COMPUTER GRAPHICS OVERVIEW

Graphics are visual presentations on some surface, such as a wall, canvas, computer
screen, paper, or stone to brand, inform, illustrate, or entertain.
Examples

photographs, drawings, charts, graphs, diagrams, typography, numbers, symbols,

geometric designs, maps, engineering drawings, or other images.

Graphics often combine text, illustration, and color. Graphic design may consist of the
deliberate selection, creation, or arrangement of typography alone, as in a brochure,
flier, poster, web site, or book without any other element.

Figure 1:Drawing Figure 2: Graph

Figure 3: Engineering Drawing Figure 4: Chart

Computer graphics are graphics created by computers and, more generally, the
representation and manipulation of pictorial data by a computer.

The term computer graphics includes almost everything on computers that is not text
or sound. Today nearly all computers use some graphics and users expect to control
their computer through icons and pictures rather than just by typing. The term
Computer Graphics has several meanings:

• the representation and manipulation of pictorial data by a computer

• the various technologies used to create and manipulate such pictorial data
• the images so produced, and
• the sub-field of computer science which studies methods for digitally
synthesizing and manipulating visual content.

There are two types of computer graphics: raster graphics, where each pixel is
separately defined (as in a digital photograph), and vector graphics, where
mathematical formulas are used to draw lines and shapes, which are then interpreted
at the viewer's end to produce the graphic. Using vectors results in infinitely sharp
graphics and often smaller files, but, when complex, vectors take time to render and
may have larger file sizes than a raster equivalent.

Today computers and computer-generated images touch many aspects of our daily
life. Computer imagery is found on television, in newspapers, in weather reports, and
during surgical procedures. A well-constructed graph can present complex statistics in
a form that is easier to understand and interpret. Such graphs are used to illustrate
papers, reports, theses, and other presentation material. A range of tools and facilities
are available to enable users to visualize their data, and computer graphics are used in
many disciplines.

Modern computer systems, dating from the 1980s and onwards, often use a graphical
user interface (GUI) to present data and information with symbols, icons and pictures,
rather than text. Graphics are one of the five key elements of multimedia technology.

Types of Computer Graphics

2D computer graphics

These are the computer-based generation of digital images—mostly from two-

dimensional models, such as 2D geometric models, text, and digital images, and by
techniques specific to them. The word may stand for the branch of computer science
that comprises such techniques, or for the models themselves.

2D computer graphics are mainly used in applications that were originally developed
upon traditional printing and drawing technologies, such as typography, cartography,
technical drawing, advertising, etc.. In those applications, the two-dimensional image
is not just a representation of a real-world object, but an independent artifact with
added semantic value; two-dimensional models are therefore preferred, because they
give more direct control of the image than 3D computer graphics, whose approach is
more akin to photography than to typography.

Pixel art

Pixel art is a form of digital art, created through the use of raster graphics software,
where images are edited on the pixel level. Graphics in most old (or relatively limited)
computer and video games, graphing calculator games, and many mobile phone
games are mostly pixel art.

Vector graphics

Vector graphics formats are complementary to raster graphics, which is the

representation of images as an array of pixels, as it is typically used for the
representation of photographic images. There are instances when working with vector
tools and formats is best practice and instances when working with raster tools and
formats is best practice. There are times when both formats come together. An
understanding of the advantages and limitations of each technology and the
relationship between them is most likely to result in efficient and effective use of
tools.

3D computer graphics

3D computer graphics in contrast to 2D computer graphics are graphics that use a

three-dimensional representation of geometric data that is stored in the computer for
the purposes of performing calculations and rendering 2D images. Such images may
be for later display or for real-time viewing.

Despite these differences, 3D computer graphics rely on many of the same algorithms
as 2D computer vector graphics in the wire frame model and 2D computer raster
graphics in the final rendered display. In computer graphics software, the distinction
between 2D and 3D is occasionally blurred; 2D applications may use 3D techniques
to achieve effects such as lighting, and primarily 3D may use 2D rendering
techniques.

3D computer graphics are often referred to as 3D models. Apart from the rendered
graphic, the model is contained within the graphical data file. However, there are
differences. A 3D model is the mathematical representation of any three-dimensional
object (either inanimate or living). A model is not technically a graphic until it is
visually displayed. Due to 3D printing, 3D models are not confined to virtual space. A
model can be displayed visually as a two-dimensional image through a process called
3D rendering, or used in non-graphical computer simulations and calculations.

Computer animation

Computer animation is the art of creating moving images via the use of computers. It
is a subfield of computer graphics and animation. Increasingly it is created by means
of 3D computer graphics, though 2D computer graphics are still widely used for
stylistic, low bandwidth, and faster real-time rendering needs. Sometimes the target of
the animation is the computer itself, but sometimes the target is another medium, such
as film. It is also referred to as CGI (Computer-generated imagery or computer-
generated imaging), especially when used in films.

To create the illusion of movement, an image is displayed on the computer screen

then quickly replaced by a new image that is similar to the previous image, but shifted
slightly. This technique is identical to the illusion of movement in television and
motion pictures.
Computer Graphics Concepts and Principles

1. Image

In common usage, an image or picture is an artifact, usually two-dimensional, that has

a similar appearance to some subject—usually a physical object or a person. Images
may be two-dimensional, such as a photograph, screen display, and as well as a three-
dimensional, such as a statue. They may be captured by optical devices—such as
cameras, mirrors, lenses, telescopes, microscopes, etc. and natural objects and
phenomena, such as the human eye or water surfaces.

A digital image is a representation of a two-dimensional image using ones and zeros

(binary). Depending on whether or not the image resolution is fixed, it may be of
vector or raster type. Without qualifications, the term "digital image" usually refers to
raster images.

2. Pixel

In the enlarged portion of the image individual pixels are rendered as squares and can
be easily seen.

In digital imaging, a pixel is the smallest piece of information in an image. Pixels are
normally arranged in a regular 2-dimensional grid, and are often represented using
dots or squares. Each pixel is a sample of an original image, where more samples
typically provide a more accurate representation of the original. The intensity of each
pixel is variable; in color systems, each pixel has typically three or four components
such as red, green, and blue, or cyan, magenta, yellow, and black.

3. Rendering

Rendering is the process of generating an image from a model, by means of computer

programs. The model is a description of three dimensional objects in a strictly defined
language or data structure. It would contain geometry, viewpoint, texture, lighting,
and shading information. The image is a digital image or raster graphics image. The
term may be by analogy with an "artist's rendering" of a scene. 'Rendering' is also
used to describe the process of calculating effects in a video editing file to produce
final video output.
4. 3D projection
3D projection is a method of mapping three dimensional points to a two dimensional plane. As most
current methods for displaying graphical data are based on planar two dimensional media, the use of this
type of projection is widespread, especially in computer graphics, engineering and drafting.

5. Ray tracing

Ray tracing is a technique for generating an image by tracing the path of light through
pixels in an image plane. The technique is capable of producing a very high degree of
photorealism; usually higher than that of typical scanline rendering methods, but at a
greater computational cost.

6. Shading

Shading refers to depicting depth in 3D models or illustrations by varying levels of

darkness. It is a process used in drawing for depicting levels of darkness on paper by
applying media more densely or with a darker shade for darker areas, and less densely
or with a lighter shade for lighter areas. There are various techniques of shading
including cross hatching where perpendicular lines of varying closeness are drawn in
a grid pattern to shade an area. The closer the lines are together, the darker the area
appears. Likewise, the farther apart the lines are, the lighter the area appears. The term
has been recently generalized to mean that shaders are applied.

Example of shading.

7. Texture mapping

Texture mapping is a method for adding detail, surface texture, or colour to a

computer-generated graphic or 3D model. Its application to 3D graphics was
pioneered by Dr Edwin Catmull in 1974. A texture map is applied (mapped) to the
surface of a shape, or polygon. This process is akin to applying patterned paper to a
plain white box. Multitexturing is the use of more than one texture at a time on a
polygon.

8. Volume rendering

Volume rendering is a technique used to display a 2D projection of a 3D discretely

sampled data set. A typical 3D data set is a group of 2D slice images acquired by a
CT or MRI scanner.
Volume rendered CT scan of a forearm with different colour schemes for muscle, fat,
bone, and blood.

Usually these are acquired in a regular pattern (e.g., one slice every millimeter) and
usually have a regular number of image pixels in a regular pattern. This is an example
of a regular volumetric grid, with each volume element, or voxel represented by a
single value that is obtained by sampling the immediate area surrounding the voxel.

Applications Areas of Computer Graphics

Some application areas of computer graphics are the following

• Computational biology
• Computational physics
• Computer-aided design
• Computer simulation
• Digital art
• Desktop publishing
• Education
• Graphic design
• Infographics
• Information visualization
• Scientific visualization
• Video Games
• Virtual reality
• Web design

In this course, we shall discuss briefly two application areas, namely, computer-aided
design and desktop publishing.
 COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN (CAD)

Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use of computer technology to aid in the

design and particularly the drafting (technical drawing and engineering drawing) of a
part or product, including entire buildings. It is both a visual (or drawing) and symbol-
based method of communication whose conventions are particular to a specific
technical field.

Figure 2.1: A CAD model of a mouse. Figure 2.2: An oblique view of a

four-cylinder inline crankshaft with
pistons.

Drafting can be done in two dimensions ("2D") and three dimensions ("3D"). Drafting
is the integral communication of technical or engineering drawings and is the
industrial arts sub-discipline that underlies all that is involved in technical endeavors.
In representing complex, three-dimensional objects in two-dimensional drawings,
these objects have traditionally been represented by three projected views at right
angles.

Current CAD software packages range from 2D vector-based drafting systems to 3D

solid and surface modelers. Modern CAD packages can also frequently allow
rotations in three dimensions, allowing viewing of a designed object from any desired
angle, even from the inside looking out. Some CAD software is capable of dynamic
mathematic modeling, in which case it may be marketed as CADD — computer-
aided design and drafting.

CAD is used in the design of tools and machinery used in the manufacture of
components, and in the drafting and design of all types of buildings, from small
residential types (houses) to the largest commercial and industrial structures (hospitals
and factories).

CAD is mainly used for detailed engineering of 3D models and/or 2D drawings of

physical components, but it is also used throughout the engineering process from
conceptual design and layout of products, through strength and dynamic analysis of
assemblies to definition of manufacturing methods of components.
CAD has become an especially important technology within the scope of computer-
aided technologies, with benefits such as lower product development costs and a
greatly shortened design cycle. CAD enables designers to lay out and develop work
on screen, print it out and save it for future editing, saving time on their drawings.

CAD Hardware and OS technologies

Today most CAD computers are Windows based PCs. Some CAD systems also run
on one of the Unix operating systems and with Linux. Some CAD systems such as
QCad or NX provide multiplatform support including Windows, Linux, UNIX and
Mac OS X.

Generally no special basic memory is required with the exception of a high-end

OpenGL based Graphics card. However for complex product design, machines with
high speed (and possibly multiple) CPUs and large amounts of RAM are
recommended. CAD was an application that benefited from the installation of a
numeric coprocessor especially in early personal computers. The human-machine
interface is generally via a computer mouse but can also be via a pen and digitizing
graphics tablet. Manipulation of the view of the model on the screen is also
sometimes done with the use of a spacemouse/SpaceBall. Some systems also support
stereoscopic glasses for viewing the 3D model.
Drawing Objects In AutoCAD
Introduction

This tutorial is designed to show you how all of the AutoCAD Draw commands work.
If you just need information quickly, use the QuickFind toolbar below to go straight
to the command you want or select a topic from the contents list above. Not all of the
Draw commands that appear on the Draw toolbar are covered in this tutorial. Blocks,
Hatch and Text for example are all tutorial topics in their own right!

The Draw commands can be used to create new objects such as lines and circles. Most
AutoCAD drawings are composed purely and simply from these basic components. A
good understanding of the Draw commands is fundamental to the efficient use of
AutoCAD.

The sections below cover the most frequently used Draw commands such as Line,
Polyline and Circle as well as the more advanced commands like Multiline and
Multiline Style. As a newcomer to AutoCAD, you may wish to skip the more
advanced commands in order to properly master the basics. You can always return to
this tutorial in the future when you are more confident.

In common with most AutoCAD commands, the Draw commands can be started in a
number of ways. Command names or short-cuts can be entered at the keyboard,
commands can be started from the Draw pull-down menu, shown on the right or from
the Draw toolbar. The method you use is dependent upon the type of work you are
doing and how experienced a user you are. Don't worry too much about this, just use
whatever method feels easiest or most convenient at the time. Your drawing technique
will improve over time and with experience so don't expect to be working very
quickly at first.

If you are working with the pull-down menus, it is worth considering the visual
syntax that is common to all pull-downs used in the Windows operating system. For
example, a small arrow like so " " next to a menu item means that the item leads to a
sub-menu that may contain other commands or command options. An ellipsis, "…"
after a menu item means that the item displays a dialogue box. These little visual
clues will help you to work more effectively with menus because they tell you what to
expect and help to avoid surprises for the newcomer.

Lines

Lines are probably the most simple of AutoCAD objects. Using the Line command, a
line can be drawn between any two points picked within the drawing area. Lines are
usually the first objects you will want to draw when starting a new drawing because
they can be used as "construction lines" upon which the rest of your drawing will be
based. Never forget that creating drawings with AutoCAD is not so dissimilar from
creating drawings on a drawing board. Many of the basic drawing methods are the
same.

Anyone familiar with mathematics will know that lines drawn between points are
often called vectors. This terminology is used to describe the type of drawings that
AutoCAD creates. AutoCAD drawings are generically referred to as "vector
drawings". Vector drawings are extremely useful where precision is the most
important criterion because they retain their accuracy irrespective of scale.
The Line Command
Toolbar Draw
Pull-down Draw Line
Keyboard LINE short-cut L

With the Line command you can draw a simple line from one point to another. When
you pick the first point and move the cross-hairs to the location of the second point
you will see a rubber band line which shows you where the line will be drawn when
the second point is picked. Line objects have two ends (the first point and the last
point). You can continue picking points and AutoCAD will draw a straight line
between each picked point and the previous point. Each line segment drawn is a
separate object and can be moved or erased as required. To end this command, just hit
the key on the keyboard.

Command Sequence

Command: LINE
Specify first point: (pick P1)
Specify next point or [Undo]: (pick P2)
Specify next point or [Undo]: (to end)

You can also draw lines by entering the co-ordinates of their end points at the
command prompt rather than picking their position from the screen. This enables you
to draw lines that are off screen, should you want to. (See Using Co-ordinates for
more details). You can also draw lines using something called direct distance entry.
See the Direct Distance Entry tutorial for details.
The Construction Line Command
Toolbar Draw
Pull-down Draw Construction Line
Keyboard XLINE short-cut XL

The Construction Line command creates a line of infinite length which passes through
two picked points. Construction lines are very useful for creating construction
frameworks or grids within which to design.

Construction lines are not normally used as objects in finished drawings, it is usual,
therefore, to draw all your construction lines on a separate layer which will be turned
off or frozen prior to printing. See the Object Properties tutorial to find out how to
create new layers. Because of their nature, the Zoom Extents command option ignores
construction lines.

Command Sequence

Command: XLINE
Specify a point or [Hor/Ver/Ang/Bisect/Offset]: (pick a point)
Specify through point: (pick a second point)
Specify through point: (to end or pick another point)

You may notice that there are a number of options with this command. For example,
the "Hor" and "Ver" options can be used to draw construction lines that are truly
horizontal or vertical. In both these cases, only a single pick point is required because
the direction of the line is predetermined. To use a command option, simply enter the
capitalised part of the option name at the command prompt. Follow the command
sequence below to see how you would draw a construction line using the Horizontal
option.

Command Sequence

Command: XLINE
Hor/Ver/Ang/Bisect/Offset/<From point>: H
Through point: (pick a point to position the line)
Through point: (to end or pick a point for another horizontal line)

The Ray Command

Toolbar custom
Pull-down Draw Ray
Keyboard RAY
The Ray command creates a line similar to a construction line
except that it extends infinitely in only one direction from the
first pick point. The direction of the Ray is determined by the
position of the second pick point.

Command Sequence

Command: RAY
Specify start point: (pick the start point)
Specify through point: (pick a second point to determine direction)
Specify through point: (to end or pick another point)