.

Output Characteristics Curves

Ok, so far so good. We can now construct a series of curves that show the Collector current, Icagainst the
Collector/Emitter voltage, Vce with different values of Base current, Ib for our simple common emitter amplifier
circuit. These curves are known as the “Output Characteristic Curves” and are used to show how the transistor will
operate over its dynamic range. A static or DC load line is drawn onto the curves for the load
resistor RL of 1.2kΩ to show all the transistors possible operating points.

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the transistor is switched “OFF”, Vce equals the supply voltage Vcc and this is point B on the line. Likewise
when the transistor is fully “ON” and saturated the Collector current is determined by the load resistor, RL and this
is point A on the line.

We calculated before from the DC gain of the transistor that the Base current required for the mean position of the
transistor was 45.8μA and this is marked as point Q on the load line which represents the Quiescent point or Q-
point of the amplifier. We could quite easily make life easy for ourselves and round off this value to 50μA exactly,
without any effect to the operating point.

Output Characteristics Curves

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Point Q on the load line gives us the Base current Q-point of Ib = 45.8μA or 46μA. We need to find the maximum
and minimum peak swings of Base current that will result in a proportional change to the Collector
current, Ic without any distortion to the output signal.

As the load line cuts through the different Base current values on the DC characteristics curves we can find the peak
swings of Base current that are equally spaced along the load line. These values are marked as points N and M on
the line, giving a minimum and a maximum Base current of 20μAand 80μA respectively.

These points, N and M can be anywhere along the load line that we choose as long as they are equally spaced
from Q. This then gives us a theoretical maximum input signal to the Base terminal of 60μA peak-to-peak, (30μA
peak) without producing any distortion to the output signal.

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put signal giving a Base current greater than this value will drive the transistor to go beyond point N and into
its “cut-off” region or beyond point M and into its Saturation region thereby resulting in distortion to the output
signal in the form of “clipping”.

Using points N and M as an example, the instantaneous values of Collector current and corresponding values of
Collector-emitter voltage can be projected from the load line. It can be seen that the Collector-emitter voltage is in
anti-phase (-180o) with the collector current.

As the Base current Ib changes in a positive direction from 50μA to80μA, the Collector-emitter voltage, which is
also the output voltage decreases from its steady state value of 5.8v to 2.0v.

Then a single stage Common Emitter Amplifier is also an “Inverting Amplifier” as an increase in Base voltage
causes a decrease in Vout and a decrease in Base voltage produces an increase in Vout. In other words the output
signal is 180o out-of-phase with the input signal.

Emitter Resistance in a Transistor Amplifier

The aim of an AC signal amplifier circuit is to stabilise the DC biased input voltage to the amplifier and thus
only amplify the required AC signal. This stabilisation is achieved by the use of an Emitter Resistance which
provides the required amount of automatic biasing needed for a common emitter amplifier.

To explain this a little further, consider the following Basic Amplifier circuit below.

Basic Common Emitter Amplifier Circuit

The common emitter amplifier circuit shown uses a voltage divider network to bias the transistors base and the
common emitter configuration is a very popular way of designing bipolar transistor amplifier circuits. An important
feature of this circuit is that an appreciable amount of current flows into the base of the transistor.

The voltage at the junction of the two biasing resistors, R1and R2, holds the transistors base voltage, VB at a
constant voltage and proportional to the supply voltage, Vcc. Note that V B is the voltage measured from base to
ground, which is the actual voltage drop across R2.

This “class-A” type amplifier circuit is always designed so that the base current ( Ib ) is less than 10% of the current
flowing through the biasing resistor R2. So for example, if we require a quiescent collector current of 1mΑ, the base

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, IB will be about one hundredth of this, or 10μΑ. Therefore the current flowing through resistor R2 of the
potential divider network must be at least 10 times this amount, or 100μΑ.

The advantage of using a voltage divider lies in its stability. Since the voltage divider formed by R1and R2 is lightly
loaded, the base voltage, Vb can be easily calculated by using the simple voltage divider formula as shown.

Voltage Divider Equation

However, with this type of biasing arrangement the voltage divider network is not loaded by the base current as it is
too small, so if there are any changes in the supply voltage Vcc, then the voltage level on the base will also change
by a proportional amount. Then some form of voltage stabilisation of the transistors base bias or Q-point is required.

Emitter Resistance Stabilisation

The amplifiers bias voltage can be stabilised by placing a single resistor in the transistors emitter circuit as shown.
This resistance is known as the Emitter Resistance, RE. The addition of this emitter resistor means that the
transistors emitter terminal is no longer grounded or at zero volt potential but sits at a small potential above it given
by the Ohms Law equation of: VE = IE x RE. Where: IE is the actual emitter current.

Now if the supply voltage Vcc increases, the transistors collector current Ic also increases for a given load
resistance. If the collector current increases, the corresponding emitter current must also increase causing the voltage
drop across RE to increase, causing an increase in base voltage because VB = VE + VBE.

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the base is held constant by the divider resistors R1 and R2, the DC voltage on the base relative to the
emitter Vbe is lowered thus reducing the base current and keeping the collector current from increasing. A similar
action occurs if the supply voltage and collector current try to decrease.

In other words, the addition of this emitter resistance helps control the transistors base bias using negative feedback,
which negates any attempted change in collector current with an opposing change in the base bias voltage and so the
circuit tends to be stabilised at a fixed level.

Also, since part of the supply is dropped across RE, its value should be as small as possible so that the largest
possible voltage can be developed across the load resistance, RL and therefore the output. However, its value cannot
be too small or once again the instability of the circuit will suffer.

Then the current flowing through the emitter resistor is calculated as:

Emitter Resistor Current

As a general rule of thumb, the voltage drop across this emitter resistance is generally taken to be:V B - VBE, or one-
tenth (1/10th) of the value of the supply voltage, Vcc. A common figure for the emitter resistor voltage is between 1
to 2 volts, whichever is the lower. The value of the emitter resistance, RE can also be found from the gain as now the
AC voltage gain is equal to: RL / RE

Emitter Resistance Example No1

A common emitter amplifier has the following characteristics, β = 100, Vcc = 30V and RL = 1kΩ. If the amplifier
circuit uses an emitter resistance to improve its stability, calculate its resistance.

The amplifiers quiescent current, ICQ is given as:

The voltage drop across the emitter resistance is generally between 1 and 2 volts, so lets assume a voltage
drop, VE of 1.5 volts.

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Then the value of the Emitter Resistance required for the amplifier circuit is given as: 100Ω’s, and the final
common emitter circuit is given as:

Final Common Emitter Amplifier

The gain of the amplifier stage can also be found if so required and is given as:

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Emitter By-pass Capacitor

In the basic series feedback circuit above, the emitter resistor, RE performs two functions: DC negative feedback for
stable biasing and AC negative feedback for signal transconductance and voltage gain specification. But as the
emitter resistance is a feedback resistor, it will also reduce the amplifiers gain due to fluctuations in the emitter
current IE owing to the AC input signal.

To overcome this problem a capacitor, called an “Emitter Bypass Capacitor”, C E is connected across the emitter
resistance as shown. This bypass capacitor causes the frequency response of the amplifier to break at a designated
cut-off frequency, ƒc, by-passing (hence its name) signal currents to ground.

Being a capacitor it appears as an open circuit for the for DC bias and therefore, the biased currents and voltages are
unaffected by the addition of the bypass capacitor. Over the amplifiers operating range of frequencies, the capacitors
reactance, XC will be extremely high at low frequencies producing a negative feedback effect, reducing the
amplifiers gain.

The value of this bypass capacitor CE is generally chosen to provide a capacitive reactance of, at most one-tenth
(1/10th) of the value of the emitter resistor RE at the lowest cut-off frequency point. Then assuming that the lowest
signal frequency to be amplified is 100 Hz. The value of the bypass capacitor CE is calculated as:

Emitter Bypass Capacitor

Then for our simple common emitter amplifier above the value of the emitter bypass capacitor connected in parallel
with the emitter resistance is: 160uF

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Examples
CE Stage with RE Bypassed
The h-parameter model will be applied to a single common emitter (CE) stage with the emitter resistor (RE)
bypassed. The model will be used to build equations for voltage gain, current gain, input and output impedance. The
circuit is shown below:

The small signal parameter h reVce is often too small to be considered so the input resistance is just h ie. Often the
output resistance hoe is often large compared wi the the collector resistor RC and its effects can be ignored. The h-
parameter equivalent model is now simplified and drawn below:

Input Impedance Zi
The input impedance is the parallel combination of bias resistors RB1 and RB2. As the power supply is considered
short circuit at small signal levels then RB1 and RB2 are in parallel. RBB will represent the parallel combination:

RBB = RB1 || RB2 = RB1 RB2

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RB1 + RB2
As RBB is in parallel with hie then:

Zi = RBB || hie

Output Impedance Zo
As hfeIb is an ideal current generator with infinite output impedance, then output impedance looking into the circuit
is:

Zo = RC

Voltage Gain Av
Note the − sign in the equation, this indicates phase inversion of the output waveform.

Vo = -Io RC = -hfe Ib RC
as Ib = Vi / hie then:

Vi
= -hfe RC
hie

-hfe
= RC Vi
hie
Vo -hfe RC
Av = =
Vi hie
Current Gain Ai
The current gain is the ratio Io / Ii. At the input the current is split between the parallel branch RBB and hie. So
looking at the equivalent h-parameter model again (shown below):

The current divider rule can be used for Ib:

RBB Ii
Ib =
RBB + hie

Ib = RBB

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Ii RBB + hie
At the output side, Io = hfe Ib

re-arranging Io / Ib = hfe

Io Io Ib RBB
Ai = = = hfe
Ii Ib Ii RBB + hie
RBB hfe
Ai =
RBB + hie

If RBB >> hie then,

RBB hfe
Ai ≈ = hfe
RBB

CE Stage with RE Unbypassed

The h-parameter model of a common emitter stage with the emitter resistor unbypassed is now shown. The model
will be used to build equations for voltage gain, current gain, input and output impedance. The circuit is shown
below:

As in the previous example, RB1 and RB2 are in parallel, the bias resistors are replaced by resistance RBB, but as RE
is now unbypassed this resistor appears in series with the emitter terminal. The hybrid small signal model is shown
below, once again effects of small signal parameters hreVce and hoe have been omitted.

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Input Impedance Zi
The input impedance Zi is the bias resistors RBB in parallel with the impedance of the base, Zb.

Zb = hie + (1 + hfe) RE

Since hfe is normally much larger than 1, the equation can be reduced to:

Zb = hie + hfe RE

Zi = RBB || (hie + hfe RE)

Output Impedance Zo
With Vi set to zero, then Ib = 0 and hfeIb can be replaced by an open-circuit. The output impedance is:
Zo = RC

Voltage Gain Av
Note the − sign in the equation, this indicates phase inversion of the output waveform.

Vi
Ib =
Zb
Vo = -Io RC = -hfe Ib RC

Vi
= -hfe RC
Zb

Vo -hfe RC
Av = =
Vi Zb

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rlsd.Zcob m Sm
= hie + hfe RE often the product hfeRE is much larger than hie, so Zb can reduced to the approxim atiaorntworld.asia
:
Zb ≈ hfeRE
-hfeRC
∴ Av =
hfeRE
Vo RC
Av = =−
Vi RE
Current Gain Ai
The current gain is the ratio Io / Ii. At the input the current is split between the parallel branch RBB and Zb. So
looking at the equivalent h-parameter model again (shown below):

The current divider rule can be used for Ib:

RBB Ii
Ib =
RBB + Zb

Ib RBB
=
Ii RBB + Zb
At the output side, Io = hfe Ib

re-arranging Io / Ib = hfe

Io Io Ib RBB
Ai = = = hfe
Ii Ib Ii RBB + Zb
Ai = RBB hfe

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RBB + Zb

E Stage

The hybrid parameters must be known to use the hybrid model, either from the datasheet or measured. In the above
circuit, Zi, Zo, Av, and Ai will now be calculated. Note that this CE stage uses a single bias resistor RB1 which is
the value RBB.

Zi

Zb = hie + (1 + hfe) RE

= 0.56k + ( 1 + 120) 1.2k = 145.76k

Zi = RB || Zb

Zi = 270k || 145.76k = 94.66k

Zo
Zo ≈ 5.6k
Av

hfe RC
Av = −
Zb

120 x 5.6k
=−
145.76k
Av = − 4.61
Ai
RBB hfe
Ai =
RBB + Zb

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270k x 120
=
270k + 145.76k
Ai = 77.93

Miller's theorem

The Miller’s theorem establishes that in a linear circuit, if there exists a branch with impedance Z, connecting two nodes
with nodal voltages V1and V2, we can replace this branch by two branches connecting the corresponding nodes to ground by
impedances respectively Z / (1-K) and KZ / (K-1), where K = V2 / V1.

In fact, if we use the equivalent two-port network technique to replace the two-port
represented on the right to its equivalent, it results successively:

and, according to the source absorption theorem, we get the following:

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As all the linear circuit theorems, the Miller’s theorem also has a dual form:

Miller's dual theorem

If there is a branch in a circuit with impedance Z connecting a node, where two currents I1 and I2converge, to ground, we can
replace this branch by two conducting the referred currents, with impedances respectively equal to (1+ )Z and (1+
)Z / , where = I2 / I1.

In fact, replacing the two-port network by its

equivalent, as in the figure,

it results the circuit on the left in the next figure and then, applying the source absorption theorem, the circuit on the right.

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Multistage Transistor Amplifiers

T he output from a single stage amplifier is usually insufficient to drive an output device.
Inther words, the gain of a single amplifier is inadequate for practical purposes. Consequently, additional
amplification over two or three stages is necessary. To achieve this, the output of each amplifier stage is coupled in
some way to the input of the next stage. The resulting
system is referred to as multistage amplifier. It may be emphasised here that a practical amplifier is
always a multistage amplifier. For example, in a transistor radio receiver, the number of amplification
stages may be six or more. In this chapter, we shall focus our attention on the various multistage
transistor amplifiers and their practical applications.
11.1 Multistage Transistor Amplifier

A transistor circuit containing more than one stage of amplification is known as multistage transistor
amplifier.
In a multistage amplifier, a number of single amplifiers are connected in *cascade arrangement
i.e. output of first stage is connected to the input of the second stage through a suitable coupling
device and so on. The purpose of coupling device (e.g. a capacitor, transformer etc.) is (i) to transfer
a.c. output of one stage to the input of the next stage and (ii) to isolate the d.c. conditions of one stage
from the next stage.
Fig. 11.1 shows the block diagram of a 3-stage amplifier. Each stage consists of
one transistor and associated circuitry and is coupled to the next stage through a coupling device. The
name of the amplifier is usually given after the type of coupling used. e.g.

Hence, it almost remains constant.

The cascode amplifier is combined common-emitter and common-base. This is an AC circuit equivalent with
batteries and capacitors replaced by short circuits.

The key to understanding the wide bandwidth of the cascode configuration is the Miller effect. The Miller effect is
the multiplication of the bandwidth robbing collector-base capacitance by voltage gain Av. This C-B capacitance is

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smaller than the E-B capacitance. Thus, one would think that the C-B capacitance would have little effect. However,
in the C-E configuration, the collector output signal is out of phase with the input at the base. The collector signal
capacitively coupled back opposes the base signal. Moreover, the collector feedback is (1-Av) times larger than the
base signal. Keep in mind that Av is a negative number for the inverting C-E amplifier. Thus, the small C-B
capacitance appears (1+A|v|) times larger than its actual value. This capacitive gain reducing feedback increases with
frequency, reducing the high frequency response of a C-E amplifier.

The approximate voltage gain of the C-E amplifier in Figure below is -RL/rEE. The emitter current is set to 1.0 mA
by biasing. REE= 26mV/IE = 26mV/1.0ma = 26 Ω. Thus, Av = -RL/REE = -4700/26 = -181. The pn2222 datasheet list
Ccbo = 8 pF.[FAR] The miller capacitance is Ccbo(1-Av). Gain Av = -181, negative since it is inverting gain. Cmiller =
Ccbo(1-Av) = 8pF(1-(-181)=1456pF

A common-base configuration is not subject to the Miller effect because the grounded base shields the collector
signal from being fed back to the emitter input. Thus, a C-B amplifier has better high frequency response. To have a
moderately high input impedance, the C-E stage is still desirable. The key is to reduce the gain (to about 1) of the C-
E stage which reduces the Miller effect C-B feedback to 1·CCBO. The total C-B feedback is the feedback capacitance
1·CCB plus the actual capacitance CCB for a total of 2·CCBO. This is a considerable reduction from 181·CCBO. The
miller capacitance for a gain of -2 C-E stage is Cmiller = Ccbo(1-Av)= Cmiller = Ccbo(1-(-1)) = Ccbo·2.

The way to reduce the common-emitter gain is to reduce the load resistance. The gain of a C-E amplifier is
approximately RC/RE. The internal emitter resistance rEE at 1mA emitter current is 26Ω. For details on the 26Ω, see
“Derivation of REE”, see REE. The collector load RC is the resistance of the emitter of the C-B stage loading the C-E
stage, 26Ω again. CE gain amplifier gain is approximately A v = RC/RE=26/26=1. This Miller capacitance is Cmiller =
Ccbo(1-Av) = 8pF(1-(-1)=16pF. We now have a moderately high input impedance C-E stage without suffering the
Miller effect, but no C-E dB voltage gain. The C-B stage provides a high voltage gain, AV = -181. Current gain of
cascode is β of the C-E stage, 1 for the C-B, β overall. Thus, the cascode has moderately high input impedance of
the C-E, good gain, and good bandwidth of the C-B.

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SPICE: Cascode and common-emitter for comparison.

The SPICE version of both a cascode amplifier, and for comparison, a common-emitter amplifier is shown in
Figure above. The netlist is in Table below. The AC source V3 drives both amplifiers via node 4. The bias resistors
for this circuit are calculated in an example problem cascode.

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ncy response of RC coupled amplifier: The frequency response of a typical RC coupled amplifiers is Ssm
hoawrtnworld.asia
in the fig. It is clear from the graph that the voltage gain drops off at low frequencies and high frequencies.
While it remains constant in the mid frequency range. This behavior of the amplifier is explained as follows;
At low frequencies: The coupling capacitors CC offer a high reactance. Hence it will allow only a part of the signal
to pass from one stage to the next stage. In addition to this, the emitter bypass capacitor CE cannot shunt the emitter
resistor RE effectively, because of its large reactance at low frequencies. Due to these reasons, the gain of the
amplifier drops at low frequencies.
At high frequencies: The coupling capacitor CC offers a low reactance and it acts as a short circuit. As a result of
this, the loading effect of the next stage increases, which reduces the voltage gain. Moreover, at high frequencies,
capacitive reactance of base emitter junction is low which increases the base current. This in turn reduces the current
amplification factor β. As a result of these two factors, gain drops at high frequencies.
At mid frequency: In the mid frequency range, the effect of coupling capacitor is such that it maintains a constant
gain. Thus, as the frequency increases, the reactance of capacitor CC decreases, which tends to increase the gain.
However, at the same time, lower capacitive reactance increases the loading effect of first stage to which the gain
reduces. These two factors cancel each other. Thus the constant gain is maintained.
Advantages of RC coupled amplifiers:
it requires components like resistors and capacitors. Hence, it is small, light and inexpensive. Amax 2maxA f1 f2 f
(Hz) Band Width Gain 3dB LF HFMF Transistor Amplifiers Page 19 of 23

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a wide frequency response. The gain is constant over audio frequency range which is the region oSfmmaorstworld.asia
t
importance for speech and music.
It provides less frequency distortion.
Its overall amplification is higher than that of other coupling combinations.
Disadvantages of RC coupled amplifiers:
The overall gain of the amplifier is comparatively small because of the loading effect.
RC coupled amplifiers have tendency to become noisy with age, especially in moist climate.
The impedance matching is poor as the output impedance is several hundred ohms, where as that of a speaker is only
few ohms. Hence, small amount of power will be transferred to the speaker.
Applications:
RC coupled amplifiers have excellent audio frequency fidelity over a wide range of frequency i.e, they are widely
used as voltage amplifiers. This property makes it very useful in the initial stages of public address system.
However, it may be noted that a coupled amplifier cannot be used as a final stage of the amplifier because of its poor
impedance matching.
Direct coupled amplifier :
The circuit diagram of direct coupling using two identical transistors is shown in the fig. In this method, the ac
output signal is fed directly to the next stage. This type of coupling is used where low frequency signals are to be
amplified. The coupling devices such as capacitors, inductors and transformers cannot be used at low frequencies
because there size becomes very large. The amplifiers using this coupling are called direct coupled amplifiers or dc
amplifiers.
Advantages Fig . Two stage Direct coupled amplifier R1 RC vs is iB ic +VCCR1RCvo2 ic vo1 Page 20 of 23

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cuit arrangement is simple because of minimum number of components. Smartworld.asia
The circuit can amplify even very low frequency signals as well as direct current signals.
No bypass and coupling capacitors are required.
Disadvantages
1. It cannot be used for amplifying high frequencies.
2. The operating point is shifted due to temperature variations.
Applications : Direct coupled amplifiers find applications in regulator circuits of electronic power supplies,
differential amplifiers, pulse amplifiers, electronic instruments

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 rldN.cIoTm– III
SmartzwoU Smartworld.asia
Feedback Amplifiers: Concepts of feedback, Classification of feedback amplifiers, General
characteristics of negative feedback amplifiers, Effect of feedback on amplifier characteristics,
Voltage Series, Voltage Shunt, Current Series and Current Shunt Feedback Configurations,
Illustrative examples.
Oscillators: Classification of oscillators, Condition for oscillations, RC Phase shift Oscillators,
Generalized analysis of LC Oscillators-Hartley and Colpitts Oscillators, Wien Bridge and crystal
Oscillators, Stability of Oscillators

Feedback Amplifiers
INTRODUCTION
A practical amplifier has a gain of nearly one million i.e. its output is one million times
the input. Consequently, even a casual disturbance at the input will appear in the amplified form
in the output. There is a strong tendency in amplifiers to introduce hum due to sudden
temperature changes or stray electric and magnetic fields. Therefore, every high gain amplifier
tends to give noise along with signal in its output. The noise in the output of an amplifier is
undesirable and must be kept to as small a level as possible. The noise level in amplifiers can be
reduced considerably by the use of negative feedback i.e. by injecting a fraction of output in
phase opposition to the input signal. The object of this chapter is to consider the effects and
methods of providing negative feedback in transistor amplifiers.
Ideally an amplifier should reproduce the input signal, with change in magnitude and
with or without change in phase. But some of the short comings of the amplifier circuit are
I. Change in the value of the gain due to variation in supplying voltage, temperature or due
to components.
2. Distortion in wave-form due to non linearities in the operating characters of the
Amplifying device.
3. The amplifier may introduce noise (undesired signals)

The above drawbacks can be minimizing if we introduce feedback

CLASSIFICATION OF AMPLIFIERS
Amplifiers can be classified broadly as,
I. Voltage amplifiers.
2. Current amplifiers.
3. Transconductance amplifiers.
4. Transresistance amplifiers.
This classification is with respect to the input and output impedances relative to the load
and source impedances.

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rldO.cLoTmAGE AMPLIFIER Smartworld.asia
This circuit is a 2-port network and it represents an amplifier (see in Fig 7.1). Suppose
R,» Rs, drop across Rs is very small.

CURRENT AMPLIFIER

An ideal current amplifier is one which gives output current proportional to input current and
the proportionality factor is independent ofRs and RL.

TRANSCONDUCTANCE AMPLIFIER

Ideal Transconductance amplifier supplies output current which is proportional to input voitage
independently ofthe magnitude ofRs and RL.

TRANS RESISTANCE AMPLIFIER

It gives output voltage Vo proportional to Is, independent of Rs a. RL. For ideal amplifiers
Rj =0, Ro=O

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Concepts of feedback
The process of injecting a fraction of output energy of some device back to the input is known as
feedback. The principle of feedback is probably as old as the invention of first machine but it is
only some 50 years ago that feedback has come into use in connection with electronic circuits. It
has been found very useful in reducing noise in amplifiers and making amplifier operation stable.
Depending upon whether the feedback energy aids or opposes the input signal, there are two
basic types of feedback in amplifiers viz positive feedback and negative feedback.

Signal Source
It can be a voltage source V s or a current source Is
FEEDBACK NETWORK
It is a passive two port network. It may contain resistors, capacitors or inductors. But usually a
resistance is used as the feedback element. Here the output current is sampled and feedback. The
feedback network is connected in series with the output. This is called as Current Sampling or
Loop Sampling.
A voltage feedback is distinguished in this way from current feedback. For voltage feedback,

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edback element (resistor) will be in parallel with the output. For current feedback the Smartworld.asia
element will be in series.
COMPARATOR OR MIXER NETWORK
This is usually a differential amplifier. It has two inputs and gives a single output which is the
difference of the two inputs.

(i) Positive feedback. When the feedback energy (voltage or current) is in phase with the input
signal and thus aids it, it is called positive feedback. This is illustrated in Fig.. Both amplifier and
feedback network introduce a phase shift of 180°. The result is a 360° phase shift around the
loop, causing the feedback voltage Vf to be in phase with the input signal Vin.

The positive feedback increases the gain of the amplifier. However, it has the disadvantages of
increased distortion and instability. Therefore, positive feedback is seldom employed in
amplifiers. One important use of positive feedback is in oscillators. As we shall see in the next
chapter, if positive feedback is sufficiently large, it leads to oscillations. As a matter of fact, an
oscillator is a device that converts d.c. power into a.c. power of any desired frequency.
(ii) Negative feedback. When the feedback energy (voltage or current) is out of phase with the

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tmsignal and thus opposes it, it is called negative feedback. This is illustrated in Fig.. AsSymoaurtworld.asia
can see, the amplifier introduces a phase shift of 180° into the circuit while the feedback network
is so designed that it introduces no phase shift (i.e., 0° phase shift). The result is that the feedback
voltage Vf is 180° out of phase with the input signal Vin.

General characteristics of negative feedback amplifiers

Negative feedback reduces the gain of the amplifier. However, the advantages of negative
feedback are: reduction in distortion, stability in gain, increased bandwidth and improved input
and output impedances. It is due to these advantages that negative feedback is frequently
employed in amplifiers.
Advantages of Negative Voltage Feedback
The following are the advantages of negative voltage feedback in amplifiers :
(i) Gain stability. An important advantage of negative voltage feedback is that the resultant
gain of the amplifier can be made independent of transistor parameters or the supply voltage
variations.

For negative voltage feedback in an amplifier to be effective, the designer deliberately makes the
product Av mv much greater than unity. Therefore, in the above relation, 1 can be neglected as
compared to Av mv and the expression becomes :

It may be seen that the gain now depends only upon feedback fraction mv i.e., on the
characteristics of feedback circuit. As feedback circuit is usually a voltage divider (a resistive
network), therefore, it is unaffected by changes in temperature, variations in transistor
parameters and frequency. Hence, the gain of the amplifier is extremely stable.

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oemduces non-linear distortion. A large signal stage has non-linear distortion because itSsmartworld.asia
voltage gain changes at various points in the cycle. The negative voltage feedback reduces the
nonlinear distortion in large signal amplifiers. It can be proved mathematically that :

where D = distortion in amplifier without feedback

Dvf = distortion in amplifier with negative feedback
It is clear that by applying negative voltage feedback to an amplifier, distortion is reduced by a
factor 1 + Av mv.

(iii) Improves frequency response. As feedback is usually obtained through a resistive network,
therefore, voltage gain of the amplifier is *independent of signal frequency. The result is that
voltage gain of the amplifier will be substantially constant over a wide range of signal frequency.
The negative voltage feedback, therefore, improves the frequency response of the amplifier.
(iv) Increases circuit stability. The output of an ordinary amplifier is easily changed due to
variations in ambient temperature, frequency and signal amplitude. This changes the gain of the
amplifier, resulting in distortion. However, by applying negative voltage feedback, voltage gain
of the amplifier is stabilized or accurately fixed in value. This can be easily explained. Suppose
the output of a negative voltage feedback amplifier has increased because of temperature change
or due to some other reason. This means more negative feedback since feedback is being given
from the output. This tends to oppose the increase in amplification and maintains it stable. The
same is true should the output voltage decrease. Consequently, the circuit stability is
considerably increased.
(v) Increases input impedance and decreases output impedance. The negative voltage
feedback increases the input impedance and decreases the output impedance of amplifier. Such a
change is profitable in practice as the amplifier can then serve the purpose of impedance
matching.
(a) Input impedance. The increase in input impedance with negative voltage feedback can be
explained by referring to Fig.. Suppose the input impedance of the amplifier is Zin without
feedback and Z ′in with negative feedback. Let us further assume that input current is i1.

(b) Output impedance. Following similar line, we can show that output impedance with
negative voltage feedback is given by :

It is clear that by applying negative feedback, the output impedance of the amplifier is decreased
by a factor 1 + Aν mν. This is an added benefit of using negative voltage feedback. With lower
value of output impedance, the amplifier is much better suited to drive low impedance loads.

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Effect of feedback on amplifier characteristics
CLASSIFACTION OF FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS
There are four types of feedback,
1. Voltage series feedback.
2. Voltage shunt feedback.
3. Current shunt feedback.
4. Current series feedback.

If the feedback signal is taken across RL, it is a Vo or so it is Voltage feedback.

If the feedback signal is taken in series with the output terminals, feedback signal is proportional
to I0 , So it is current feedback.
If the feedback signal is in series with the input, it is seriesfeedback.
If the feedback signal is in shunt with the input, it is shuntfeedback.

Voltage Series Configuration

Feedback signal is taken across RL.proportional to Vo. So it is voltage feedback. Vf is coming in
series with VI So it is Voltage series feedback.

Voltage series feedback.

EXPRESSION FOR INPUT RESISTANCE RI WITH VOLTAGE SERIES FEEDBACK

In this circuit Av represents the open circuit voltage gain taking Rs into account

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Voltage series feedback

EXPRESSION FOR OUTPUT RESISTANCE Ro WITH VOLTAGE SERIES

FEEDBACK

RO is determined by impressing voltage 'V' at the output terminals or messing 'I', with input
Rof terminals.-shorted.

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rldis.ccoom
nnect RoL To find Rof' remove external signal (set Vs = 0, or Is = 0) Smartworld.asia
Let RL = ∞
Impress a voltage V across the output terminals and calculate the current I delivered by V.
Then, ROf = V/I.

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Oscillators
Classification of oscillators

Condition for oscillations

RC Phase shift Oscillators

Generalized analysis of LC Oscillators-

Hartley Oscillators

Colpitts Oscillators,

Wien Bridge Oscillators

crystal Oscillators,

Stability of Oscillators

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UNIT – IV
LARGE SIGNAL AMPLIFIERS: Classification, Class A Large signal amplifiers,
Transformer Coupled Class A Audio Power amplifier, Efficiency of class A amplifier, Class B
amplifier, Efficiency of class B Amplifier, class B Push pull Amplifier, Complementary
Symmetry Class B Push Pull Amplifier, Distortion of Power Amplifiers, Thermal Stability and
Heat sinks.

INTRODUCTION

A practical amplifier always consists of a number of stages that amplify a weak signal until
sufficient power is available to operate a loudspeaker or other output device. The first few stages
in this multistage amplifier have the function of only voltage amplification. However, the last
stage is designed to provide maximum power. This final stage is known as power stage.
The term audio means the range of frequencies which our ears can hear. The range of human
hearing extends from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Therefore, audio amplifiers amplify electrical signals that
have a frequency range corresponding to the range of human hearing i.e. 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Fig.
12.1 shows the block diagram of an audio amplifier. The early stages build up the voltage
level of the signal while the last stage builds up power to a level sufficient to operate the
loudspeaker. In this chapter, we shall talk about the final stage in a multistage amplifier—the
power amplifier.

Transistor Audio Power Amplifier

A transistor amplifier which raises the power level of the signals that have audio frequency range
is known as transistor audio power amplifier. In general, the last stage of a multistage
amplifier is the power stage. The power amplifier differs from all the previous stages in that here
a concentrated effort is made to obtain maximum output power. A transistor that is suitable
for power amplification is generally called a power transistor. It differs from other transistors
mostly in size ; it is considerably larger to provide for handling the great amount of power.
Audio power amplifiers are used to deliver a large amount of power to a low resistance load.
Typical load values range from 300Ω (for transmission antennas) to 8Ω (for loudspeakers).
Although these load values do not cover every possibility, they do illustrate the fact that audio
power amplifiers usually drive low-resistance loads. The typical power output rating of a power
amplifier is 1W or more.
Small-Signal and Large-Signal Amplifiers

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The input signal to a multistage amplifier is generally small (a few mV from a cassette or CD or
a few μV from an antenna). Therefore, the first few stages of a multistage amplifier handle small
signals and have the function of only voltage amplification. However, the last stage handles a
large signal and its job is to produce a large amount of power in order to operate the output
device (e.g. speaker).
(i) Small-signal amplifiers. Those amplifiers which handle small input a.c. signals (a few μV
or a few mV) are called small-signal amplifiers. Voltage amplifiers generally fall in this class.
The small-signal amplifiers are designed to operate over the linear portion of the output
characteristics. Therefore, the transistor parameters such as current gain, input impedance, output
impedance etc. do not change as the amplitude of the signal changes. Such amplifiers amplify the
signal with little or no distortion.
(ii) Large-signal amplifiers. Those amplifiers which handle large input a.c. signals (a few
volts) are called large-signal amplifiers. Power amplifiers fall in this class. The large-signal
amplifiers
are designed to provide a large amount of a.c. power output so that they can operate the output
device e.g. a speaker. The main features of a large-signal amplifier or power amplifier are the
circuit’s power efficiency, the maximum amount of power that the circuit is capable of handling
and the impedance matching to the output device. It may be noted that all large-signal amplifiers
are not necessarily power amplifiers but it is safe to say that most are. In general, where amount
of power involved is 1W or more, the amplifier is termed as power amplifier.
Output Power of Amplifier
An amplifier converts d.c. power drawn from d.c. supply VCC into a.c. output power. The output
power is always less than the input power because losses occur in the various resistors present in
the circuit. For example, consider the R-C coupled amplifier circuit shown in Fig. 12.2. The
currents are flowing through various resistors causing I2R loss. Thus power loss in R1 is I1
2 R1, power loss in RC is IC 2 RC, power loss in RE is IE 2 RE and so on. All these losses
appear as heat. Therefore, losses occurring in an amplifier not only decrease the efficiency but
they also increase the temperature of the circuit.

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Fig. 4.2
When load RL is connected to the amplifier, A.C. output power,

Example 4.1. If in Fig. 4.2; R1 = 10 k ; R2 = 2.2 k ; RC = 3.6 k ; RE = 1.1. k and VCC

= + 10 V, find the d.c. power drawn from the supply by the amplifier.
Solution. The current I1 flowing through R1 also flows through R2 (a reasonable assumption
because IB is small).

Example 4.2. Determine the a.c. load power for the circuit shown in Fig. 4.3.

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Fig. 4.3.
Solution. The reading of a.c. voltmeter is 10.6V. Since a.c. voltmeters read r.m.s. voltage, we
have,

Example 4.3. In an RC coupled power amplifier, the a.c. voltage across load RL (= 100 )hasa
peak- to-peak value of 18V. Find the maximum possible a.c. load power.
Solution. The peak-to-peak voltage, VPP = 18V. Therefore, peak voltage (or maximum voltage)
=

Difference Between Voltage and Power Amplifiers

The distinction between voltage and power amplifiers is somewhat artificial since useful power
(i.e. product of voltage and current) is always developed in the load resistance through which
current flows. The difference between the two types is really one of degree; it is a question of
how much voltage and how much power. A voltage amplifier is designed to achieve maximum

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voltage amplification. It is, however, not important to raise the power level. On the other hand, a
power amplifier is designed to obtain maximum output power.
1. Voltage amplifier. The voltage gain of an amplifier is given by :

In order to achieve high voltage amplification, the following features are incorporated in such
amplifiers :
(i) The transistor with high β ( >100) is used in the circuit. In other words, those transistors are
employed which have thin base.
(ii) The input resistance Rin of the transistor is sought to be quite low as compared to the
collector load RC.
(iii) A relatively high load RC is used in the collector. To permit this condition, voltage
amplifiers are always operated at low collector currents (j 1 mA). If the collector current is small,
we can use large RC in the collector circuit.
2. Power amplifier. A power amplifier is required to deliver a large amount of power and as
such it has to handle large current. In order to achieve high power amplification, the following
features are incorporated in such amplifiers :
(i) The size of power transistor is made considerably larger in order to dissipate the heat
produced in the transistor during operation.
(ii) The base is made thicker to handle large currents. In other words, transistors with
comparatively smaller are used.
(iii) Transformer coupling is used for impedance matching.
The comparison between voltage and power amplifiers is given below in the tabular form
:

Example 4.4. A power amplifier operated from 12V battery gives an output of 2W. Find the
maximum collector current in the circuit.
Solution.
Let IC be the maximum collector current.
Power = battery voltage collector current

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This example shows that a power amplifier handles large power as well as large current.
Example 4.5. A voltage amplifier operated from a 12 V battery has a collector load of 4 k .
Find the maximum collector current in the circuit.
Solution.
The maximum collector current will flow when the whole battery voltage is dropped
across RC.

This example shows that a voltage amplifier handles small current.

Example 4.6. A power amplifier supplies 50 W to an 8-ohm speaker. Find (i) a.c. output
voltage (ii) a.c. output current.

Performance Quantities of Power Amplifiers

As mentioned previously, the prime objective for a power amplifier is to obtain maximum output
power. Since a transistor, like any other electronic device has voltage, current and power
dissipation limits, therefore, the criteria for a power amplifier are : collector efficiency,
distortion and power dissipation capability.
(i) Collector efficiency. The main criterion for a power amplifier is not the power gain rather
it is the maximum a.c. power output. Now, an amplifier converts d.c. power from supply
into a.c. power output. Therefore, the ability of a power amplifier to convert d.c. power
from supply into a.c. output power is a measure of its effectiveness. This is known as
collector efficiency and may be defined as under :
The ratio of a.c. output power to the zero signal power (i.e. d.c. power) supplied by the battery
of a power amplifier is known as collector efficiency.
Collector efficiency means as to how well an amplifier converts d.c. power from the battery into
a.c. output power. For instance, if the d.c. power supplied by the battery is 10W and a.c. output
power is 2W, then collector efficiency is 20%. The greater the collector efficiency, the larger is
the a.c. power output. It is obvious that for power amplifiers, maximum collector efficiency is
the desired goal.
(ii) Distortion. The change of output wave shape from the input wave shape of an amplifier is
known as distortion. A transistor like other electronic devices, is essentially a non-linear device.
Therefore, whenever a signal is applied to the input of the transistor, the output signal is not
exactly like the input signal i.e. distortion occurs. Distortion is not a problem for small signals
(i.e. voltage amplifiers) since transistor is a linear device for small variations about the operating

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point. However, a power amplifier handles large signals and, therefore, the problem of distortion
immediately arises. For the comparison of two power amplifiers, the one which has the less
distortion is the better. We shall discuss the method of reducing distortion in amplifiers in the
chapter of negative feedback in amplifiers.
(iii) Power dissipation capability. The ability of a power transistor to dissipate heat is known
as power dissipation capability. As stated before, a power transistor handles large currents and
heats up during operation. As any temperature change influences the operation of transistor,
therefore, the transistor must dissipate this heat to its surroundings. To achieve this, generally a
heat sink (a metal case) is attached to a power transistor case. The increased surface area allows
heat to escape easily and keeps the case temperature of the transistor within permissible limits.
Classification of Power Amplifiers
Transistor power amplifiers handle large signals. Many of them are driven so hard by the input
large signal that collector current is either cut-off or is in the saturation region during a large
portion of the input cycle. Therefore, such amplifiers are generally classified according to their
mode of operation i.e. the portion of the input cycle during which the collector current is
expected to flow. On this basis, they are classified as :
Amplifier circuits may be classified in terms of the portion of the cycle for which the active
device conducts.
Class A: It is one, in which the active device conducts for the full 360°.
Class B: Conduction for 1800
Class C: Conduction for < 1800
Class AB :Conduction angle is between 1800 and 3600
(i) class A power amplifier (ii) class B power amplifier (iii) class C power amplifier
(i) Class A power amplifier. If the collector current flows at all times during the full cycle of
the signal, the power amplifier is known as class A power amplifier.

Fig. 4.4

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Obviously, for this to happen, the power amplifier must be biased in such a way that no part of
the signal is cut off. Fig. 4.4 (i) shows circuit of class A power amplifier. Note that collector has
a transformer as the load which is most common for all classes of power amplifiers. The use of
transformer permits impedance matching, resulting in the transference of maximum power to the
load e.g. loudspeaker. Fig. 4.4 (ii) shows the class A operation in terms of a.c. load line. The
operating point Q is so selected that collector current flows at all times throughout the full cycle
of the applied signal. As the output wave shape is exactly similar to the input wave shape,
therefore, such amplifiers have least distortion. However, they have the disadvantage of low
power output and low collector efficiency (about 35%).
(ii) Class B power amplifier. If the collector current flows only during the positive half-cycle
of the input signal, it is called a class B power amplifier. In class B operation, the transistor bias
is so adjusted that zero signal collector current is zero i.e. no biasing circuit is needed at all.
During the positive half-cycle of the signal, the input circuit is forward biased and hence
collector current flows. However, during the negative half-cycle of the signal, the input circuit is
reverse biased and no collector current flows. Fig. 12.5 shows the class B operation in terms of
a.c. load line. Obviously, the operating point Q shall be located at collector cut off voltage. It is
easy to see that output from a class B amplifier is amplified half-wave rectification. In a class B
amplifier, the negative half-cycle of the signal is cut off and hence a severe distortion occurs.
However, class B amplifiers provide higher power output and collector efficiency (50 −60%).
Such amplifiers are mostly used for power amplification in push-pull arrangement. In such an
Arrangement, 2 transistors are used in class B operation. One transistor amplifies the positive
half cycle of the signal while the other amplifies the negative half-cycle.

(iii) Class C power amplifier. If the collector current flows for less than half-cycle of the input

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signal, it is called class C power amplifier. In class C amplifier, the base is given some negative
bias so that collector current does not flow just when the positive half-cycle of the signal starts.
Such amplifiers are never used for power amplification. However, they are used as tuned
amplifiers i.e. to amplify a narrow band of frequencies near the resonant frequency.

Expression for Collector Efficiency

For comparing power amplifiers, collector efficiency is the main criterion. The greater the
collector efficiency, the better is the power amplifier.
Now, Collector efficiency

where Vce is the r.m.s. value of signal output voltage and Ic is the r.m.s. value of output signal
current. In terms of peak-to-peak values (which are often convenient values in load-line work),
the a.c. power output can be expressed as :

Series-Fed Class A Amplifier

Fig. 4.6 (i) shows a series – fed class A amplifier. This circuit is seldom used for power
amplification due to its poor collector efficiency. Nevertheless, it will help the reader to
understand the class A operation. The d.c. load line of the circuit is shown in Fig. 12.6 (ii). When

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an ac signal is applied to the amplifier, the output current and voltage will vary about the
operating point Q. In order to achieve the maximum symmetrical swing of current and voltage
(to achieve maximum output power), the Q point should be located at the centre of the dc load
line. In that case, operating point is IC =VCC/2RC and VCE = VCC/2 .

Fig. 4.6

Thus the maximum collector efficiency of a class A series-fed amplifier is 25%. In actual
practice, the collector efficiency is far less than this value.
Example 4.7. Calculate the (i) output power (ii) input power and (iii) collector efficiency of the
amplifier circuit shown in Fig. 12.7 (i). It is given that input voltage results in a base current of
10 mA peak.

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Maximum Collector Efficiency of Transformer Coupled

Class A Power Amplifier
In class A power amplifier, the load can be either connected directly in the collector or it can be
transformer coupled. The latter method is often preferred for two main reasons. First, transformer
coupling permits impedance matching and secondly it keeps the d.c. power loss small because of the
small resistance of the transformer primary winding.
Fig. 12.8 (i) shows the transformer coupled class A power amplifier. In order to determine
maximum collector efficiency, refer to the output characteristics shown in Fig. 4.8 (ii). Under zero
signal conditions, the effective resistance in the collector circuit is that of the primary winding of the
transformer. The primary resistance has a v line is a vertical line rising from VCC as shown in Fig. 12.8 (ii).
When signal is applied, the collector
current will vary about the operating point Q.

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In order to get maximum a.c. power output (and hence maximum collector ), the peak value of
collector current due to signal alone should be equal to the zero signal collector current IC. In terms
of a.c. load line, the operating point Q should be located at the centre of a.c. load line.ery small value and
is assumed zero. Therefore, d.c. load

Fig. 4.8
During the peak of the positive half-cycle of the signal, the total collector current is 2 IC and vce
= 0. During the negative peak of the signal, the collector current is zero and vce = 2VCC.
 Peak-to-peak collector-emitter voltage is
vce (p - p) = 2VCC
Peak-to-peak collector current, ic (p - p) = 2 IC

where RL’ is the reflected value of load RL and appears in the primary of the transformer.
If n ( = Np/Ns) is the turn ratio of the transformer, then, RL’ = n2 RL.
d.c. power input, Pdc = VCC IC

Max.a.c. output power, Po (max) =

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Important Points About Class A Power Amplifier

(i) A *transformer coupled class A power amplifier has a maximum collector efficiency of 50%
i.e., maximum of 50% d.c. supply power is converted into a.c. power output. In practice, the
efficiency of such an amplifier is less than 50% (about 35%) due to power losses in the output
transformer, power dissipation in the transistor etc.
(ii) The power dissipated by a transistor is given by :
Pdis = Pdc - Pac
where Pdc = available d.c. power
Pac = available a.c. power
Clearly, in class A operation, the transistor must dissipate less heat when signal is applied and
therefore runs cooler.
(iii) When no signal is applied to a class A power amplifier, Pac = 0.
Pdis = Pdc
Thus in class A operation, maximum power dissipation in the transistor occurs under zero signal
conditions. Therefore, the power dissipation capability of a power transistor (for class A
operation) must be atleast equal to the zero signal rating. For example, if the zero signal power
dissipation of a transistor is 1 W, then transistor needs a rating of atleast 1W. If the power rating
of the transistor is less than 1 W, it is likely to be damaged.
(iv) When a class A power amplifier is used in the final stage, it is called single ended class A
power amplifier.

Example 4.8. A power transistor working in class A operation has zero signal power dissipation
of 10 watts. If the a.c. output power is 4 watts, find :
(i) collector efficiency (ii) power rating of transistor
Solution.
Zero signal power dissipation, Pdc = 10 W
a.c. power output, Po = 4 W
(i) Collector efficiency =

(ii) The zero signal power represents the worst case i.e. maximum power dissipation in a
transistor
occurs under zero signal conditions.
∴ Power rating of transistor = 10 W
It means to avoid damage, the transistor must have a power rating of atleast 10 W.
Example 4.9. A class A power amplifier has a transformer as the load. If the transformer has

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a turn ratio of 10 and the secondary load is 100 Ω, find the maximum a.c. power output. Given
that zero signal collector current is 100 mA.
Solution.
Secondary load, RL = 100 Ω

Class B Push-Pull Power Amplifier

The push-pull amplifier is a power amplifier and is frequently employed in the output stages of
electronic circuits. It is used whenever high output power at high efficiency is required. Fig. 4.14
shows the circuit of a push-pull amplifier. Two transistors Tr1 and Tr2 placed back to back are
employed. Both transistors are operated in class B operation i.e. collector current is nearly zero in
the absence of the signal. The centre-tapped secondary of driver transformer T1 supplies equal
and opposite voltages to the base circuits of two transistors. The output transformer T2 has the
centre-tapped primary winding. The supply voltage VCC is connected between the bases and this
centre tap. The loudspeaker is connected across the secondary of this transformer.
Circuit operation. The input signal appears across the secondary AB of driver transformer.
Suppose during the first half-cycle (marked 1) of the signal, end A becomes positive and end B
negative. This will make the base-emitter junction of Tr1 reverse biased and that of Tr2 forward
biased. The circuit will conduct current due to Tr2 only and is shown by solid arrows. Therefore,
this half-cycle of the signal is amplified by Tr2 and appears in the lower half of the primary of
output transformer. In the next halfcycle of the signal, Tr1 is forward biased whereas Tr2 is
reverse biased. Therefore, Tr1 conducts and is shown by dotted arrows. Consequently, this half-
cycle of the signal is amplified by Tr1 and appears in the upper half of the output transformer
primary. The centre-tapped primary of the output transformer combines two collector currents to
form a sine wave output in the secondary.

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. Fig. 4.14

It may be noted here that push-pull arrangement also permits a maximum transfer of power to the
load through impedance matching. If RL is the resistance appearing across secondary of output
transformer,
then resistance R′L of primary shall become :

Advantages
(i) The efficiency of the circuit is quite high (i.e 75%) due to class B operation.
(ii) A high a.c. output power is obtained.
Disadvantages
(i) Two transistors have to be used.
(ii) It requires two equal and opposite voltages at the input. Therefore, push-pull circuit requires
the use of driver stage to furnish these signals.
(iii) If the parameters of the two transistors are not the same, there will be unequal amplification
of the two halves of the signal.
(iv) The circuit gives more distortion.
(v) Transformers used are bulky and expensive.

Maximum Efficiency for Class B Power Amplifier

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We have already seen that a push-pull circuit uses two transistors working in class B operation.
For class B operation, the Q-point is located at cut-off on both d.c. and a.c. load lines. For
maximum signal operation, the two transistors in class B amplifier are alternately driven from
cut-off to saturation. This is shown in Fig. 4.15 (i). It is clear that a.c. output voltage has a peak
value of VCE and a.c. output current has a peak value of IC (sat). The same information is also
conveyed through the a.c. load line for the circuit [See Fig. 4.15 (ii)].

Fig. 4.15

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where Idc is the average current drawn from the supply VCC. Since the transistor is on for
alternating half-cycles, it effectively acts as a half-wave rectifier.

Thus the maximum collector efficiency of class B power amplifier is 78.5%. Recall that
maximum collector efficiency for class A transformer coupled amplifier is 50%.
Power dissipated by transistors. The power dissipated (as heat) by the transistors in class B
amplifier is the difference between the input power delivered by VCC and the output power
delivered to the load i.e.

Example 4.18. For a class B amplifier using a supply of VCC = 12V and driving a load of 8Ω,
determine (i) maximum load power (ii) d.c. input power (iii) collector efficiency.

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Example 4.19. A class B push-pull amplifier with transformer coupled load uses two
transistors rated 10 W each. What is the maximum power output one can obtain at the load from
thecircuit?

Example 4.20. A class B amplifier has an efficiency of 60% and each transistor has a rating
of 2.5W. Find the a.c. output power and d.c. input power

Example 4.21. A class B amplifier uses VCC = 10V and drives a load of 10Ω. Determine the
end point values of the a.c. load line.

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Complementary-Symmetry Amplifier
By complementary symmetry is meant a principle of assembling push-pull class B amplifier
without requiring centre-tapped transformers at the input and output stages. Fig. 4.16 shows the
transistor push-pull amplifier using complementary symmetry. It employs one npn and one pnp
transistor and requires no centre-tapped transformers. The circuit action is as follows. During the
positive-half of the input signal, transistor T1 (the npn transistor) conducts current while T2 (the
pnp transistor) is cut off. During the negative half-cycle of the signal, T2 conducts while T1 is
cut off. In this way, npn transistor amplifies the positive half-cycles of the signal while the pnp
transistor amplifies the negative half-cycles of the signal. Note that we generally use an output
transformer (not centre-tapped) for impedance matching.

Fig. 4.16

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Advantages
(i) This circuit does not require transformer. This saves on weight and cost.
(ii) Equal and opposite input signal voltages are not required.
Disadvantages
(i) It is difficult to get a pair of transistors (npn and pnp) that have similar characteristics.
(ii) We require both positive and negative supply voltages.

DISTORTION
Let ib1 V c, Vb1 be the input characteristic of the first transistor and ib2, V s, Vb2 is the input
characteristic of th6 second transistor. V y is the cut)n voltage. These are t6e two tiansistors of
the class B pushpull amplifier. Now the base input voltage being given to the transistor is
sinusoidal, i.e., base drive is sinusoidal. So because of the cut in voltage, eventhough input
voltage is present, output will not be transmitted or there is distortion in the output current of the
transistor. This is known as crossover distortion. But this will not occur if the base current drive
is sinusoidal. Since in the graphical analysis the input current is taken in the I quadrant. No
distortion if the operating point is in the active region. Cross-over distortion can also be
laminated in class AB operation. A small stand by current flows at zero excitation. The input
signal is shifted by constant DC bias so that the input signal is shifted by an amount V γ

Thermal Runaway

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All semiconductor devices are very sensitive to temperature variations. If the temperature of a
transistor exceeds the permissible limit, the transistor may be *permanently damaged. Silicon
transistors can withstand temperatures upto 250ºC while the germanium transistors can withstand
temperatures upto 100ºC.
There are two factors which determine the operating temperature of a transistor viz.
(i) surrounding temperature and
(ii) power dissipated by the transistor.
When the transistor is in operation, almost the entire heat is produced at the collector-base
junction. This power dissipation causes the junction temperature to rise. This in turn increases
the collector current since more electron-hole pairs are generated due to the rise in temperature.
This produces an increased power dissipation in the transistor and consequently a further rise in
temperature. Unless adequate cooling is provided or the transistor has built-in temperature
compensation circuits to prevent excessive collector current rise, the junction temperature will
continue to increase until the maximum permissible temperature is exceeded. If this situation
occurs, the transistor will be permanently damaged.
The unstable condition where, owing to rise in temperature, the collector current rises and
continues to increase is known as thermal runaway.
Thermal runaway must always be avoided. If it occurs, permanent damage is caused and the
transistor must be replaced.

Heat Sink

As power transistors handle large currents, they always heat up during operation. Since transistor
is a temperature dependent device, the heat generated must be dissipated to the surroundings in
order to keep the temperature within permissible limits. Generally, the transistor is fixed on a
metal sheet (usually aluminium) so that additional heat is transferred to the Al sheet.
The metal sheet that serves to dissipate the additional heat from the power transistor is known
as heat sink.
Most of the heat within the transistor is produced at the collector junction. The heat sink
increases the surface area and allows heat to escape from the collector junction easily. The result
is that temperature of the transistor is sufficiently lowered. Thus heat sink is a direct practical
means of combating the undesirable thermal effects e.g. thermal runaway. material, volume,
area, shape, contact between case and sink and movement of air around the sink. Finned
aluminium heat sinks yield the best heat transfer per unit cost. It should be realised that the use
of heat sink alone may not be sufficient to prevent thermal runaway under all conditions. In
designing a transistor circuit, consideration should also be given to the choice of
(i) operating point
(ii) ambient temperatures which are likely to be encountered and
(iii) the type of transistor e.g. metal case transistors are more readily cooled by conduction
than plastic ones.
Circuits may also be designed to compensate automatically for temperature changes and thus

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stabilise the operation of the transistor components.
Classification of heat Sinks

(i) Low Power Transistor Type.

(ii) High Power Transistor Type.

Low Power Transistor Type

• Low Power Transistors can be mounted directly on the metal chassis to increase the heat
dissipation capability. The casing of the transistor must be insulated from the metal
chassis to prevent shorting.
• Beryllium oxide insulating washers are used for insulating casing from the chassis. They
have good thermal conductivity.
• Zinc oxide film silicon compound between washer and chassis, improves the heat transfer
from the semiconductor device to case to the chassis.
High Power Transistor Type.

Mathematical Analysis
The permissible power dissipation of the transistor is very important item for power transistors.
The permissible power rating of a transistor is calculated from the following relation :

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The unit of Ə is ºC/ watt and its value is always given in the transistor manual. A low thermal
resistance means that it is easy for heat to flow from the junction to the surrounding air. The
larger the transistor case, the lower is the thermal resistance and vice-versa. It is then clear that
by using heat sink, the value of θ can be decreased considerably, resulting in increased power
dissipation.
Example 4.15. A power transistor dissipates 4 W. If TJmax = 90ºC, find the maximum ambient
temperature at which it can be operated. Given Ə = 10ºC/W.

The above example shows the effect of ambient temperature on the permissible power
dissipation in a transistor. The lower the ambient temperature, the greater is the permissible
power dissipation. Thus, a transistor can pass a higher collector current in winter than in summer.

Example 4.16. (i) A power transistor has thermal resistance θ = 300ºC/W. If the maximum
junction temperature is 90ºC and the ambient temperature is 30ºC, find the maximum
permissible power dissipation.
(ii) If a heat sink is used with the above transistor, the value of θ is reduced to 60ºC/W. Find the
maximum permissible power dissipation.

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It is clear from the above example that permissible power dissipation with heat sink is 5 times as
compared to the case when no heat sink is used.
Example 4.17. The total thermal resistance of a power transistor and heat sink is 20°C/W.
The ambient temperature is 25°C and TJ max = 200°C. If VCE = 4 V, find the maximum
collector current that the transistor can carry without destruction. What will be the allowed
value of collector current if ambient temperature rises to 75°C ?

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TUNED AMPLIFIERS Introduction, Q Factor, Small signal Tuned Amplifiers, Effect of
Cascading Single tuned Amplifiers on bandwidth, Effect of Cascading Double Tuned Amplifiers
on Bandwidth, Stagger Tuned Amplifiers, Stability of tuned amplifiers.

Transistor Tuned Amplifiers

INTRODUCTION
An audio amplifier amplifies a wide band of frequencies equally well and does not permit the
selection of a particular desired frequency while rejecting all other frequencies. However,
sometimes it is desired that an amplifier should be selective i.e. it should select a desired
frequency or narrow band of frequencies for amplification. For instance, radio and television
transmission are carried on a specific radio frequency assigned to the broadcasting station. The
radio receiver is required to pick up and amplify the radio frequency desired while discriminating
all others. To achieve this, the simple resistive load is replaced by a parallel tuned circuit whose
impedance strongly depends upon frequency. Such a tuned circuit becomes very selective and
amplifies very strongly signals of resonant frequency and narrow band on either side. Therefore,
the use of tuned circuits in conjunction with a transistor makes possible the selection and
efficient amplification of a particular desired radio frequency. Such an amplifier is called a tuned
amplifier. In this chapter, we shall focus our attention on transistor tuned amplifiers and their
increasing applications in high frequency electronic circuits.

Advantages of Tuned Amplifiers

In high frequency applications, it is generally required to amplify a single frequency, rejecting all
other frequencies present. For such purposes, tuned amplifiers are used. These amplifiers use
tuned parallel circuit as the collector load and offer the following advantages :
(i) Small power loss. A tuned parallel circuit employs reactive components L and C.
Consequently, the power loss in such a circuit is quite low. On the other hand, if a resistive load
is used in the collector circuit, there will be considerable loss of power. Therefore, tuned
amplifiers are highly efficient.
(ii) High selectivity. A tuned circuit has the property of selectivity i.e. it can select the desired
frequency for amplification out of a large number of frequencies simultaneously impressed upon
it. For instance, if a mixture of frequencies including fr is fed to the input of a tuned amplifier,
then maximum amplification occurs for fr. For all other frequencies, the tuned circuit offers very
low impedance and hence these are amplified to a little extent and may be thought as rejected by
the circuit. On the other hand, if we use resistive load in the collector, all the frequencies will be
amplified equally well i.e. the circuit will not have the ability to select the desired frequency.
(iii) Smaller collector supply voltage. Because of little resistance in the parallel tuned circuit,

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Smartzwoirtldr.ecqoumires small collector supply voltage VCC. On the other hand, if a high load resistance iSsmartworld.asia
used in the collector for amplifying even one frequency, it would mean large voltage drop across
it due to zero signal collector current. Consequently, a higher collector supply will be needed.

Why not Tuned Circuits for Low Frequency Amplification?

The tuned amplifiers are used to select and amplify a specific high frequency or narrow band of
frequencies. The reader may be inclined to think as to why tuned circuits are not used to amplify
low frequencies. This is due to the following reasons :
(i) Low frequencies are never single. A tuned amplifier selects and amplifies a single frequency.
However, the low frequencies found in practice are the audio frequencies which are a mixture
of frequencies from 20 Hz to 20 kHz and are not single. It is desired that all these frequencies
should be equally amplified for proper reproduction of the signal. Consequently, tuned amplifiers
cannot be used for the purpose.
(ii) High values of L and C. The resonant frequency of a parallel tuned circuit is given by;
fr = 1/2π LC
For low frequency amplification, we require large values of L and C. This will make the tuned
Circuit bulky and expensive. It is worthwhile to mention here that R-C and transformer coupled
Amplifiers, which are comparatively cheap, can be conveniently used for low frequency
applications.

Classification

Tuned Amplifiers
Amplifiers which amplify a specific frequency or narrow band of frequencies are called tuned
amplifiers. Tuned amplifiers are mostly used for the amplification of high or radio frequencies.

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ecause radio frequencies are generally single and the tuned circuit permits their selectiSomnartworld.asia
and efficient amplification. However, such amplifiers are not suitable for the amplification of
audio frequencies as they are mixture of frequencies from 20 Hz to 20 kHz and not single.
Tuned amplifiers are widely used in radio and television circuits where they are called upon to
handle radio frequencies. Fig. 5.1 shows the circuit of a simple transistor tuned amplifier. Here,
instead of load resistor, we have a parallel tuned circuit in the collector. The impedance
of this tuned circuit strongly depends upon frequency. It offers a very high impedance
at resonant frequency and very small impedance at all other frequencies. If the signal has the
same frequency as the resonant frequency of LC circuit, large amplification will result due to
high impedance of LC circuit at this frequency. When signals of many frequencies are present at
the input of tuned amplifier, it will select and strongly amplify the signals of resonant frequency
while *rejecting all others. Therefore, such amplifiers are very useful in radio receivers to select
the signal from one particular broadcasting station when signals of many other frequencies are
present at the receiving aerial.

Fig.5.1
Distinction between Tuned Amplifiers and other Amplifiers
We have seen that amplifiers (e.g., voltage amplifier, power amplifier etc.) provide the constant
gain over a limited band of frequencies i.e., from lower cut-off frequency f1 to upper cut-off
frequency f2. Now bandwidth of the amplifier, BW = f2 − f1. The reader may wonder, then, what
distinguishes atuned amplifier from other amplifiers? The difference is that tuned amplifiers are
designed to have specific, usually narrow bandwidth. This point is illustrated in in Fig.5.2. Note
that BWS is the bandwidth of standard frequency response while BWT is the bandwidth of the
tuned amplifier. In many applications, the narrower the bandwidth of a tuned amplifier, the better
it is.

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Fig.5.2 Fig.5.3
Illustration. Consider a tuned amplifier that is designed to amplify only those frequencies that
are within ± 20 kHz of the central frequency of 1000 kHz (i.e., fr = 1000 kHz ). Here [See Fig.
5.3], f1 = 980 kHz, fr = 1000 kHz, f2 = 1020 kHz, BW = 40 kHz
This means that so long as the input signal is within the range of 980 – 1020 kHz, it will be
amplified. If the frequency of input signal goes out of this range, amplification will be drastically
reduced.

Analysis of Parallel Tuned Circuit

A parallel tuned circuit consists of a capacitor C and inductor L in parallel as shown in Fig. 15.4
(i).In practice, some resistance R is always present with the coil. If an alternating voltage is
applied across this parallel circuit, the frequency of oscillations will be that of the applied
voltage. However, if the frequency of applied voltage is equal to the natural or resonant
frequency of LC circuit, then electrical resonance will occur. Under such conditions, the
impedance of the tuned circuit becomes maximum and the line current is minimum. The circuit
then draws just enough energy from a.c. supply necessary to overcome the losses in the
resistance R.
Parallel resonance. A parallel circuit containing reactive elements (L and C ) is *resonant when
the circuit power factor is unity i.e. applied voltage and the supply current are in phase. The
phasor diagram of the parallel circuit is shown in Fig. 15. 4 (ii). The coil current IL has two
rectangular
components viz active component IL cos L and reactive component IL sin wL. This parallel
circuit will resonate when the circuit power factor is unity. This is possible only when the net
reactive component of the circuit current is zero i.e.

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SmartzwoR es.coonmance in parallel circuit can be obtained by changing the supply frequency. At some
rld Smartworld.asia
frequency fr (called resonant frequency), IC = IL sin wL and resonance occurs.
Resonant frequency. The frequency at which parallel resonance occurs (i.e. reactive component
of circuit current becomes zero) is called the resonant frequency fr.

Fig. 5.4

The resonant frequency will be in Hz if R, L and C are in ohms, henry and farad respectively.

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rldo.tceo.m
If in the problem, the value of R is given, then eq. (ii) should be used to find fr. HoweSvmera,rtworld.asia
if R is not given, then eq. (iii) may be used to find fr.
15.4 Characteristics of Parallel Resonant Circuit
It is now desirable to discuss some important characteristics of parallel resonant circuit.
(i) Impedance of tuned circuit. The impedance offered by the parallel LC circuit is given by
the supply voltage divided by the line current i.e., V/I. Since at resonance, line current is
minimum, therefore, impedance is maximum at resonant frequency. This fact is shown by the
impedance-frequency curve of Fig 5.5. It is clear from impedance-frequency curve that
impedance rises to a steep peak at resonant frequency fr. However, the impedance of the circuit
decreases rapidly when the frequency is changed above or below the resonant frequency. This
characteristic of parallel tuned circuit provides it the selective properties i.e. to select the
resonant frequency and reject all others.

Fig. 5.5
Thus at parallel resonance, the circuit impedance is equal
to *L/CR. It may be noted that Zr will be in ohms if R, L and C are measured in ohms, henry and
farad respectively.

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oim
rcuit Current. At parallel resonance, the circuit or line current I is given by the appliSem
d artworld.asia
voltage divided by the circuit impedance Zr i.e.,

Because Zr is very high, the line current I will be very small.

(iii) Quality factor Q. It is desired that resonance curve of a parallel tuned circuit should be as
sharp as possible in order to provide selectivity. The sharp resonance curve means that
impedance falls rapidly as the frequency is varied from the resonant frequency. The smaller the
resistance of coil, the more sharp is the resonance curve. This is due to the fact that a small
resistance consumes less power and draws a relatively small line current. The ratio of inductive
reactance and resistance of the coil at resonance, therefore, becomes a measure of the quality of
the tuned circuit. This is called quality factor and may be defined as under :
The ratio of inductive reactance of the coil at resonance to its resistance is known as **quality
factor Q i.e.,

The quality factor Q of a parallel tuned circuit is very important because the sharpness of
resonance curve and hence selectivity of the circuit depends upon it. The higher the value of Q,
the more selective is the tuned circuit. Fig. 5.6 shows the effect of resistance R of the coil on the
sharpness of the resonance curve. It is clear that when the resistance is small, the resonance curve
is very sharp. However, if the coil has large resistance, the resonance curve is less sharp. It may
be emphasised that where high selectivity is desired, the value of Q should be very large.

Fig. 5.6

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rlw
d.ocotm
hings are worth noting. First, Zr (= L/CR) is a pure resistance because there is no frequSm
enacrytworld.asia
term present. Secondly, the value of Zr is very high because the ratio L/C is very large at parallel
resonance.
** Strictly speaking, the Q of a tank circuit is defined as the ratio of the energy stored in the
circuit to the energy lost in the circuit i.e.,

Example 5.1. A parallel resonant circuit has a capacitor of 250pF in one branch and inductance
of 1.25mH plus a resistance of 10ohm in the parallel branch. Find (i) resonant frequency (ii)
impedance of the circuit at resonance (iii) Q-factor of the circuit.
Solution.

Example 5.2. A parallel resonant circuit has a capacitor of 100 pF in one branch and inductance
of 100 μH plus a resistance of 10 ohm in parallel branch. If the supply voltage is 10 V, calculate
(i) resonant frequency (ii) impedance of the circuit and line current at resonance.
Solution.

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Note that the circuit impedance Zr is very high at resonance. It is because the ratio L/C is very
large at resonance.Line current at resonance is

Example 5.3. The *dynamic impedance of a parallel resonant circuit is 500 k . The circuit
consists of a 250 pF capacitor in parallel with a coil of resistance 10ohm. Calculate (i) the coil
inductance (ii) the resonant frequency and (iii) Q-factor of the circuit.
Solution.

Frequency Response of Tuned Amplifier

The voltage gain of an amplifier depends upon , input impedance and effective collector load.
In a tuned amplifier, tuned circuit is used in the collector. Therefore, voltage gain of such an
amplifier is given by :

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where ZC = effective collector load

Zin = input impedance of the amplifier
The value of ZC and hence gain strongly depends upon frequency in the tuned amplifier. As ZC
is maximum at resonant frequency, therefore, voltage gain will be maximum at this frequency.
The value of ZC and gain decrease as the frequency is varied above and below the resonant
frequency. Fig. 5.7 shows the frequency response of a tuned amplifier. It is clear that voltage
gain is maximum at resonant frequency and falls off as the frequency is varied in either direction
from resonance.

Fig.5.7
Bandwidth. The range of frequencies at which the voltage gain of the tuned amplifier falls to
70.7 % of the maximum gain is called its bandwidth. Referring to Fig.
15.7, the bandwidth of tuned amplifier is f1 − f2. The amplifier will amplify nicely any signal in
this frequency range. The bandwidth of tuned amplifier depends upon the value of Q of LC
circuit i.e. upon the sharpness of the frequency response. The greater the value of Q of tuned
circuit, the lesser is the bandwidth of the amplifier and vice-versa. In practice, the value of Q of
LC circuit is made such so as to permit the amplification of desired narrow band of high
frequencies. The practical importance of bandwidth of tuned amplifiers is found in
communication system. In radio and TV transmission, a very high frequency wave, called
carrier wave is used to carry the audio or picture signal. In radio transmission, the audio signal
has a frequency range of 10 kHz. If the carrier wave frequency is 710 kHz, then the resultant
radio wave has a frequency range *between (710 –5) kHz and (710 +5) kHz. Consequently, the
tuned amplifier must have a bandwidth of 705 kHz to 715 kHz (i.e. 10 kHz). The Q of the tuned
circuit should be such that bandwidth of the amplifier lies in this range.
Relation between Q and Bandwidth
The quality factor Q of a tuned amplifier is equal to the ratio of resonant frequency (fr) to
bandwidth
(BW) i.e.,

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The Q of an amplifier is determined by the circuit component values. It may be noted here that
Q of a tuned amplifier is generally greater than 10. When this condition is met, the resonant
frequency at parallel resonance is approximately given by:

Example 5.4. The Q of a tuned amplifier is 60. If the resonant frequency for the amplifier is
1200 kHz, find (i) bandwidth and (ii) cut-off frequencies.
Solution.

Example 5.5. A tuned amplifier has maximum voltage gain at a frequency of 2 MHz and the
bandwidth is 50 kHz. Find the Q factor.
Solution. The maximum voltage gain occurs at the resonant frequency. Therefore, fr = 2 MHz =
2 × 106 Hz and BW = 50 kHz = 50 × 103 Hz.
Now

Example 5.6. Draw the frequency response of an ideal tuned amplifier and discuss its
characteristics.

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Fig.5.8
Solution. Fig. 5.8 shows the frequency response of an ideal tuned amplifier. The ideal tuned
amplifier has zero gain for all frequencies from 0 Hz up to the lower cut-off frequency f1. At this
point, the gain instantly jumps to the maximum value [Av (max)]. The gain stays at the maximum
value until f2 is reached. At this time, the gain instantly drops back to zero. Thus all the
frequencies within the bandwidth (f1 to f2) of the amplifier would be passed by the circuit while
all others would be effectively stopped. This is where the terms pass band and stop band come
from. The pass band is the range of frequencies that is passed (amplified) by a tuned amplifier.
On the other hand, the stop band is the range of frequencies that is outside the amplifier’s pass
band. In practice, the ideal characteristics of the tuned amplifier cannot be achieved. In a
practical frequency response (refer back to Fig. 5.7), the gain falls gradually from maximum
value as the frequency goes outside the f1 or f2 limits. However, the closer the frequency
response of a tuned amplifier to that of the ideal, the better.

Single Tuned Amplifier

A single tuned amplifier consists of a transistor amplifier containing a parallel tuned circuit as
the collector load. The values of capacitance and inductance of the tuned circuit are so selected
that its resonant frequency is equal to the frequency to be amplified. The output from a single
tuned amplifier can be obtained either (a) by a coupling capacitor CC or (b) by a secondary coil

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Fig.5.9 Capacitive coupled single tuned amplifier

Operation. The high frequency signal to be amplified is given to the input of the amplifier. The
resonant frequency of parallel tuned circuit is made equal to the frequency of the signal by
changing the value of C. Under such conditions, the tuned circuit will offer very high impedance
to the signal frequency. Hence a large output appears across the tuned circuit. In case the input
signal is complex containing many frequencies, only that frequency which corresponds to the
resonant frequency of the tuned circuit will be amplified. All other frequencies will be rejected
by the tuned circuit. In this way, a tuned amplifier selects and amplifies the desired frequency.
. The fundamental difference between AF and tuned (RF) amplifiers is the bandwidth they are
expected to amplify. The AF amplifiers amplify a major portion of AF specturm (20 Hz to 20
kHz) equally well throughout. The tuned amplifiers amplify a relatively narrow portion of RF
spectrum, rejecting all other frequencies L, C tuned circuit is not connected between collector
and ground because, the transistor will be short circuited at some frequency other than resonant
frequency. The output of the tuned circuit is coupled to the next stage or output device, through
capacitor Cb. So this circuit is called single tuned capacitbe coupled amplifier. RI, R2, RE, CE
are biasing resistors and capacitors. The tuned circuit formed by Inductance (L) and capacitor
(C) resonates at the frequency of operation. Transistor hybrid equivalent circuit must be used
since the transistor is operated at high frequencies. Tuned circuits are high frequency circuits.
Rj = input resistance of the next stage.

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Smartzworld.com Fig. 5.10 Equivalent circuit Smartworld.asia
Modified equivalent circuit using Miller's Theorem.

According to Miller's theorem, the feedback capacitance Cc is Cc (1 - A) on the input side and

on the output side. But where as resistance is on the input side on the
output side.

Fig. 5.11 Equivalent circuit (applying Miller's Theorem)

The equivalent circuit after simplification, neglecting is shown in Fig. 5.12.

Fig. 5.12 Simplified equivalent circuit

Input admittance as seen by II stage.

Instead of L and R being in series, they are being represented as equivalent shunt element~
Rp and Lp for parallel

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Inductor is represented by Rp in series with inductance Lp.

Q at resonance,

.: Resistance of the inductor R is small,

neglecting R2 compared to 2 L2.

Therefore output circuit is simplified to,

Fig. 5.13 Simplified circuit

Ri is the input Fesistance of the next stage

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rld sistance of tuned circuit Smartworld.asia

  be the resonant angular frequency in rad/sec.

Output voltage Vo = -gm Vb'e·Z (-gm Vb'e is the current source).

where Z is the impedance of C, Land Rt in parallel.

Admittance

Qe is defined as

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Rewriting the expression for Z, as

If the frequency  is close to resonant frequency  0,« 1.

Therefore Simplified expression for Z is

voltage gain at resonance. Since at resonance w0 = 0

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Magnitude

Phase angle

At a frequency  1 below the resonant frequency  has the value,

 1 is the lower 3db frequency.

Similarly  2, the upper 3db frequency is

The 3 db band width = ( 2 -  1 l)

Tapped Single Tuned Capacitance Coupled Amplifier:

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Fig. 5.7 Tapped single tuned capacitive coupled amplifier circuit

5.3.1 Equivalent Circuit on the Output Side of the I Stage
RI is the input resistance of the II stage.
Ro is the output resistance of the I stage amplifier.

The input IZI of the common emitter amplifier circuits will be less. So the output impedance of
the circuit being coupled to one common emitter amplifier, should also have low IZI for
impedance matching and to get maximum power transfer. So in order to reduce the impedance of
the LC resonant circuit, to match the low IZI of the common emitter circuit, tapping is made in
the LC tuned circuit. Tapped single tuned circuits are used in such applications. 5.3.2 Expression
for 'Inductance' for Maximum Power Transfer Let the tapping point divide the impedance into
two parts LI and L2.
Let LI = nL so that L2 = (1 - n)
Writing Kirchoff's Voltage Law (KVL)

Where M is the mutual inductance between LI and L2. Solving equations 1 and 2,

Hence the IZI offered by the coil along with input resistance ~i of the next stage is

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But wL2 much less than Ri.

As Ri, the input resistance of transistor circuit II stage is KQ and much greater than roL2

Where K is the coefficient of coupling. Since Ll = nL, L2 = (l-n)L

Putting K = I, we get

The resistance effectively reflected in series with the coil due to the resistance R, is given by,

This is the resistance component; $: series, i : input

This resistance R is in series with the coil L may be equated to a resistance Rip in shunt with the

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 wmhere Rip is given by, ~
Smartzwocrlodi.lco Smartworld.asia

So the equivalent circuit is

Fig. 5.9 Equivalent circuit

Fig. 5.10 Equivalent circuit after simplification

Rtt : tuned tapped circuit.

Under the conditions of maximum power transfer theorem, the total resistance appearing in
shunt with the coil is = Rop
Since it is a resonant circuit, at resonance, the IZI in purely resistive. For maximum power
transfer IZI = R/2.

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This is the value of L for maximum power transfer.

Expression for voltage gain and Bandwidth are determined in the same way as done for a single
tuned circuit. In this circuit we have,
1. Rtt instead of ~ (as in single tuned) tapped tuned circuit.
2. Output voltage equals (l - n) times the voltage developed across the complete coil.
IZI at any frequency close to Wo is given by,

At resonance, voltage gain is

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Inductive coupled single tuned amplifier

Fig. 5.11 Inductive coupled amplifier circuit (a) and its equivalent (b)
in this circuit, the voltage developed across the tuned circuit is inductively coupled to the next
stage. Coil L, of the tuned circuit, and the inductor coupling the voltage to the II stage, L2 form'
a transformer with mutual coupling M. This type of circuit is also used, where the input IZI of
the II stage is smaller or different from the tuned circuit. SO IZI matching is done by the
transformer depending on its tum ratio. In such requirements, this type of circuit is used.
The resistors RI, R2 and R; and R2 are the biasing resistors. The parallel tuned circuit,
Land C resonates at the frequency of operation. Fig. (b) shows output equivalent circuit. Input
equivalent circuit will be the same as that of the capacitive coupled circuit. In the output
equivalent circuit, C is the total capacitance, including the stray capacitance, Miller equivalent
capacitance C ( A-1)/A. L2 and R2 are the inductance and resistance of the secondary winding.
5.4.1 Expression for Ll for Maximum Power Transformer Writing KVL to the primary and
secondary windings,
V = I1 Z11 + I2 Z12
o = I1 Z21 + I2 Z22

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Smartzworld.com where Z11 = R + jwL Smartworld.asia
Z12 = Z21 = jwM
Z22 = R2 + Rj + jwL2

The impedance seen looking into the primary is,

Substituting the values of Zll' Z22 and ZI2 in equation (7) we get,

Rj generally much greater than R2 and wL2.

Fig. 5.12 Equivalent circuit

is the impedance of the secondary side reflected to the primary.

If M is reasonably large, then

The equivalent circuit may be written as,

Inductance L with series resistance may be represented as L in shunt with Rio as R.

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Fig. 5.13 Simplified circuit

gives the value of M for maximum power transfer.

Fig. 5.14 Equivalent circuit

L and L2 are the primary and secondary windings of inductances.

Therefore from equation 14, for a given value of Ro and coefficient of coupling K and ~, we
can determine L2 for maximum transformer of power.
Shunt resistance Ro and Rip may be combined to yield the total shunt resistance Ru.

Rtt = Resistance of tapped tuned circuit

Effective Q of the entire circuit is,

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where Wo is the resonaqt frequency of Land C.

Under conditions of maximum transfer of power, total resistance appearing in shunt with the
coil equals Ro/2. Since it is respnant circuit, at resonance, IZI = resistance only.
maximum power, R = Rl2.

IZI of the output circuit at any frequency 'w' close to ‘w0' is given by,
Impedance of output circuit is

Voltage gain A at any frequency wo is,

Voltage at resonance,

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Double Tuned Amplifier

Fig. 15.13 shows the circuit of a double tuned amplifier. It consists of a transistor amplifier
containing two tuned circuits ; one (L1C1) in the collector and the other (L2C2) in the output as
shown. The high frequency signal to be amplified is applied to the input terminals of the
amplifier. The resonant frequency of tuned circuit L1C1 is made equal to the signal frequency.
Under such conditions, the the signal frequency. Consequently, large output appears across the
tuned circuit L1C1. The output from this tuned circuit is transferred to the second tuned circuit
L2C2 through mutual induction. Double tuned circuits are extensively used for coupling the
various circuits of radio and television receivers.

Frequency response. The frequency response of a double tuned circuit depends upon the degree
of coupling i.e. upon the amount of mutual inductance between the two tuned circuits. When coil
L2 is coupled to coil L1 [See Fig. 15.14 (i)], a portion of load resistance is coupled into the
primary tank circuit L1C1 and affects the primary circuit in exactly the same manner as though a
resistor had been added in series with the primary coil L1. When the coils are spaced apart, all
the primary coil L1 flux will not link the secondary coil L2. The coils are said to have loose
coupling. Under such conditions, the resistance reflected from the load (i.e. secondary circuit) is
small. The resonance curve will be sharp and the circuit Q is high as shown in Fig. 15.14 (ii).
When the primary and secondary coils are very close together, they are said to have tight
coupling. Under such conditions, the reflected resistance will be large and the circuit Q
is lower. Two positions of gain maxima, one above and the other below the resonant frequency,
are obtained.

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Bandwidth of Double–Tuned Circuit

If you refer to the frequency response of double-tuned circuit shown in Fig. 15.14 (ii), it is clear
that bandwidth increases with the degree of coupling. Obviously, the determining factor in a
doubletuned circuit is not Q but the coupling. For a given frequency, the tighter the coupling, the
greater is the bandwidth.
BWdt = k fr
The subscript dt is used to indicate double-tuned circuit. Here k is coefficient of coupling.

Example 15.8. It is desired to obtain a bandwidth of 200 kHz at an operating frequency of

10 MHz using a double tuned circuit. What value of co-efficient of coupling should be used ?
Solution.
BWdt = k fr

Stagger Tuning
Tuned amplifiers have large gain, since at resonance, Z is maximum. So Av is maximum. To get
this large Av over a wide range of frequencies, stagger tuned amplifiers are employed. This is
done by taking two single tuned circuits of a certain Bandwidth, and displacing or staggering
their resonance peaks by an amount equal to their Bandwidth. The resultant staggered pair will
have a Bandwidth, √2 times as great as that of each of individual pairs.

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Code: 13A04402 R13
B.Tech II Year II Semester (R13) Supplementary Examinations May/June 2017
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS ANALYSIS & DESIGN
(Common to ECE & EIE)
Time: 3 hours Max. Marks: 70
PART - A
(Compulsory Question)
*****
1 Answer the following: (10 X 02 = 20 Marks)
(a) What is a cascade amplifier? What is its advantage?
(b) An amplifier consists of 3 identical stages in cascade. The bandwidth of overall amplifier extends from
20 Hz to 20 kHz. Calculate the bandwidth of individual stage.
(c) Draw the small signal equivalent circuit for an emitter follower stage at high frequencies.
(d) State Barkhausen criteria for sustained oscillations.
(e) Distinguish between small signal and large signal amplifiers.
(f) The following is an example of the output swing for a class ------- amplifier. Explain.

180 output
Swing

OV t
(g) Why gain bandwidth product remains constant with the introduction of negative feedback?
(h) Why RC oscillators are not suitable for high frequency applications.
(i) What is the fundamental difference between audio amplifier and tuned amplifier?
(j) What is staggered tuning?

PART - B
(Answer all five units, 5 X 10 = 50 Marks)
UNIT - I
2 (a) Discuss the classification of amplifiers based on frequency range and type of coupling, power delivered
and signals handled.
(b) Design a single stage emitter follower having and . Assume

OR
3 (a) What are the different types of distortions possible in amplifier outputs? Explain.
(b) For the circuit shown in figure below, calculate Ri, Ai, Av and Ro. Assume hie = 1.1 K, hfe = 50,
hre = 2.5 x 10-4, hoe = 25 .

3K

3K

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Page 1 of 2
Code: 13A04402 R13
UNIT - II
4 (a) Discuss the effect of emitter bypass capacitor and input & output coupling capacitors on the lower cut-off
frequency if number of amplifiers are cascaded.
(b) The following low-frequency parameters are known for a given transistor at and
at room temperature, , , , . At the same operating
point, and , compute the values of all the hybrid – parameters.
OR
5 (a) Define
(b)
and and derive the relation between and .
What are the typical values of various components in hybrid – p model? Show that at low frequencies

the hybrid – p model with and taken as infinite reduces to the approximate CE h – parameter model.
UNIT - III
6 (a) An amplifier with an open loop voltage gain of 1000 delivers 10 W of power output at 10% harmonic
distortion when input is 10 mV. If 40dB negative feedback is applied and output power is to remain at 10
W, determine required input signal Vs and second harmonic distortion with feedback.
(b) Draw the circuit diagram of a RC phase shift oscillator using BJT. Derive the expression for frequency of
oscillations.
OR
7 (a) Explain effect of negative feedback on gain, stability, distortion and bandwidth of an amplifier.
(b) Discuss and explain the basic circuit of an LC oscillator and derive the condition for the oscillations.

UNIT - IV
8 (a) Explain with a neat circuit diagram, the working of a transformer coupled class A amplifier. Prove that the
maximum efficiency is 50%.
(b) A transistor with a maximum junction temperature specification of 150 dissipates a maximum power
of 40 watts at a case temperature of 25 and 2 watts at an ambient temperature of 25 . Find
(i) The thermal resistance between the junction and the case.
(ii) The thermal resistance between the junction and ambient.
Maximum power dissipation capability for safe operation in free space at a temperature of 50
OR
9 (a) Derive the expression for maximum collector power dissipation Pc(Max) in the case of class B power
amplifiers.
(b) What are the advantages and disadvantages of push pull configuration? Show that in class-B push pull
amplifier the maximum conversion efficiency is 78.5%.
UNIT - V
10 (a) Derive the expression for the 3dB bandwidth of a capacitance coupled single tuned amplifier.
(b) Explain the principle of stabilizing the double tuned transformer coupled amplifier response against the
internal feedback.
OR
11 (a) Explain the reasons for oscillations in a tuned amplifier. Briefly explain the methods used to stabilize the
tuned amplifiers against oscillations.
(b) Explain the operation of a double tuned amplifier. Explain the advantages of double tuned circuit over
single tuned circuit.

*****

www.jntufastresult.com

Page 2 of 2
Code: 13A04402 R13

B.Tech II Year II Semester (R13) Regular & Supplementary Examinations May/June 2016
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS ANALYSIS & DESIGN
(Common to ECE & EIE)
Time: 3 hours Max. Marks: 70
PART - A
(Compulsory Question)
*****
1 Answer the following: (10 X 02 = 20 Marks)
(a) What is the function of multistage amplifier?
(b) List out the applications of cascade amplifier.
(c) What is the significance of frequency response of BJT amplifier?
(d) Draw the circuit diagram of RC coupled amplifier and give its application.
(e) Explain the concept of negative feedback.
(f) What are the conditions for oscillators?
(g) Compare class C and class D power amplifier.
(h) What are the limitations of push pull amplifier?
(i) What do you understand by the term “Frequency of oscillation”?
(j) Compare the current series and current shunt amplifiers.

PART - B
(Answer all five units, 5 X 10 = 50 Marks)
UNIT - I
2 With a neat diagram, explain in detail about the operation of direct and transformer coupled
amplifiers.
OR
3 Explain about various types of distortions in amplifiers and with a neat diagram discuss the
analysis of cascade RC coupled BJT amplifier.
UNIT - II
4 Discuss in detail about the hybrid-pi common emitter transistor model with diagrams.
OR
5 Explain in detail about the single state CE transistor amplifier response.
UNIT - III
6 Discuss in detail about voltage series and voltage shunt feedback configuration with diagrams.
OR
7 Derive the expression for frequency of oscillation of Colpitts oscillator and explain its operation.

UNIT - IV
8 Discuss the concept of power transistor heat sinking and amplifier distortion.
OR
9 With respect to any five parameters, compare the transformer coupled class A amplifier and
complementing symmetry class-B power amplifier.
UNIT - V
10 Define Q-factor and explain in detail the effect of cascading single tuned amplifiers on bandwidth.
11 Explain the operation and applications of stagger tuned amplifier.
*****
 GATES INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY::GOOTY
(Approved by A.I.C.T.E, New Delhi & Affiliated to J.N.T.U.A, Anantapuramu & Accredited by NAAC)
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
II B.Tech – IISem –I Mid Descriptive Examination August 2021
Sub: Electronic Circuit Analysis & Design(19A04402T) Branch: ECE
Max Time: 90 mins Max Marks: 15M

Answer Either or Question from Each Unit

Cognitive
CO Question Marks
Domain
UNIT-I
1) Sketch a simple common-source amplifier and discuss the general ac
circuit characteristics.
L1 & L2 OR
CO1 5M
2) Describe the small signal hybrid-π equivalent circuit of the bipolar
transistor and to determine the values of the small signal hybrid-π
parameters.

UNIT-II
3)Describe the short-circuit current gain versus frequency characteristics of
CO2
L1 & L2 the BJT. 5M
OR
4) Describe the Miller effect and Miller capacitance.
UNIT-II
5) Sketch a simple common emitter amplifier circuit and discuss the general
ac circuit characteristics(voltage gain, current gain, input and output
L1 & L2
CO3 resistance) 5M
OR
6) Compare ac circuit characteristics common-emitter, emitter-follower and
common-base circuits.
 GATES INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(Approved by A.I.C.T.E, NEW DELHI, Affiliated to JNTUA Ananthapuramu, Accredited by NAAC)
NH-44, Gootyananthapuramu(V),GOOTY-515401, Ananthapuram (Dist.), A.P (State)
Website: www.gatesit.ac.in
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
CLASS: II B.Tech –II Sem QUIZ: I Sub: ECA & 19A04402T
Name: Roll No:
Time: 20 Minutes Maximum Marks : 10M
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. In a negative feedback amplifier, the phase difference between input signal and
feedback signal is ______ degree [ ]
a) 0 b) 270 c) 90 d) 180
2. The negative feedback decreases [ ]
a) Band width b) Stability c) Noise d)Non of the above
3. In a negative feedback amplifier, the band width is given by [ ]
a) BW/(1+Aβ) b) BW(1+Aβ) c) BW/(1-Aβ) d) BW(1-Aβ)
4. The feedback factor β for voltage shunt feedback amplifier is given by [ ]
a)If/Vo b) Vo/If c) If/Io d) Vf/Vo
5. The current series feedback amplifier is also known as a ___amplifier [ ]
a)Trans conductance b)trans resistance c)voltage d)current
6. An oscillator uses___________ feedback [ ]
a)Negative b) Positive c) Both positive & negative d) None of these
7. In an RC Phase shift oscillator, oscillations will occur if the voltage gain (hfe) of its internal
amplifier is [ ]
a) Unity b) Less than unity c) Greater than 29 d) Less than 29
8. A low frequency oscillator consists of ____________ components [ ]
a) RL b) RLC c) LC d) RC
9. The gain of positive feedback amplifier is given by _____________ [ ]
a) A/(1+Aβ) b) A(1+Aβ) c) A(1-Aβ) d) A/(1-Aβ)
10. In an Wein bridge oscillator, oscillations will occur if the voltage gain (h fe) of its internal
amplifier is [ ]
a) Unity b) Less than unity c) 3 d) Less than 29
11. The Positive feedback decreases [ ]
a) stability b) Band widthc) Noise d)Non of the above
12. For Hartley oscillator, the frequency of oscillations f is [ ]
a) 1/2π√LeqC b) 1/2π√RC c) 2π√LCeq d) None of these
13. Which capacitance/s in hybrid π model represent/s the storage of excess minority
carriers at the base emitter junction? [ ]
a) Diffusion capacitance b) Transition capacitance c) Both a and b d)None
14. Which among the following represents the frequency at which short circuit CE
current gain acquires unit magnitude? [ ]
a) fα b) fT c) fβ d) None of the above
15. Which resistance in hybrid π model of transistor represents the bulk resistance
present between the external base terminal and the virtual base? [ ]
a. rce b. rb’e c. rbb’ d. None of the above
16. The current gain of a bipolar transistor drops at high frequencies due to [ ]
(a) The Early effect (b) High current effects in the base
(c) Parasitic inductive elements (d) Transistor internal capacitances
17. Hybrid – π model trans-conductance gm
a) Ic - VT b) Ic * VT c) Ic + VT d) Ic /VT
18. . For Collpits oscillator, the frequency of oscillations f is [ ]
a) 1/2π√LeqC b) 1/2π√RC c) 1/2π√LCeq d) None of
these
19. The feedback factor β for voltage seies feedback amplifier is given by [ ]
a)If/Vo b) Vf/Vo c) If/Io d) Vo/If
20. . For RC Phase shit oscillator using FET, the frequency of oscillations f is[ ]
a) 1/2πRC√6 b) 2πRC√6 c) 1/2πRC√10 d) 2πRC√10
 GATES INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY::GOOTY
(Approved by A.I.C.T.E, New Delhi & Affiliated to J.N.T.U.A, Anantapuramu & Accredited by NAAC)
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
II B.Tech – IISem –II Mid Descriptive Examination August 2021
Sub: Electronic Circuit Analysis & Design(19A04402T) Branch: ECE
Max Time: 90 mins Max Marks: 15M

Answer Either or Question from Each Unit

Cognitive
CO Question Marks
Domain
UNIT-III
1) a) Define the differential amplifier?
L1 & L3 b) Sketch and describe a simple MOSFET diff.amp with an active load.
CO1 5M
OR
2) a) Define Common mode rejection ratio (CMRR)

UNIT-IV
3) a) Define a feedback amplifier.
b) Derive the expression for input resistance and output resistance for
L3 & L2 voltage series feedback amplifier.
CO2 OR 5M
4) a) Define an oscillator.
b) Derive the expression for oscillating frequency of RC Phase shift
Oscillator using BJT
UNIT-V
5) a) Define the power amplifier?
b) Sketch Class-AB output stage Utilizing
i. The Darlington Configuration
ii. The VBE multiplier
L3 & L5
CO3 5M
OR
6) a) What do you mean by tuned amplifier?
b) Explain the principle of stagger tuning technique of transformer
coupled amplifier.
 GATES INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(Approved by A.I.C.T.E, NEW DELHI, Affiliated to JNTUA Ananthapuramu, Accredited by NAAC)
NH-44, Gootyananthapuramu(V),GOOTY-515401, Ananthapuram (Dist.), A.P (State)
Website: www.gatesit.ac.in
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
CLASS: II B.Tech –II Sem QUIZ: II Sub: ECA & 19A04402T
Name: Roll No:
Time: 20 Minutes Maximum Marks : 10M
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. A class A power amplifier uses ………… [ ]
a)Two transistors b)Three transistors c)One transistor d)None of the above
2. The maximum efficiency of directly coupled class A power amplifier is [ ]
a. 5% b. 50% c. 30% d. 25%
3. The maximum efficiency of transformer coupled class A power amplifier is [ ]
a.30% b. 50% c. 80% d. 45%
4. Power amplifiers handle …………. signals compare to voltage amplifiers [ ]
a.Small b. Very small c. Large d. None of the above
5. In class A operation, the operating point is located ….of the d.c. load line. [ ]
a. At cut off point b. At the middle c. At saturation point d.None of the above
6. Class C amplifiers are used as ……………. [ ]
a.Tuned amplifiers b. Detectors c. BJT amplifiers d. None of the above
7. A 2-transistor class B power amplifier is commonly called ….amplifier [ ]
a.Dual b. Push-pull c. Symmetrical d. Differential
8. The size of a power transistor is made considerably large to ……… [ ]
a.Provide easy handling b. Dissipate heat
c. Facilitate connections d.None of the above
9. The push-pull circuit must use …………… operation [ ]
a.Class A b. Class C c. Class B d. Class AB
10. Power amplifiers generally use transformer coupling because transformer permits [ ]
a.Cooling of circuit b. Impedance matching c. Distortionless output d. Good frequency
response
11. The output transformer used in a power amplifier is a ……transformer [ ]
a.1:1 ratio b. Step-up c. Step-down d. None of the above
12. A differential amplifier …………….. [ ]
a.is a part of an Op-amp b. has one I/p and one o/p c. has two outputs d. both(1) and (2)
13. When a differential amplifier is operated single-ended, ………… [ ]
a.the output is grounded b. one input is grounded and signal is applied to other
c.both inputs are connected together d. the output is not inverted
14. In differential-mode, ……………. [ ]
a.opposite polarity signals are applied to the inputs b. the gain is one
c.the outputs are of different amplitudes d. only one supply voltage is used
15. In the common mode, …………… [ ]
a.both inputs are grounded b. the outputs are connected together
c.an identical signal appears on both the inputs d. the output signal are in-phase
16. The common-mode gain is ……….. [ ]
a.very high b. very low c. always unity d. unpredictable
17. The differential gain is ……… [ ]
a.very high b. very low c. dependent on input voltage d. about 100
18. In ideal Differential Amplifier, if same signal is given to both inputs, then o/p will be[ ]
a. Same as input b. Double the input c. Not equal to zero d. Zero
19. In differential-mode, ……………. [ ]
a.opposite polarity signals are applied to the inputs b. the gain is one
c.the outputs are of different amplitudes d. only one supply voltage is used
20. If output is measured between two collectors of transistors, then the Differential amplifier
with two input signal is said to be configured as [ ]
a. Dual Input Balanced Output b. Dual Input Unbalanced Output
c.SingleInput Balanced Output d. Dual Input Unbalanced Output
 GATES INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Accredited by NAAC
(Approved By A.I.C.T.E, New Delhi & Affiliated to JNTUA, 6TV E; YHH)
N.H-44, Gootyanantapuram (V), Peddavadugur (M), Anantapuramu (Dist), Gooty-515401.
Andhra Pradesh (State), Tel: 08552-200444, Website: www.gatesit.ac.in
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

Year & Sem : II - II Branch : ECE

Subject Code : 19A04402T Regulation : R20
Assignment - I

S. No. Questions Course Outcomes Blooms

CO PO PSO level

Describe the small signal hybrid-π equivalent circuit of the

1,2,3,4,
1 bipolar transistor and to determine the values of the small 1 1,2 L1
signal hybrid-π parameters. 511,12
Sketch a simple common-source amplifier and discuss the 1,2,3,4,
2 1 1,2 L1
general ac circuit characteristics. 511,12
Describe the short-circuit current gain versus frequency 1,2,3,4,
3 2 1,2 L2
characteristics of the BJT. 511,12
Describe the Miller effect and Miller capacitance. 1,2,3,4,
4 2 1,2 L2
511,12
Compare ac circuit characteristics common-emitter, emitter- 1,2,3,4,
5 3 1,2 L2
follower and common-base circuits. 511,12

Assignment - I

S. No. Questions Course Outcomes Blooms

CO PO PSO level

Derive the expression for input resistance and output 1,2,3,4,

1 3 1,2 L1
resistance for voltage series feedback amplifier. 511,12
Derive the expression for oscillating frequency of RC Phase 1,2,3,4,
2 3 1,2 L1
shift Oscillator using BJT 511,12
Explain the principle of stagger tuning technique of 1,2,3,4,
3 4 1,2 L2
transformer coupled amplifier. 511,12
Sketch Class-AB output stage Utilizing
1,2,3,4,
4 i. The Darlington Configuration 4 1,2 L2
511,12
ii. The VBE multiplier
Sketch and describe a simple MOSFET diff.amp with an 1,2,3,4,
5 5 1,2 L2
active load. 511,12
 GATES INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Accredited by NAAC
(Approved By A.I.C.T.E, New Delhi & Affiliated to JNTUA, Anantapuramu)
N.H-44, Gootyanantapuram (V), Peddavadugur (M), Anantapuramu (Dist), Gooty-515401.
Andhra Pradesh (State), Tel: 08552-200444, Website: www.gatesit.ac.in
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

Course Code : 20A04401 Year-Sem:II B.Tech-II Sem Sec A,B & C

Course Title : ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS-ANALYSIS AND DESIGN AY: 2020-2021

TOPICS COVERED BEYOND SYLLUBUS

S.NO. DESCRIPTION PROPOSED ACTION

1. Types of Differential amplifiers Guest Lecture / NPTEL / Assignment etc.
2. Class S Power Amplifier Guest Lecture / NPTEL / Assignment etc.

Course Instructor Head of the Department

 GATES INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Accredited by NAAC
(Approved By A.I.C.T.E, New Delhi & Affiliated to JNTUA, 6TV E; YHH)
N.H-44, Gootyanantapuram (V), Peddavadugur (M), Anantapuramu (Dist), Gooty-515401.
Andhra Pradesh (State), Tel: 08552-200444, Website: www.gatesit.ac.in
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

Circular
Date: 11/08/2021

The students of B.Tech II year II Semester are here by informed that there will be a remedial
class work on the following subjects on the specified dates. The details are as follows:

S. No. Name of the subject Date Time

1. Electronic Circuit Analysis & Design 11/08/2021 01:40 - 02:30
12/08/2021 01:40 - 02:30
13/08/2021 01:40 - 02:30
2. Control Systems 11/08/2021 02:30 - 03:20
12/08/2021 02:30 - 03:20
13/08/2021 02:30 - 03:20
3. Electromagnetic Waves & Transmission Lines 15/08/2021 01:40 - 02:30
16/08/2021 01:40 - 02:30
17/08/2021 01:40 - 02:30
4. Analog Communications 15/08/2021 02:30 - 03:20
16/08/2021 02:30 - 03:20
17/08/2021 02:30 - 03:20

HOD

Copy to:
1. Principal for information
2. Correspondent for information
3. All HODs for information
4. Individual faculty
5. Notice board
6. File

Course Instructor Head of the Department

 GATES INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Accredited by NAAC
(Approved By A.I.C.T.E, New Delhi & Affiliated to JNTUA, Anantapuramu)
N.H-44, Gootyanantapuram (V), Peddavadugur (M), Anantapuramu (Dist), Gooty-515401.
Andhra Pradesh (State), Tel: 08552-200444, Website: www.gatesit.ac.in
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

REMEDIAL CLASSES for Slow Learners

Name of the subject: ECAD

Class and semester : II B.TECH- II SEM Section: A,B & C

S. No ROLL NUMBER NAME OF THE STUDENT Day1 Day2 Day3

1 19F21A0403 MANGALA AKHIL KUMAR
2 19F21A0405 SUPPALA ANIL KUMAR
3 19F21A0406 ANUPRIYA MUNDU
4 19F21A0407 THAMMINENI ANUSHA
5 19F21A0408 BIMAKKAGARI APARNA
6 19F21A0409 GOWNI ARCHANA
7 19F21A0410 KURUVA ASHOK KUMAR
8 19F21A0411 MARATHI BADRI NARAYANA
9 19F21A0412 DUDEKULA. BASHEER
10 19F21A0413 KOTAKURI BHANUPRASAD

TOPICS COVERED
1. Two stage RC Coupled amplifier
2. Multistage amplifier
3. Frequency response of multistage amplifier
4. Double tuned amplifier
5. Stragger tuned amplifier

Staff Sign : HOD:

OUTCOME:
During the three days, remedial classes was conducted on ECAD and 10 students were
attended. After taking feedback from students on the courses conducted, students have got more
knowledge on the said topics and also got more marks in the mid – 2 and external marks.
 GATES INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi,Permanently Affiliated to JNTUA& Accredited by NAAC)
N.H-44, Gootyanantapuram (V), Peddavadugur (M), Anantapuramu (Dist), Gooty-515401.
Andhra Pradesh (State), Tel: 08552-200444, Website: www.gatesit.ac.in
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Course End Survey
SUBJECT: ECAD
Dear Students,
As part of the continuous evaluation, implementing quality engineering education and
to assess the competency developed through course outcome, you are requested to provide the
feedback.

CAY : 2020-21 SEM : ☐I ☐II Date :05.08.2021

SUBJECT ECAD Year : ☐I ☐II ☐III ☐IV
FACULTY
CAY: CURRENT ACADEMIC YEAR

Course Outcomes for ‘VLSI Design’ (below enter your course outcomes)
CO1. Understand the working principle of multistage amplifiers, , power amplifiers, tuned amplifiers,
Multivibrator and Time base generators .
CO2. Analyse feedback amplifiers & oscillators.
CO3. Design multivibrator, power amplifiers for given specification.
CO4. Evaluate efficiency of large signal (power) amplifiers and voltage regulators
CO5. Analyze the different tuned amplifiers.
PLEASE EVALUATE ON THE FOLLOWING SCALE:
Excellent(E) Good(G) Average(A) Poor(P)
4 3 2 1
E G A P
SNO QUESTIONAIRE
4 3 2 1
Part A: GENERAL OBJECTIVES:
1) Has the course achieved its stated objectives? ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐
2) Have you gained the stated skills? ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐
3) Whether the syllabus is adequate to achieve the objectives? ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐
4) Whether the teacher has helped in acquiring the stated skills? ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐
5) Whether the teacher has given real life applications of the course? ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐
Part B: SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOMES:
6) Are you able to Understand the working principle of multistage
amplifiers, , power amplifiers, tuned amplifiers, Multivibrator and ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐
Time base generators ?
7) Are you able to Analyse feedback amplifiers & oscillators ? ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐
8) Are you able to Design multivibrator, power amplifiers for given
☐ ☐ ☐ ☐
specification?
9) Are you able to Evaluate efficiency of large signal (power)
☐ ☐ ☐ ☐
amplifiers and voltage regulators ?
10) Are you able to Analyze the different tuned amplifiers? ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐
Part C: SATISFICATION LEVEL:
11) Are you satisfied with the outcomes achieved through this course? ☐YES ☐NO

12) If your answer is No, please indicate your preferences:

a) More inputs, additional contents, real life examples ☐YES ☐NO
b) More Experienced, Capable Teacher ☐YES ☐NO