UPPCS SCIENCE

MODULE BY KARMAYOGI
IAS
Physics
Atomic Physics

• Atom Basics:

An atom is the smallest particle of an element, retaining all its chemical properties.

• Theories and Discoveries:

1. Dalton’s Atomic Theory: Atom was indivisible, but this was refuted by the discovery of
electrons and protons.

2. Thomson’s Model: Positively charged sphere with embedded electrons; neutral overall.

3. Rutherford’s Model: Discovered the nucleus; proposed electrons revolve around it but
couldn’t explain atomic stability.

4. Bohr’s Model: Electrons occupy specific energy levels (shells); complete shells make the
atom stable.

5. Chadwick’s Discovery: Identified neutrons, completing the trio of subatomic particles

(protons, neutrons, electrons).

• Key Atomic Properties:

• Atomic number (Z): Number of protons.

• Mass number: Sum of protons and neutrons.

• Isotopes: Same element, different mass numbers.

• Isobars: Same mass number, different atomic numbers.

• Forces and Reactions:

• Nuclear Force: Binds protons and neutrons in the nucleus, stronger than Coulomb force.

• Radioactivity: Includes alpha (positive), beta (negative), and gamma (neutral) radiations.
Used in carbon dating.

• Fission: Splitting heavy nuclei (e.g., Uranium-235) releasing energy through chain reactions.

• Fusion: Combining lighter nuclei (e.g., hydrogen isotopes) to form heavier, stable nuclei.

Light and Its Properties

1. Visible Light:

• Light visible to humans; other animals may see different parts of the spectrum (e.g.,
ultraviolet for some insects, grayscale for dogs).

2. Speed of Light:

• In a vacuum: 299,792,458 m/s (constant for all types of light).

3. Types of Media:

• Transparent: Light passes easily.

• Opaque: Light cannot pass.

• Translucent: Light passes partially.

4. Light Behavior:

• Travels in a straight line.

• Reflected from surfaces.

5. Reflection:

• Regular Reflection: From smooth surfaces (e.g., mirrors).

• Diffused Reflection: From irregular surfaces.

• Laws of Reflection:

• Angle of incidence = angle of reflection.

• Incident ray, reflected ray, and normal lie in the same plane.
6. Image Formation:

• Real Image: Can be captured on a screen.

• Virtual Image: Cannot be captured on a screen.

• Plane mirror: Forms virtual, erect, same-size images.

7. Spherical Mirrors:

• Concave Mirror: Reflecting surface curves inward.

• Applications: Torches, headlights, shaving mirrors, solar furnaces.

• Convex Mirror: Reflecting surface curves outward.

• Applications: Rear-view mirrors in vehicles (wider field of view).

8. Key Terms:

• Pole (P): Center of the reflecting surface.

• Centre of Curvature (C): Center of the sphere the mirror is part of.

• Radius of Curvature (R): Distance from pole to the center of curvature.

• Principal Axis: Line through the pole and center of curvature.

Power of a Lens

1. Definition:

• The power of a lens indicates its ability to converge or diverge light.

• It is the reciprocal of the focal length (in meters).

\text{Power (P)} = \frac{1}{\text{Focal length (f in meters)}}

2. S.I. Unit:

• Measured in dioptres (D).

• 1 dioptre = Power of a lens with a 1-meter focal length:

1D = 1m^{-1}

3. Sign Convention:
• Convex Lens: Positive power (+P)

• Concave Lens: Negative power (–P)

Magnetism and Electricity

A. Magnetism

1. Origin of Magnetism:

• Derived from Magnesia (Greek island).

• Magnetite (lodestone) is a natural magnet.

2. Properties of a Magnet:

• Attracts small iron pieces.

• Rests in the north-south direction when freely suspended.

• Like poles repel, and unlike poles attract.

• Magnetic poles exist in pairs.

• Maximum strength at the poles.

3. Magnetic Induction:

• Process where an unmagnetized material behaves like a magnet under the influence of
another magnet.

• Stronger magnets and closer distances enhance magnetic induction.

4. Magnetic Field:

• Region around a magnet where its influence is detectable.

5. Magnetic Lines of Force:

• Direction: North to South outside the magnet and South to North inside.

• Characteristics: Repel each other, never intersect.

6. Earth’s Magnetism:
• Acts as a magnet with its magnetic field pointing roughly from the geographic south to
north.

• Declination: The angle between magnetic and geographic north.

B. Electricity

1. Static Electricity:

• Caused by rubbing bodies together, transferring electrons.

2. Charging Processes:

• Induction: Electrons rearrange without direct contact.

• Conduction: Direct contact causes charge transfer.

3. Types of Materials:

• Conductors: Easy flow (e.g., metals like copper, gold).

• Insulators: Minimal flow (e.g., plastics, wood).

• Semiconductors: Moderate flow (e.g., silicon, germanium).

4. Electric Charges:

• Positive and negative charges; like charges repel, unlike charges attract.

5. Electric Current:

• Flow of charges due to potential difference.

• Unit: Ampere (A) – 1 A = 1 Coulomb/sec.

• Requires a closed loop (electric circuit) and voltage for flow.

6. Resistance:

• Opposition to current flow in a conductor.

• Unit: Ohm (Ω).

• Metals (e.g., silver, copper) = Low resistance; Insulators (e.g., wood, glass) = High resistance.

7. Electromagnetism:

• Relationship between electricity and magnetism.

• A conductor carrying current behaves like a magnet.

• Magnetic effect increases with current strength.

Mechanics

1. Motion

• Definition: Change in the position of an object with respect to time.

• Types:

• Translational Motion: Linear movement.

• Rotational Motion: Spinning movement.

2. Speed

• Definition: Distance covered per unit time.

• Formula: \text{Speed} = \frac{\text{Distance Travelled}}{\text{Time Taken}} .

• Unit: Meters per second (m/s).

3. Velocity

• Definition: Distance covered in a specified direction per unit time (speed with direction).

• Average Velocity: \text{Average Velocity} = \frac{\text{Displacement}}{\text{Time}} .

• Instantaneous Velocity: Velocity at a specific instant.

• Difference from Speed:

• Speed: Scalar (no direction).

• Velocity: Vector (includes direction).

4. Acceleration
• Definition: Change in velocity per unit time.

• Unit: Meters per second squared (m/s²).

• Positive vs Negative:

• Positive acceleration: Speed increases.

• Negative acceleration (retardation): Speed decreases.

5. Acceleration Due to Gravity

• Value: g = 9.80 \, \text{m/s}^2 , irrespective of mass.

• Concept: Galileo discovered that objects fall with the same acceleration due to gravity.

6. Force

• Definition: A push or pull that can accelerate an object.

• Unit: Newton (N).

• 1 N: Force required to accelerate 1 kg mass by 1 \, \text{m/s}^2 .

7. Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation

• Statement: Every mass attracts every other mass in the universe.

• Formula:

F = G \frac{m_1 m_2}{r^2}

Where:

• F : Gravitational Force.

• G : Universal Gravitational Constant.

• m_1, m_2 : Masses of the two objects.

• r : Distance between the objects.

Centripetal Force and Weight

1. Centripetal Force

• Definition: A force that acts on an object moving in a circular path, directed toward the
center of the circle.

• Purpose: It is necessary to continuously change the direction of the object in circular

motion.

• Formula:

F = \frac{mv^2}{r}

Where:

• F : Centripetal force.

• m : Mass of the object.

• v : Speed of the object.

• r : Radius of the circular path.

• Direction: Always toward the center of the circular path.

• Centrifugal Force: An apparent force that acts outward, opposite to centripetal force. It is
not a real force but a reactionary force experienced in a rotating reference frame.

2. Weight

• Definition: The force with which the Earth attracts a body toward its center.

• Difference from Mass:

• Mass: A measure of the quantity of matter in a body (constant everywhere).

• Weight: A measure of the gravitational force acting on a body (depends on location).

• Variation of Weight:

• Maximum at the poles due to Earth’s shape and gravity.

• Minimum at the equator because the centrifugal force from Earth’s rotation slightly
counteracts gravity.

Newton’s Three Laws of Motion

1. First Law (Law of Inertia)

• Statement: An object remains at rest, or in uniform motion in a straight line, unless acted
upon by an external force.

• Explanation: This law defines inertia, the tendency of objects to resist changes in their state
of motion. A body will not change its velocity unless a force is applied to it.

2. Second Law (Law of Acceleration)

• Statement: The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on
it and inversely proportional to its mass.

• Formula:

F = ma

Where:

• F : Force acting on the object.

• m : Mass of the object.

• a : Acceleration of the object.

• Explanation: This law quantifies the relationship between force, mass, and acceleration. A
larger force results in greater acceleration, and a larger mass results in less acceleration for
the same force.

3. Third Law (Action and Reaction)

• Statement: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

• Explanation: Forces always come in pairs. When one object exerts a force on another, the
second object exerts an equal but opposite force back on the first object. These forces act on
different bodies and do not cancel each other out.

Properties of Matter

1. Density

• Definition: The mass of an object per unit volume.

• Formula:

• Unit: kg/m³.

• Important: Denser substances have more mass packed into a given volume. Water has a
density of 1 kg/m³.

2. Elasticity

• Definition: The ability of a material to return to its original shape after being stretched or
compressed.

• Important Terms:

• Elastic Limit: The maximum stress a material can withstand without permanent
deformation.

• Hooke’s Law: States that the stress applied to a material is directly proportional to the
strain, within the elastic limit.

3. Viscosity

• Definition: The measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow.

• Unit: Pascal-seconds (Pa·s).

• Important: High viscosity means the fluid flows slowly (e.g., honey), while low viscosity
means the fluid flows easily (e.g., water).

4. Surface Tension

• Definition: The force that causes the surface of a liquid to contract, minimizing its surface
area.
• Unit: Newton per meter (N/m).

• Example: Insects walking on water due to surface tension.

5. Capillarity

• Definition: The rise or fall of liquid in a narrow tube due to the surface tension and adhesive
forces between the liquid and tube.

• Important: It occurs in plants, allowing water to travel from roots to leaves.

6. Buoyancy

• Definition: The upward force exerted by a fluid on a submerged or floating object.

• Archimedes’ Principle: A body submerged in a fluid experiences a buoyant force equal to

the weight of the fluid displaced by the body.

7. Thermal Expansion

• Definition: The increase in the volume of a substance as its temperature increases.

• Important: Different materials expand at different rates.

• Coefficient of Linear Expansion: Represents the change in length per unit length for each
degree of temperature change.

8. States of Matter

• Solid: Definite shape and volume; particles vibrate in fixed positions.

• Liquid: Definite volume but no definite shape; particles are close but can move.

• Gas: No definite shape or volume; particles are far apart and move freely.

9. Pressure

• Definition: The force exerted per unit area.

• Formula:

• Unit: Pascal (Pa).

• Important: Atmospheric pressure is the weight of the air above us and is approximately
101.3 kPa at sea level.

10. Heat and Temperature

• Heat: A form of energy transferred between objects due to a temperature difference.

• Temperature: A measure of the average kinetic energy of particles in a substance.

• Unit: Celsius (°C), Kelvin (K).

• Specific Heat: The amount of heat required to change the temperature of a unit mass of a
substance by one degree Celsius.

Important Laws in Properties of Matter

1. Bernoulli’s Principle

• States that as the speed of a fluid increases, its pressure decreases, and vice versa. It
explains how faster-moving air over an airplane wing creates lower pressure, generating lift. It
also applies to various fluid flow situations like pipes and water jets.

2. Hooke’s Law

• Describes how the force needed to stretch or compress a spring is directly proportional to
how much it is stretched or compressed, as long as the elastic limit of the material is not
exceeded. It is fundamental to understanding elastic materials and deformations.

3. Pascal’s Law (Hydraulic System)

• States that any pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished in all
directions throughout the fluid. This principle is the basis for hydraulic systems like lifts and
brakes, where force can be amplified.

4. Archimedes’ Principle

• States that a body submerged in a fluid experiences an upward buoyant force equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced by the body. This explains why objects float or sink depending
on their density relative to the fluid they are in.

5. Newton’s Law of Viscosity

• Explains how a fluid resists flow, with the resistance being proportional to the velocity of
the fluid layers and the fluid’s viscosity. It is key in understanding the movement of fluids in
various systems, including blood flow and engine oils.

6. Stevin’s Theorem (Hydrostatic Pressure Law)

• States that the pressure in a fluid increases with depth due to the weight of the fluid above.
This principle is essential for understanding fluid pressure in deep bodies of water, such as
oceans and reservoirs, and in devices like barometers.
Sound

1. Nature of Sound

• Sound is a mechanical wave that requires a medium (solid, liquid, or gas) to propagate. It
cannot travel through a vacuum.

• It is a longitudinal wave, where the particles of the medium vibrate parallel to the direction
of wave propagation.

2. Properties of Sound

• Pitch: The perceived frequency of sound. High frequency = high pitch, low frequency = low
pitch.

• Loudness: The intensity of sound, which depends on the amplitude of sound waves. It is
measured in decibels (dB).

• Quality (Timbre): The characteristic that distinguishes two sounds of the same pitch and
loudness. It depends on the waveform of the sound.

3. Speed of Sound

• The speed of sound depends on the medium’s properties like density and temperature. It
travels fastest in solids, slower in liquids, and slowest in gases.

• In dry air at 20°C, the speed of sound is approximately 343 m/s.

4. Reflection of Sound (Echo)

• When sound waves encounter a reflective surface, they bounce back, creating an echo.

• Echoes can be used to measure distance (ultrasonic waves in echolocation).

5. Doppler Effect

• It is the change in frequency (or pitch) of sound due to the relative motion between the
source of sound and the observer.

• Example: An approaching ambulance sounds higher in pitch compared to when it moves

away.

6. Absorption and Transmission of Sound

• Soft and porous materials absorb sound, reducing reverberation (e.g., carpets, curtains).
• Hard, smooth surfaces reflect sound (e.g., walls, ceilings).

7. Ultrasound and Infrasound

• Ultrasound: Sound with frequencies higher than 20,000 Hz, used in medical imaging and
industrial testing.

• Infrasound: Sound with frequencies lower than 20 Hz, can be produced by natural
phenomena like earthquakes or by man-made sources.

8. Applications of Sound

• Medical: Ultrasound imaging, hearing tests.

• Communication: Radio, telephone, and sonar.

• Music and Entertainment: Musical instruments, sound systems.

Important SI Units

1. Length

• Unit: Meter (m)

2. Mass

• Unit: Kilogram (kg)

3. Time

• Unit: Second (s)

4. Electric Current

• Unit: Ampere (A)

5. Thermodynamic Temperature

• Unit: Kelvin (K)

6. Amount of Substance

• Unit: Mole (mol)

7. Luminous Intensity
• Unit: Candela (cd)

8. Force

• Unit: Newton (N)

• Definition: 1 Newton = 1 kg·m/s²

9. Pressure

• Unit: Pascal (Pa)

• Definition: 1 Pascal = 1 N/m²

10. Energy

• Unit: Joule (J)

• Definition: 1 Joule = 1 N·m

11. Power

• Unit: Watt (W)

• Definition: 1 Watt = 1 J/s

12. Frequency

• Unit: Hertz (Hz)

• Definition: 1 Hertz = 1 cycle/second

13. Electric Charge

• Unit: Coulomb (C)

• Definition: 1 Coulomb = 1 A·s

14. Voltage (Potential Difference)

• Unit: Volt (V)

• Definition: 1 Volt = 1 J/C

15. Capacitance

• Unit: Farad (F)

• Definition: 1 Farad = 1 C/V

16. Resistance

• Unit: Ohm (Ω)

• Definition: 1 Ohm = 1 V/A

17. Conductance

• Unit: Siemens (S)

• Definition: 1 Siemens = 1 A/V

18. Magnetic Field Strength

• Unit: Ampere-Turn per Meter (At/m) or Tesla (T)

19. Magnetic Flux

• Unit: Weber (Wb)

• Definition: 1 Weber = 1 V·s

20. Inductance

• Unit: Henry (H)

• Definition: 1 Henry = 1 Wb/A·s

21. Work or Energy

• Unit: Joule (J)

• Definition: 1 Joule = 1 N·m

22. Temperature

• Unit: Kelvin (K)

23. Illuminance

• Unit: Lux (lx)

• Definition: 1 Lux = 1 lm/m²

24. Radioactive Decay

• Unit: Becquerel (Bq)

• Definition: 1 Becquerel = 1 decay/second

Notes on Space Technology

Space technology involves the use of advanced scientific techniques and equipment to
explore, utilize, and understand space. It covers a wide range of areas, including satellite
development, spacecraft design, space exploration, space research, and space-based
communication. Below are some key aspects of space technology:

1. Spacecrafts and Satellites

• Spacecraft: Vehicles designed for travel or operation in outer space. These can be crewed
(manned) or uncrewed (robotic).

• Types of Spacecraft:

• Space probes (e.g., Voyager, Mars rovers).

• Space shuttles (e.g., NASA’s Space Shuttle program).

• Space stations (e.g., International Space Station).

• Crewed spacecraft (e.g., Soyuz, Apollo).

• Satellites: Artificial objects placed into orbit around celestial bodies, primarily Earth, for
various purposes.

• Communication Satellites: Used for broadcasting television, internet, and radio signals
(e.g., INSAT, GSAT).

• Weather Satellites: Monitor climate, weather patterns, and atmospheric conditions (e.g.,
METEOSAT, GSAT).

• Earth Observation Satellites: Used for environmental monitoring, mapping, and disaster
management (e.g., Cartosat, RISAT).

• Navigation Satellites: Provide location and timing data (e.g., GPS, GLONASS, Galileo).

2. Space Launch Vehicles (SLVs)

• Launch Vehicles: Rockets or spacecraft that deliver payloads (satellites, probes, astronauts)
into space.
• Types of Launch Vehicles:

• Expendable Launch Vehicles (ELVs): Rockets that are used once (e.g., PSLV, GSLV in India,
Falcon 9 by SpaceX).

• Reusable Launch Vehicles (RLVs): Can be reused for multiple flights (e.g., SpaceX’s Falcon 9,
Space Shuttle).

• Stages of Launch Vehicles: SLVs typically have multiple stages, each designed to separate
at different altitudes to shed weight.

• Spaceports: Facilities for launching space vehicles, such as the Kennedy Space Center
(USA) and Satish Dhawan Space Centre (India).

3. Space Exploration

• Manned Space Exploration: Involves sending humans to space for research, development,
and colonization.

• Notable Missions:

• Apollo Missions: Landed the first humans on the Moon (Apollo 11).

• International Space Station (ISS): A microgravity laboratory in low Earth orbit.

• Mars Missions: Space agencies (NASA, ISRO, ESA) are working on manned missions to Mars.

• Unmanned Space Exploration: Space probes and rovers to study other planets, moons, and
celestial bodies.

• Mars Rovers: NASA’s Perseverance, Opportunity, and Curiosity.

• Voyager Probes: Launched by NASA to study outer space and interstellar space.

• Lunar Exploration: Missions like India’s Chandrayaan and China’s Chang’e aim to explore the
Moon.

4. Space Research

• Astrophysics and Cosmology: Study of celestial bodies (stars, planets, black holes) and the
universe.

• Telescopes: Space-based telescopes like the Hubble Space Telescope and James Webb
Space Telescope study distant stars and galaxies.
• Planetary Science: Study of planets, moons, and other objects in the solar system and
beyond.

• Mission Examples: NASA’s New Horizons (Pluto flyby), ESA’s Rosetta (comet landing).

• Space Weather: Study of the Sun, solar winds, and cosmic rays that affect space technology
and communications.

5. Space Communication and Data Transmission

• Communication Satellites: Enable global communication, television broadcasting, weather

forecasting, and military operations.

• Space-based Internet: New ventures like SpaceX’s Starlink aim to provide global high-
speed internet through satellite constellations.

• Data Transmission: Space missions transmit data back to Earth using high-frequency radio
waves and optical communication (laser links).

6. Space Technology in Everyday Life

• Navigation: GPS (Global Positioning System) satellites provide real-time positioning and
navigation.

• Weather Forecasting: Weather satellites help in predicting weather, monitoring storms, and
tracking climate change.

• Telecommunication: Satellite television, mobile communication, and internet services rely

on satellites.

• Earth Observation: Satellite imagery helps in agriculture, disaster management, urban

planning, and environmental monitoring.

7. Space Technology in India

• Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO): India’s national space agency responsible for
developing space technology and launching missions.

• Key Achievements:

• PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle): India’s workhorse for satellite launches.
• Chandrayaan Missions: India’s lunar exploration program.

• Mangalyaan (Mars Orbiter Mission): India’s successful mission to Mars.

• Gaganyaan Mission: India’s upcoming crewed mission to space.

• NavIC: India’s regional satellite navigation system.

• Spaceports: Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC) is India’s main space launch site, located
on Sriharikota Island.

• International Collaborations: ISRO collaborates with NASA, ESA, and other global agencies
for space missions.

8. Future of Space Technology

• Space Tourism: Companies like SpaceX, Blue Origin, and Virgin Galactic aim to make space
travel accessible to tourists.

• Colonization of Mars: Plans for establishing human colonies on Mars are underway, with
SpaceX’s Starship and NASA’s Artemis program leading the charge.

• Space Mining: Asteroids and other celestial bodies may hold valuable resources like
minerals and water, which could be mined for use on Earth or in space.

• Commercial Space Industry: Private companies like SpaceX, Boeing, and Blue Origin are
expanding their role in space exploration and technology development.

9. Challenges in Space Technology

• Cost: Space missions are expensive, requiring significant investment in research,

development, and infrastructure.

• Space Debris: The increasing amount of space junk is a threat to both operational
spacecraft and future missions.

• Radiation Exposure: Astronauts face exposure to harmful cosmic rays and solar radiation,
which poses health risks during long-duration space missions.

• Technological Limitations: Developing sustainable life support systems, propulsion

technology, and reliable space vehicles remains a challenge.
Notes on Nuclear Technology

Nuclear technology involves the use of nuclear reactions to generate energy, conduct
research, and develop various applications in medicine, industry, and defense. The primary
applications of nuclear technology include nuclear energy production, nuclear medicine, and
the development of nuclear weapons. Here’s a breakdown of key aspects:

1. Nuclear Reactions

• Nuclear Fission: The process of splitting the nucleus of a heavy atom (such as uranium-235
or plutonium-239) into two lighter nuclei, releasing a large amount of energy. It is the basis of
nuclear reactors and atomic bombs.

• Chain Reaction: In fission, the neutrons released by one reaction can initiate further
reactions, creating a self-sustained chain reaction.

• Critical Mass: The minimum amount of fissile material required to maintain a chain reaction.

• Nuclear Fusion: The process where two light atomic nuclei (typically hydrogen isotopes like
deuterium and tritium) combine to form a heavier nucleus, releasing energy. Fusion is the
process that powers the Sun and holds promise for future clean energy sources.

• Challenges: Achieving the extremely high temperatures and pressure required for
controlled fusion on Earth has been a major scientific challenge.

2. Nuclear Power and Energy

• Nuclear Power Plants: Facilities that use controlled nuclear fission reactions to produce
electricity. The heat released by fission is used to produce steam, which drives turbines
connected to electricity generators.

• Main Components:

• Reactor Core: Contains the nuclear fuel (typically uranium-235 or plutonium-239).

• Control Rods: Made of neutron-absorbing materials like boron or cadmium, they are used to
control the rate of the fission reaction.

• Coolant: A fluid (often water or liquid metal) that removes heat from the reactor core and
transfers it to the steam generator.
• Steam Generator: Converts water into steam using the heat from the reactor.

• Turbine and Generator: Convert the steam energy into mechanical energy and then into
electrical energy.

• Advantages of Nuclear Power:

• Low carbon emissions (compared to fossil fuels).

• High energy output with a small amount of fuel.

• Reliable base-load power supply.

• Challenges:

• Radioactive waste disposal.

• Risk of nuclear accidents (e.g., Chernobyl, Fukushima).

• High initial capital costs and long construction times.

3. Nuclear Fuel Cycle

• Mining: Uranium is mined from the Earth’s crust and is processed into uranium ore.

• Enrichment: Uranium-235, the fissile isotope, is separated from natural uranium to increase
its concentration for use in reactors.

• Fuel Fabrication: The enriched uranium is fabricated into fuel rods or pellets.

• Nuclear Reactors: The fuel is used in reactors to produce energy through fission.

• Spent Fuel: After a period of use, spent nuclear fuel is removed from reactors, which is
highly radioactive.

• Reprocessing: Spent fuel can be reprocessed to extract usable materials like plutonium and
uranium for reuse.

• Waste Disposal: High-level radioactive waste needs to be securely stored in geological

repositories for thousands of years to prevent environmental contamination.

4. Nuclear Medicine

• Applications: Nuclear medicine involves the use of radioactive isotopes to diagnose and
treat diseases, particularly cancer.

• Diagnostic Techniques:

• Positron Emission Tomography (PET): Uses radioactive tracers to image and measure
metabolic activity in the body.

• Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT): A type of scan that provides
detailed 3D images using radioactive tracers.

• Gamma Cameras: Used to visualize the distribution of radioisotopes in the body.

• Therapeutic Applications:

• Radiotherapy: Used to treat cancer by targeting and killing malignant cells with radiation
(e.g., using cobalt-60 or iodine-131).

• Radioisotope Therapy: Targets specific organs or tissues to treat diseases such as thyroid
cancer, bone pain, and others.

5. Nuclear Weapons

• Nuclear Bombs: Weapons that use nuclear fission or fusion to release massive amounts of
energy in the form of heat, light, and radiation.

• Atomic Bombs: Use fission to release energy (e.g., Hiroshima and Nagasaki).

• Hydrogen Bombs: Use a combination of fission and fusion (thermonuclear bombs), much
more powerful than atomic bombs.

• Non-Proliferation: Efforts to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and ensure that
nuclear technology is only used for peaceful purposes.

• Treaties:

• Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT): Aims to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons
and promote peaceful uses of nuclear energy.

• Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT): Prohibits all nuclear explosions for both
civilian and military purposes.

• Nuclear-Weapon States: Countries that possess nuclear weapons, such as the USA, Russia,
China, France, UK, India, Pakistan, Israel, and North Korea.

6. Nuclear Safety and Security

• Safety Protocols: Ensuring the safe operation of nuclear power plants through strict
regulations, regular inspections, and advanced safety systems.

• Containment Buildings: Designed to prevent the release of radioactive materials during an

accident.

• Backup Systems: Emergency cooling systems, backup power supplies, and containment
vessels to protect reactors from accidents like meltdowns.

• Nuclear Security: Protecting nuclear materials and facilities from theft, sabotage, or
terrorist attacks.

• International Cooperation: Countries work together to safeguard nuclear materials and

prevent their misuse in terrorism or warfare.

• Famous Incidents:

• Chernobyl Disaster (1986): A catastrophic nuclear accident in Ukraine caused by a reactor

explosion, leading to massive radiation release.

• Fukushima Disaster (2011): A nuclear accident in Japan triggered by a tsunami that

disabled reactor cooling systems, leading to radioactive contamination.

7. Future of Nuclear Technology

• Advanced Reactors: Research is ongoing into next-generation nuclear reactors that are
more efficient, safer, and produce less waste (e.g., fast breeder reactors, thorium reactors).

• Nuclear Fusion: Ongoing research into controlled fusion as a future source of clean, almost
limitless energy (e.g., ITER project).

• Small Modular Reactors (SMRs): Compact reactors designed to be deployed in smaller

units, potentially reducing costs and safety risks.

8. Nuclear Regulations and International Agencies

• International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA): A global organization that promotes the
peaceful use of nuclear technology and ensures the security and safety of nuclear facilities
worldwide.

• Regulatory Bodies: National agencies like the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC)
and Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB) in India regulate the use of nuclear materials
and the operation of nuclear power plants.

CHEMISTRY

Acid, Base, and Salt:

1. Acids

• Definition: Acids are compounds that, when dissolved in water, produce hydronium ions
(H₃O⁺) as the only positive ions.

• Characteristics:

• Sour taste (e.g., citric acid in fruits).

• Corrosive and can burn flesh and dissolve metals.

• Can be classified by strength (strong or weak), basicity (monobasic, dibasic, etc.), and
concentration (dilute or concentrated).

• Examples: Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Sulphuric acid (H₂SO₄), Nitric acid (HNO₃).

• Indicators: Substances like litmus, turmeric, and china rose petals are used to identify
acids. Litmus paper turns red in the presence of acids.

2. Bases and Alkalis

• Definition: Bases are substances that produce hydroxide ions (OH⁻) when dissolved in
water. The water solution of a base is known as an alkali.

• Characteristics:

• Bases are bitter in taste, slippery to touch, and can be corrosive (especially strong bases).
• Strong bases dissociate completely in water (e.g., Sodium hydroxide - NaOH, Potassium
hydroxide - KOH).

• Weak bases dissociate partially in water (e.g., Magnesium hydroxide - Mg(OH)₂).

• Bases neutralize acids to form salt and water.

• Alkalis: When bases dissolve in water, they form alkalis, which are strong or weak depending
on how many hydroxide ions they release.

3. pH Scale

• Definition: The pH scale measures the concentration of hydrogen ions (H⁺) in a solution. It
ranges from 0 (strongly acidic) to 14 (strongly alkaline), with 7 being neutral (pure water).

• pH < 7: Acidic solution.

• pH > 7: Alkaline (basic) solution.

• Indicators: Substances that change color at specific pH values, e.g., Litmus (turns red in
acidic solutions, blue in alkaline solutions).

• Importance: The pH scale is important for understanding the acidic or basic nature of a
solution, which has applications in fields like medicine, biology, and environmental science.

4. Salts

• Definition: Salts are products of an acid-base reaction (neutralization). They are formed
when the hydrogen ions (H⁺) from the acid combine with the hydroxide ions (OH⁻) from the
base to form water, and the remaining metal and non-metal ions form the salt.

• Examples:

• Sodium chloride (NaCl) - table salt.

• Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO₃) - baking soda.

• Sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃) - washing soda.

• Calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) - found in limestone and chalk.

• Types: Some salts are soluble in water (e.g., NaCl), while others are insoluble and precipitate
out of solution when formed.
Atomic Structure:

1. Atom: The smallest unit of an element, made of protons, neutrons, and electrons, and
retains the chemical properties of the element.

2. Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1805):

• Atoms are indivisible and make up all substances.

• Atoms of the same element are identical, while those of different elements differ.

• Atoms combine in simple ratios to form molecules.

• Atoms cannot be created or destroyed in chemical reactions.

3. Representation of an Atom by a Symbol:

• Symbols represent atoms; for example, Hydrogen (H), Aluminium (Al), Iron (Fe from ferrum).

• Symbols are based on English or Latin names, with the first letter capitalized.

4. Size of an Atom:

• Atoms are extremely small. The diameter of a hydrogen atom is about 5 × 10⁻¹¹ meters.

• Atomic radius is measured in nanometers (1 m = 10⁹ nm).

5. Atomic Mass:

• The mass of an atom is measured relative to Hydrogen (1 a.m.u).

• Later, the carbon-12 isotope (with an atomic mass of 12 a.m.u) became the standard for
atomic mass units.

6. Molecule:

• A molecule consists of two or more atoms bonded together. It can be made up of atoms of
the same or different elements.

• Example: Oxygen molecule (O₂) has two oxygen atoms.

7. Ions:

• Atoms can form charged particles called ions (cation: positively charged, anion: negatively
charged).

• Example: Sodium chloride (NaCl) consists of Na⁺ (cation) and Cl⁻ (anion).
8. Chemical Formula:

• A formula represents the composition of a compound. The valency (combining power) of

atoms helps determine the proportions in which they combine.

• Ionic compounds use the whole number ratio of positive and negative ions in their formula.

9. Molecular Mass:

• The molecular mass is the sum of atomic masses in a molecule, measured in atomic mass
units (u).

Atomic Number and Related Concepts:

1. Atomic Number (Z):

• The atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.

• An atom is electrically neutral, meaning the number of protons equals the number of
electrons.

2. Mass Number:

• The mass number is the sum of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.

• Formula: Mass number = Number of protons + Number of neutrons.

3. Isotopes:

• Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different mass numbers due to varying
numbers of neutrons.

• Example: Hydrogen has three isotopes: Protium (¹H), Deuterium (²H or D), and Tritium (³H or
T).

• Isotopes have the same chemical properties but different physical properties like density,
melting point, and boiling point due to the difference in neutrons.

4. Isobars:

• Isobars are atoms of different elements with different atomic numbers but the same mass
number.

• They have different numbers of protons but the same sum of protons and neutrons.

5. Isotones:
• Isotones are atoms of different elements that have the same number of neutrons but
different atomic numbers.

6. Radioactivity:

• Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of radiation from the nucleus of unstable atoms.

• Discovered by Ernest Rutherford in 1899.

• Types of radiation:

• Alpha (α) rays: Positive charge, deflected in opposite direction to beta rays.

• Beta (β) rays: Negative charge.

• Gamma (γ) rays: Neutral, pass undeviated.

Matter and Its Nature:

1. Matter:

• Matter is anything that has mass, occupies space, offers resistance, and can be perceived
through the senses.

2. Particles of Matter:

• Matter is made up of particles with space between them. These particles are in constant
motion and attract each other.

3. States of Matter:

• Solid: Definite shape, fixed volume, and rigid structure. Particles are closely packed, offering
strong intermolecular forces.

• Liquid: No fixed shape, but fixed volume. Takes the shape of the container and is fluid (can
flow). Intermolecular forces are intermediate.

• Gas: No definite shape or volume. Highly compressible with minimal intermolecular forces.
Particles move randomly.

4. Intermolecular Forces:

• Maximum in solids, intermediate in liquids, and minimum in gases.

• Solid particles have minimal kinetic energy, while gas particles have maximum kinetic
energy.
5. Changes in State:

• Melting: Solid turns into liquid when temperature increases. This process is called fusion.
The temperature remains constant during melting as the heat is used to overcome
intermolecular forces (latent heat).

• Boiling: Liquid turns into gas at its boiling point.

• Sublimation: Direct conversion between solid and gas (e.g., dry ice).

• Evaporation: Surface phenomenon where liquid particles gain enough energy to become
vapor. Evaporation causes cooling.

6. Latent Heat:

• Latent Heat of Fusion: Heat required to convert 1 kg of solid to liquid at its melting point.

• Latent Heat of Vaporization: Heat required to convert 1 kg of liquid to gas at its boiling
point.

7. Factors Affecting Evaporation:

• Evaporation depends on surface area, temperature, humidity, and wind speed. It results in
cooling (e.g., body perspiration).

Chemistry in Everyday Life

1. Chemistry and Our Life

• Chemistry plays a vital role in our daily life, as all living organisms, their biological
processes, and the environment are governed by chemical reactions.

2. Substances in Everyday Life

• Everyday substances like food, water, and medicines are a result of chemical processes.
Food provides nutrients through chemical compounds like proteins, fats, and carbohydrates.
Water is essential for maintaining chemical balance in the body.

3. Medicines:
• Medicines are chemicals that prevent, cure, or treat diseases.

• Drugs interact with biological systems to produce a therapeutic effect.

• Pharmacology is the branch of science that deals with the preparation and effects of
medicines.

4. Classification of Drugs

• Medicinal Drugs: These include antibiotics, analgesics (painkillers), and antiseptics.

Examples include:

• Antibiotics: Kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria (e.g., penicillin).

• Analgesics: Pain relievers like aspirin.

• Antiseptics: Used for cleaning wounds (e.g., Dettol).

• Pesticides and Insecticides: These chemicals are used to protect crops from pests and
insects but need to be used cautiously to avoid health risks.

• Food Additives: Chemicals added to food to preserve flavor, enhance appearance, or

increase shelf life (e.g., preservatives, colorants, flavor enhancers).

5. Cleansing Agents

• Cleansers like soaps, detergents, and disinfectants are chemically designed to remove dirt,
grease, and bacteria.

• Soaps: Produced by the saponification reaction between fats and alkalis. Soap molecules
have hydrophilic and hydrophobic ends that help to remove dirt.

• Detergents: Synthetic alternatives to soaps, effective in both soft and hard water.

• Disinfectants: Chemicals like bleach and phenols used to kill bacteria on surfaces.

6. Cosmetics

• Cosmetics are chemical substances used to enhance beauty or alter appearances.

• Hair dyes: Contain chemical compounds like hydrogen peroxide and ammonia to color hair.
• Skin Creams: Contain a variety of chemicals, including moisturizers, emollients, and
preservatives.

7. Chemicals in Food

• Many chemicals are used in food preparation to improve taste, preservation, and
appearance.

• Preservatives like sodium benzoate prevent spoilage.

• Artificial Sweeteners like aspartame and saccharin are used as sugar substitutes.

• Flavors and Colorants enhance the sensory properties of food but should be used within
safe limits to avoid toxicity.

8. Cleansing of Water

• Water Purification: Chemicals like chlorine are used to disinfect water and make it safe for
drinking. Filtration and distillation processes are also used.

9. Environmental Chemistry

• Chemistry helps to understand and address environmental issues such as air pollution,
water pollution, and soil contamination.

• Air pollutants like carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides are formed due to
industrial and vehicle emissions.

• Acid Rain: A result of chemical reactions between sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides with
atmospheric water.

• Ozone Layer Depletion: Caused by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which break down ozone
molecules.

10. Chemistry in Agriculture

• Fertilizers: Chemicals that improve soil fertility and crop yield. Examples include nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium-based fertilizers.
• Pesticides: Chemicals used to protect crops from pests, but they need careful use to avoid
harm to humans and wildlife.

11. Everyday Chemical Reactions

• Burning (combustion) is a common chemical reaction that we observe when we use fuels
like wood, gas, or coal.

• Photosynthesis: Plants use sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and
oxygen, a process governed by chemical reactions.

12. Important Chemical Reactions

• Redox Reactions: Occur when one substance loses electrons (oxidation) and another gains
electrons (reduction).

• Acid-Base Reactions: Involve the transfer of hydrogen ions (H⁺) between acids and bases.
Examples include reactions in digestion and cleaning.

Metals:
Metals are elements that exhibit a set of characteristic properties. Below are the key
properties of metals:

1. Physical Properties of Metals:

• Lustre (Shine): Metals generally have a shiny appearance. Exception: Mercury, though a
metal, is liquid and lacks this lustre.

• Color: Most metals have a silvery-grey or golden-yellow color.

• Conductivity: Metals are excellent conductors of heat and electricity. Among metals, silver
is the best conductor, followed by copper.

• Ductility: Metals can be drawn into wires. Gold is the most ductile metal.

• Malleability: Metals can be hammered into thin sheets. However, metals like antimony and
bismuth are brittle and do not exhibit this property.

• Sonority: Metals make a ringing sound when struck (sonorous).

• High Melting Points: Most metals have high melting points. Gallium and caesium are
exceptions, having low melting points.

2. Chemical Properties of Metals:

• Formation of Positive Ions: Metals lose electrons to form positive ions, especially when
reacting with non-metals.

• Reactivity with Oxygen: Metals form basic oxides when combined with oxygen. Some
metals like aluminium oxide and zinc oxide exhibit amphoteric properties, meaning they can
act as both acidic and basic oxides.

• Reactivity with Water and Dilute Acids:

• Metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series can displace hydrogen from dilute acids and
form salts.

• Metals like potassium and sodium react so vigorously with water that they catch fire when
exposed to air. To prevent accidental fires, they are stored in kerosene oil.

• Metallurgy: Metals occur in nature either as free elements or in compounds. The process of
extracting metals from their ores and refining them for use is known as metallurgy.

3. Corrosion of Metals:

• Some metals, such as iron, are prone to corrosion when exposed to moist air for extended
periods. This corrosion process results in the formation of rust, a common example of metal
degradation.

BIOLOGY
Basics of Biology

1. Cell Biology

• Cell Structure: The basic unit of life, consisting of various organelles like the nucleus,
mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, ribosomes, and vacuoles.

• Types of Cells:

• Prokaryotic Cells: Lacking a nucleus, e.g., bacteria.

• Eukaryotic Cells: Have a defined nucleus, e.g., plant and animal cells.

• Cell Division:

• Mitosis: Division of somatic cells, resulting in two identical daughter cells.

• Meiosis: Occurs in reproductive cells, reducing chromosome number by half, leading to

genetic diversity.

2. Genetics

• DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid): Contains genetic information; located in the nucleus of

eukaryotes and the cytoplasm of prokaryotes.

• Genes: Basic units of heredity that are composed of DNA.

• Chromosomes: Structures made up of DNA and proteins; humans have 23 pairs (46
chromosomes in total).

• Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance:

• Law of Segregation: Alleles segregate during the formation of gametes.

• Law of Independent Assortment: Genes for different traits are inherited independently of
one another.

• Genetic Disorders: Examples include sickle cell anemia, Down syndrome, and hemophilia.

3. Human Physiology

• Circulatory System: Composed of the heart, blood vessels, and blood. The heart pumps
blood to various body parts, delivering oxygen and nutrients.

• Respiratory System: Involves the exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) between
the lungs and bloodstream.

• Digestive System: Breaks down food into nutrients absorbed by the body. Involves organs
like the stomach, small intestine, and liver.
• Nervous System: Includes the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. Controls body functions,
senses, and responses to stimuli.

• Excretory System: Removes waste products from the body, primarily through the kidneys.

• Endocrine System: Regulates body functions through hormones secreted by glands like the
pituitary, thyroid, and adrenal glands.

• Reproductive System: Involves the organs responsible for producing offspring. Male and
female reproductive systems have distinct functions (e.g., testes for males and ovaries for
females).

4. Plant Biology

• Photosynthesis: Process by which plants make their own food using sunlight, water, and
carbon dioxide. The chlorophyll in plants absorbs light.

• Parts of a Plant:

• Roots: Anchor the plant and absorb water and minerals.

• Stem: Supports the plant and transports nutrients.

• Leaves: Main site of photosynthesis.

• Flowers: Reproductive structures that produce seeds.

• Reproduction in Plants: Can be sexual (involving flowers and seeds) or asexual (e.g., through
runners or tubers).

• Plant Tissues: Includes meristematic tissues (growth tissues) and permanent tissues (e.g.,
xylem, phloem).

5. Ecology and Environment

• Ecosystem: A community of living organisms interacting with their physical environment.

• Food Chain and Food Web: Represents the flow of energy through an ecosystem, from
producers (plants) to consumers (animals) and decomposers (bacteria and fungi).

• Biomes: Large ecosystems, such as forests, deserts, and grasslands, with distinct climates
and organisms.
• Environmental Pollution: Types include air, water, soil, and noise pollution, caused by
human activities.

• Conservation of Biodiversity: The protection of species, habitats, and ecosystems. This

includes initiatives like national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and protected areas.

• Global Warming and Climate Change: Environmental issues caused by the increase in
greenhouse gases (CO2, methane) due to human activities like deforestation and burning of
fossil fuels.

6. Biotechnology

• Genetic Engineering: The manipulation of an organism’s genes to produce desired traits

(e.g., genetically modified crops).

• Recombinant DNA Technology: Involves combining DNA from different organisms to create
new genetic combinations.

• Cloning: The process of creating genetically identical organisms or cells.

• Stem Cells: Undifferentiated cells that have the potential to develop into various types of
cells in the body.

7. Health and Diseases

• Infectious Diseases: Caused by pathogens (bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites). Examples
include tuberculosis, malaria, and COVID-19.

• Non-communicable Diseases: Chronic diseases like heart disease, diabetes, and cancer,
often related to lifestyle choices.

• Immunity: The body’s ability to resist disease, either through innate immunity (natural) or
acquired immunity (through vaccination or prior infection).

• Vaccination: The process of introducing a weakened or killed form of a pathogen to

stimulate the body’s immune response.

Organs of the Human Body and Their Functions

The human body is made up of several organs, each performing specific and vital functions to
maintain homeostasis and overall health. Here is a brief overview of the major organs and
their functions:

1. Brain

• Function: The brain is the control center of the body, responsible for processing
information and controlling thoughts, memory, emotions, touch, motor skills, vision,
breathing, temperature, and many more.

• Parts:

• Cerebrum: Controls voluntary actions, memory, learning, and reasoning.

• Cerebellum: Coordinates movement and balance.

• Brainstem: Controls basic life functions like heart rate, breathing, and sleep.

2. Heart

• Function: The heart is a muscular organ that pumps blood throughout the body, supplying
oxygen and nutrients and removing waste products.

• Parts:

• Atria: The two upper chambers that receive blood.

• Ventricles: The two lower chambers that pump blood to the lungs and body.

3. Lungs

• Function: The lungs are responsible for gas exchange, taking in oxygen from the air and
expelling carbon dioxide from the blood.

• Parts:

• Bronchi: Tubes that carry air into the lungs.

• Alveoli: Tiny air sacs where oxygen is exchanged with carbon dioxide.
4. Liver

• Function: The liver processes nutrients absorbed from the small intestine, detoxifies
chemicals, and secretes bile, which is important for digestion. It also stores glucose as
glycogen and regulates blood sugar.

• Other Functions: Produces proteins needed for blood clotting and other essential
metabolic functions.

5. Kidneys

• Function: The kidneys filter waste products from the blood, regulate blood pressure,
balance electrolytes, and produce urine for excretion.

• Parts:

• Nephrons: Functional units that filter blood and produce urine.

• Renal Cortex and Medulla: Outer and inner regions of the kidney involved in filtration and
reabsorption.

6. Stomach

• Function: The stomach breaks down food using acids and digestive enzymes. It also churns
food into a semi-liquid form called chyme.

• Parts:

• Gastric Glands: Secrete digestive enzymes and hydrochloric acid.

• Pyloric Sphincter: Regulates the passage of chyme into the small intestine.

7. Small Intestine

• Function: The small intestine is the site of most nutrient absorption. It absorbs nutrients
and minerals from food through villi (small finger-like projections).

• Parts:
• Duodenum: Receives bile from the liver and digestive enzymes from the pancreas to break
down food.

• Jejunum and Ileum: Absorb nutrients into the bloodstream.

8. Large Intestine (Colon)

• Function: The large intestine absorbs water and salts from undigested food, turning it into
solid waste. It also houses beneficial bacteria that help break down food and produce certain
vitamins.

• Parts:

• Cecum: First part of the large intestine, where digestion from the small intestine finishes.

• Rectum and Anus: Store and expel feces.

9. Pancreas

• Function: The pancreas produces insulin (which regulates blood sugar) and digestive
enzymes (which help break down carbohydrates, fats, and proteins in the small intestine).

• Endocrine and Exocrine Functions: The pancreas has both endocrine (insulin secretion) and
exocrine (digestive enzyme secretion) functions.

10. Spleen

• Function: The spleen filters blood, removing old or damaged red blood cells, and stores
platelets and white blood cells. It also plays a role in the immune system by helping fight
infections.

11. Skin

• Function: The skin acts as a protective barrier against pathogens, regulates temperature,
and allows sensory perception (touch, pain, temperature). It also produces vitamin D when
exposed to sunlight.

• Parts:
• Epidermis: Outer layer, which is protective.

• Dermis: Contains sweat glands, blood vessels, and sensory receptors.

• Hypodermis: The deepest layer containing fat and connective tissue.

12. Eyes

• Function: The eyes detect light and allow for vision, converting light into electrical signals
that are processed by the brain.

• Parts:

• Cornea and Lens: Focus light onto the retina.

• Retina: Contains photoreceptor cells that detect light.

• Optic Nerve: Carries visual information to the brain.

13. Ears

• Function: The ears detect sound waves and are involved in balance. They convert sound
into electrical signals sent to the brain.

• Parts:

• Outer Ear: Collects sound.

• Middle Ear: Contains the eardrum and ossicles (small bones) that transmit sound
vibrations.

• Inner Ear: Contains the cochlea (for hearing) and the semicircular canals (for balance).

14. Reproductive Organs

• Function: The reproductive organs are responsible for producing gametes (sperm in males
and eggs in females) and supporting the processes of fertilization and gestation.

• Male Organs: Testes (produce sperm and testosterone), vas deferens, prostate gland, and
penis.
• Female Organs: Ovaries (produce eggs and hormones), fallopian tubes, uterus (where the
fetus develops), and vagina.

15. Endocrine Glands

• Function: These glands secrete hormones into the bloodstream to regulate various body
functions, including metabolism, growth, mood, and reproductive processes.

• Key Glands:

• Pituitary Gland: Known as the “master gland,” controls other endocrine glands.

• Thyroid Gland: Regulates metabolism.

• Adrenal Glands: Produce adrenaline and other hormones for stress responses.

• Pancreas: Regulates blood sugar through insulin and glucagon.

Summary of Functions

1. Brain: Control center; processes sensory information and governs body functions.

2. Heart: Circulates blood, supplying oxygen and nutrients to cells.

3. Lungs: Facilitate gas exchange (oxygen in, carbon dioxide out).

4. Liver: Detoxifies chemicals, produces bile, stores glycogen.

5. Kidneys: Filter blood, regulate water balance, and produce urine.

6. Stomach & Intestines: Digest food and absorb nutrients.

7. Pancreas: Regulates blood sugar and aids digestion.

8. Skin: Protects the body, regulates temperature, and produces vitamin D.

9. Reproductive Organs: Responsible for producing offspring.

Vitamins:

Vitamins are organic compounds that are necessary for various bodily functions, and they
play a crucial role in maintaining health. They are required in small amounts and must be
obtained from the diet as the body cannot synthesize them (except for Vitamin D). There are
13 essential vitamins, which are categorized into fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins.

1. Fat-Soluble Vitamins

These vitamins are stored in the body’s fat and liver, and they can be utilized when required.
They are absorbed along with dietary fat and can accumulate in the body, so excessive intake
can lead to toxicity.

Vitamin A (Retinol)

• Function: Essential for vision, growth, immune function, skin health, and reproduction.

• Sources: Carrots, sweet potatoes, spinach, liver, and eggs.

• Deficiency: Night blindness, dry skin, immune deficiency, and growth retardation.

Vitamin D (Calciferol)

• Function: Helps in the absorption of calcium and phosphorus, which are crucial for bone
and teeth health.

• Sources: Sunlight (primary source), fortified milk, egg yolk, fish liver oil.

• Deficiency: Rickets in children, osteomalacia (soft bones) in adults, and osteoporosis.

Vitamin E (Tocopherol)

• Function: Acts as an antioxidant, protecting cells from damage, supports immune function,
and helps in skin health.

• Sources: Vegetable oils, nuts, seeds, green leafy vegetables, and wheat germ.

• Deficiency: Rare but may cause nerve and muscle damage, leading to coordination
problems.

Vitamin K (Phylloquinone)
• Function: Essential for blood clotting and bone health.

• Sources: Green leafy vegetables, broccoli, cabbage, and liver.

• Deficiency: Increased bleeding and bruising, weakened bones.

2. Water-Soluble Vitamins

These vitamins dissolve in water and are not stored in the body, so they need to be
replenished regularly through diet. They are easily excreted in urine, and their deficiency may
lead to various health problems.

Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)

• Function: Helps in the metabolism of carbohydrates, supporting nerve function.

• Sources: Whole grains, legumes, nuts, seeds, and pork.

• Deficiency: Beriberi (nervous and cardiovascular symptoms) and Wernicke-Korsakoff

syndrome (brain disorder).

Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)

• Function: Involved in energy production and the metabolism of fats, drugs, and steroids.

• Sources: Milk, eggs, green leafy vegetables, and whole grains.

• Deficiency: Cracks around the mouth (cheilosis), sore throat, and inflamed tongue.

Vitamin B3 (Niacin)

• Function: Helps in the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins; supports the
nervous system.

• Sources: Meat, fish, poultry, whole grains, and legumes.

• Deficiency: Pellagra (characterized by dermatitis, diarrhea, and dementia).

Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid)

• Function: Vital for the synthesis of coenzyme-A, which is involved in energy production and
fatty acid synthesis.

• Sources: Eggs, avocados, sweet potatoes, and whole grains.

• Deficiency: Rare, but may cause fatigue, irritability, and digestive issues.

Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)

• Function: Supports amino acid metabolism, red blood cell production, and immune
function.

• Sources: Poultry, fish, potatoes, bananas, and fortified cereals.

• Deficiency: Anemia, irritability, confusion, and weakened immune response.

Vitamin B7 (Biotin)

• Function: Important for the metabolism of fatty acids, amino acids, and glucose.

• Sources: Eggs, nuts, seeds, and bananas.

• Deficiency: Hair thinning, skin rashes, and brittle nails.

Vitamin B9 (Folate or Folic Acid)

• Function: Crucial for DNA synthesis, red blood cell formation, and proper neural tube
development during pregnancy.

• Sources: Leafy greens, citrus fruits, legumes, and fortified grains.

• Deficiency: Megaloblastic anemia, neural tube defects in newborns.

Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin)

• Function: Necessary for red blood cell formation, neurological function, and DNA synthesis.
• Sources: Animal products like meat, fish, dairy, and eggs.

• Deficiency: Pernicious anemia, nerve damage, cognitive disturbances.

Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)

• Function: Antioxidant, helps in the synthesis of collagen, iron absorption, and immune
function.

• Sources: Citrus fruits (oranges, lemons), strawberries, bell peppers, and broccoli.

• Deficiency: Scurvy (bleeding gums, bruising, joint pain).

Vitamin Deficiencies and Toxicity

• Deficiency of vitamins can lead to various health problems. For example, a lack of Vitamin D
can lead to bone issues, and Vitamin A deficiency can cause vision problems.

• Toxicity generally occurs from overconsumption of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K), as they
can accumulate in the body and cause damage. Water-soluble vitamins are typically excreted
in excess, but prolonged excessive intake can still cause issues.

Summary of Key Functions and Sources:

Vitamin Function Sources

Vitamin A Vision, immune function, skin health Carrots, spinach, liver, eggs

Vitamin D Calcium absorption, bone health Sunlight, fortified milk, egg yolk, fish liver oil

Vitamin E Antioxidant, skin health Vegetable oils, nuts, seeds, spinach

Vitamin K Blood clotting, bone health Leafy vegetables, broccoli, cabbage, liver

B1 (Thiamine) Carbohydrate metabolism, nerve function Whole grains, legumes, nuts, pork

B2 (Riboflavin) Energy production, metabolism of fats Milk, eggs, green vegetables, whole
grains

B3 (Niacin) Energy production, nervous system support Meat, fish, poultry, whole grains
B5 (Pantothenic Acid) Fatty acid synthesis, energy metabolism Eggs, avocados, sweet
potatoes, whole grains

B6 (Pyridoxine) Amino acid metabolism, red blood cell production Poultry, fish, potatoes,
bananas

B7 (Biotin) Fatty acid, amino acid, glucose metabolism Eggs, nuts, seeds, bananas

B9 (Folate) DNA synthesis, neural tube development Leafy greens, citrus fruits, legumes

B12 (Cobalamin) Red blood cell formation, neurological function Animal products (meat,
dairy, fish)

C (Ascorbic Acid) Antioxidant, collagen synthesis, iron absorption Citrus fruits, strawberries,
bell peppers

Other Essential Nutrients

In addition to vitamins, the body requires several other nutrients to maintain health,
including macronutrients, micronutrients, water, and fiber. These nutrients are essential for
energy production, growth, and the maintenance of body systems.

1. Carbohydrates

Function:

• Primary energy source for the body, especially for the brain and muscles.

• Converted into glucose in the body, which is used as fuel.

Sources:

• Simple carbohydrates: Fruits, milk, and sugary foods.

• Complex carbohydrates: Whole grains (rice, wheat, oats), legumes, starchy vegetables
(potatoes, sweet potatoes).
Types:

• Monosaccharides: Glucose, fructose.

• Disaccharides: Sucrose, lactose.

• Polysaccharides: Starch, glycogen, fiber.

Deficiency:

• Fatigue, weakness, and reduced energy levels.

• Hypoglycemia (low blood sugar).

2. Proteins

Function:

• Build and repair body tissues (muscles, organs, skin).

• Produce enzymes and hormones.

• Support immune function (antibodies).

• Serve as an energy source when carbohydrates and fats are insufficient.

Sources:

• Animal-based: Meat, poultry, fish, eggs, dairy products.

• Plant-based: Legumes (lentils, chickpeas), beans, tofu, quinoa, nuts, seeds.

Amino Acids:

• Essential amino acids: Must be obtained from the diet (9 of them).

• Non-essential amino acids: The body can produce them (11 of them).
Deficiency:

• Protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) like kwashiorkor (swelling, irritability) or marasmus

(severe weight loss, muscle wasting).

3. Fats (Lipids)

Function:

• Provide energy (high energy density).

• Aid in the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K).

• Support cell membrane structure and integrity.

• Insulate the body and protect vital organs.

Types of Fats:

• Saturated fats: Found in animal products (butter, cheese, red meat) and some plant oils
(coconut oil, palm oil).

• Unsaturated fats: Found in plant oils (olive oil, sunflower oil), nuts, seeds, and fatty fish.

• Monounsaturated fats (olive oil, avocados).

• Polyunsaturated fats (omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids).

• Trans fats: Processed fats found in baked goods, fried foods, and margarine (harmful to
health).

Deficiency:

• Dry skin, hormonal imbalance, weakened immune system.

Excess:
• Obesity, cardiovascular diseases, high cholesterol.

4. Minerals

Minerals are inorganic elements that are crucial for various physiological processes such as
bone health, nerve function, and fluid balance.

Major Minerals:

1. Calcium: For bone and teeth health, nerve transmission, and muscle contraction.

• Sources: Dairy products, green leafy vegetables, fortified plant-based milk.

• Deficiency: Osteoporosis, bone fractures.

2. Phosphorus: Works with calcium to build bones and teeth, helps in energy production.

• Sources: Meat, dairy, nuts, seeds, beans.

• Deficiency: Weak bones, fatigue.

3. Magnesium: Supports muscle and nerve function, regulates blood pressure, and bone
health.

• Sources: Whole grains, legumes, nuts, seeds, green leafy vegetables.

• Deficiency: Muscle cramps, fatigue, high blood pressure.

4. Sodium: Regulates fluid balance and nerve function.

• Sources: Salt, processed foods.

• Excess: High blood pressure, cardiovascular diseases.

Trace Minerals:

1. Iron: Essential for oxygen transport in blood (hemoglobin).

• Sources: Red meat, poultry, fish, beans, spinach.

• Deficiency: Anemia (fatigue, weakness).

2. Iodine: Required for thyroid hormone production (regulates metabolism).

• Sources: Iodized salt, seafood, dairy products.

• Deficiency: Goiter, hypothyroidism.

3. Zinc: Important for immune function, protein synthesis, and wound healing.

• Sources: Meat, shellfish, legumes, seeds, nuts.

• Deficiency: Growth retardation, immune deficiency.

5. Water

Function:

• Regulates body temperature (through sweating and respiration).

• Transports nutrients and oxygen to cells.

• Removes waste products via urine.

• Provides lubrication for joints, eyes, and mouth.

Sources:

• Water, fruits (watermelon, oranges), vegetables (cucumber, lettuce), soups, and beverages.

Deficiency:

• Dehydration: Fatigue, dry skin, dizziness, and confusion.

• Severe dehydration can lead to kidney failure, heatstroke, or even death.

6. Fiber

Function:
• Helps regulate digestion by adding bulk to stools.

• Supports gut health and helps prevent constipation.

• Reduces the risk of heart disease by lowering cholesterol levels.

• Helps in weight management by providing satiety.

Sources:

• Whole grains, fruits, vegetables, legumes, nuts, seeds.

Deficiency:

• Constipation, bloating, and increased risk of colorectal cancer.

Communicable Diseases

Communicable diseases are diseases that can be transmitted from one person to another or
from animals to humans. These diseases are caused by pathogens (microorganisms) such as
bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, and parasites.

1. Definition of Communicable Diseases

• Diseases that spread from an infected person or animal to others through direct or indirect
contact, air, water, food, or vectors (e.g., insects).

• Can be spread by person-to-person contact, vector-borne transmission, airborne droplets,

and contaminated food or water.

2. Types of Communicable Diseases

a. Bacterial Diseases

• Tuberculosis (TB): Caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Affects the lungs but can
spread to other organs.

• Transmission: Airborne droplets when an infected person coughs or sneezes.

• Symptoms: Cough, chest pain, fever, weight loss.

• Prevention: Vaccination (BCG), avoiding close contact with infected persons, proper
ventilation.

• Cholera: Caused by Vibrio cholerae. Affects the intestines and causes severe diarrhea.

• Transmission: Contaminated water or food.

• Symptoms: Severe diarrhea, vomiting, dehydration.

• Prevention: Clean water, proper sanitation, vaccination.

• Typhoid Fever: Caused by Salmonella typhi. Affects the intestines.

• Transmission: Contaminated food or water.

• Symptoms: Fever, abdominal pain, weakness, rash.

• Prevention: Proper sanitation, boiling water, vaccination.

b. Viral Diseases

• Influenza (Flu): Caused by influenza viruses. Affects the respiratory system.

• Transmission: Airborne droplets, direct contact with infected surfaces.

• Symptoms: Fever, chills, body aches, fatigue.

• Prevention: Vaccination, hand hygiene, avoiding close contact with infected persons.

• COVID-19: Caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus. Affects the respiratory system and can spread
rapidly.

• Transmission: Airborne droplets, direct contact, contaminated surfaces.

• Symptoms: Fever, cough, difficulty breathing, loss of taste or smell.

• Prevention: Social distancing, wearing masks, vaccination, frequent hand washing.

• HIV/AIDS: Caused by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus.

• Transmission: Blood, semen, vaginal fluids, and through sharing contaminated needles.
• Symptoms: Weakened immune system, opportunistic infections.

• Prevention: Safe sex practices, use of clean needles, antiretroviral therapy.

c. Fungal Infections

• Ringworm: Caused by fungi like Trichophyton, Microsporum, Epidermophyton.

• Transmission: Direct skin contact, sharing contaminated items (towels, combs).

• Symptoms: Red, itchy, circular rashes.

• Prevention: Maintain personal hygiene, avoid sharing personal items.

• Candidiasis: Caused by Candida fungi, often affecting the mouth, throat, and genital areas.

• Transmission: Direct contact, sometimes from the environment.

• Symptoms: White patches on the mouth, sore throat, genital itching.

• Prevention: Proper hygiene, avoiding excessive use of antibiotics.

d. Protozoan Diseases

• Malaria: Caused by Plasmodium parasites, transmitted by Anopheles mosquitoes.

• Transmission: Bite of an infected female mosquito.

• Symptoms: Fever, chills, sweating, fatigue.

• Prevention: Insecticide-treated nets, antimalarial drugs, mosquito control.

• Amoebiasis: Caused by Entamoeba histolytica, affects the intestines.

• Transmission: Contaminated water or food.

• Symptoms: Diarrhea, abdominal pain, fever.

• Prevention: Good sanitation, safe drinking water, proper food handling.

e. Parasitic Diseases

• Ascariasis: Caused by Ascaris worms, affects the intestines.

• Transmission: Ingestion of contaminated food or water.

• Symptoms: Abdominal pain, nausea, worms in stool.

• Prevention: Good sanitation, washing hands before meals, proper disposal of human waste.

• Filariasis (Elephantiasis): Caused by Wuchereria bancrofti, transmitted by mosquitoes.

• Transmission: Bite of an infected mosquito.

• Symptoms: Swelling of limbs, fever, skin thickening.

• Prevention: Mosquito control, use of mosquito nets, medications.

3. Transmission Methods

1. Direct Contact:

• Through skin-to-skin contact or sexual contact (e.g., HIV, syphilis, ringworm).

2. Indirect Contact:

• Through contaminated surfaces, food, or water (e.g., cholera, typhoid).

3. Airborne:

• Via coughing, sneezing, or talking (e.g., tuberculosis, COVID-19).

4. Vector-Borne:

• Through insects (mosquitoes, flies) that carry the disease-causing organism (e.g., malaria,
dengue, filariasis).

4. Prevention of Communicable Diseases

1. Vaccination:

• Immunization prevents certain diseases like measles, polio, and influenza.

2. Personal Hygiene:

• Regular hand washing, use of sanitizers, maintaining cleanliness to reduce the risk of
infections.

3. Sanitation and Clean Water:

• Proper disposal of waste, ensuring clean water, and controlling food hygiene.

4. Insect Control:

• Use of insect repellents, mosquito nets, and controlling breeding sites for mosquitoes.

5. Quarantine and Isolation:

• Isolation of infected individuals to prevent spreading (especially for diseases like COVID-
19).

6. Antibiotics and Antivirals:

• Proper use of antibiotics for bacterial infections and antivirals for viral infections.

7. Awareness and Education:

• Public awareness campaigns on health practices and hygiene.

5. Common Symptoms of Communicable Diseases

• Fever: A common symptom in many infections.

• Cough: Often seen in respiratory infections.

• Diarrhea: Common in waterborne infections like cholera.

• Fatigue: General tiredness or weakness.

• Rashes: Can be a symptom of skin infections or viral diseases.

• Pain: Can be localized or generalized depending on the disease.

6. Treatment

• Antibiotics: Used to treat bacterial infections (e.g., tuberculosis, typhoid).

• Antivirals: Used for viral infections (e.g., HIV, influenza).

• Antimalarial Drugs: Used for malaria.

• Antifungals: Used to treat fungal infections.

• Supportive Care: Fluid replacement, fever management, and symptom control for many
diseases.
Diseases Caused by Mosquitoes

Mosquitoes are vectors for various diseases, transferring pathogens from infected individuals
to healthy ones. These diseases can be viral, bacterial, or parasitic. Here are some of the
major mosquito-borne diseases:

1. Malaria

• Causative Agent: Plasmodium (a parasitic protozoan).

• Vector: Anopheles mosquitoes.

• Symptoms: Fever, chills, sweating, headache, nausea, vomiting, and fatigue.

• Transmission: When an infected female Anopheles mosquito bites a human, it transmits the
Plasmodium parasite.

• Prevention: Use of insect repellent, bed nets, antimalarial drugs, and vector control
measures.

2. Dengue Fever

• Causative Agent: Dengue virus (Flavivirus).

• Vector: Aedes mosquitoes (especially Aedes aegypti).

• Symptoms: High fever, severe headache, pain behind the eyes, joint and muscle pain, skin
rashes, and sometimes bleeding (dengue hemorrhagic fever).

• Transmission: Aedes mosquitoes bite an infected person and then transmit the virus to
another person through their bites.

• Prevention: Eliminating mosquito breeding sites, using mosquito repellents, and wearing
protective clothing.

3. Zika Virus Disease

• Causative Agent: Zika virus (Flavivirus).

• Vector: Aedes mosquitoes (mainly Aedes aegypti).

• Symptoms: Mild fever, rash, joint pain, conjunctivitis (red eyes), headache. In pregnant
women, it can lead to birth defects like microcephaly.

• Transmission: The virus is transmitted by Aedes mosquitoes from an infected person to

another.

• Prevention: Avoiding mosquito bites, using repellents, and wearing protective clothing.

4. Chikungunya

• Causative Agent: Chikungunya virus (Alphavirus).

• Vector: Aedes mosquitoes (mainly Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus).

• Symptoms: Sudden fever, severe joint pain (often in hands and feet), muscle pain,
headache, nausea, and rash.

• Transmission: Aedes mosquitoes bite an infected person and pass the virus to others.

• Prevention: Mosquito control, avoiding mosquito bites, and using mosquito nets.

5. Yellow Fever

• Causative Agent: Yellow fever virus (Flavivirus).

• Vector: Aedes mosquitoes (mainly Aedes aegypti).

• Symptoms: Fever, chills, headache, muscle aches, nausea, vomiting, and jaundice (yellowing
of the skin and eyes).

• Transmission: The virus is transmitted through the bite of an infected Aedes mosquito.

• Prevention: Vaccination, mosquito control, and avoiding mosquito bites.

6. Japanese Encephalitis

• Causative Agent: Japanese encephalitis virus (Flavivirus).

• Vector: Culex mosquitoes.

• Symptoms: Fever, headache, vomiting, confusion, and in severe cases, brain inflammation
(encephalitis).

• Transmission: Infected Culex mosquitoes transmit the virus to humans.

• Prevention: Vaccination, avoiding mosquito exposure, and controlling mosquito

populations.

7. West Nile Virus

• Causative Agent: West Nile virus (Flavivirus).

• Vector: Culex mosquitoes.

• Symptoms: Most infections are mild, but can lead to fever, headache, fatigue, and
sometimes neurological symptoms such as encephalitis or meningitis.

• Transmission: Culex mosquitoes transmit the virus from infected birds to humans.

• Prevention: Using mosquito repellent, eliminating mosquito breeding sites, and avoiding
mosquito bites.

8. Filariasis (Elephantiasis)

• Causative Agent: Filarial worms (e.g., Wuchereria bancrofti, Brugia malayi).

• Vector: Culex, Anopheles, and Aedes mosquitoes.

• Symptoms: Swelling of limbs or genitals (elephantiasis), fever, pain, and disability.

• Transmission: The mosquito bites an infected person and transfers microscopic larvae of
the filarial worms to the next person.

• Prevention: Mass drug administration, mosquito control, and the use of mosquito nets.

9. Lymphatic Filariasis

• Causative Agent: Filarial parasites (e.g., Wuchereria bancrofti).

• Vector: Culex, Anopheles, and Aedes mosquitoes.

• Symptoms: Swelling of lymph nodes, elephantiasis of limbs, genital organs.

• Transmission: The filarial worm larvae are transmitted from an infected person to a healthy
person through mosquito bites.

• Prevention: Mosquito control, preventive chemotherapy, and the use of insecticide-treated

nets.

10. Malayan Filariasis

• Causative Agent: Filarial worms, especially Brugia malayi.

• Vector: Culex and Anopheles mosquitoes.

• Symptoms: Lymphatic swelling and elephantiasis, especially in the legs, scrotum, and
breasts.

• Transmission: Transmitted by mosquito bites, with larvae entering the bloodstream.

• Prevention: Control of mosquito populations, mass drug administration programs, and

personal protection from mosquito bites.

Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs)

Non-communicable diseases (NCDs), also known as chronic diseases, are diseases that are
not transmitted from person to person. They generally develop over long periods and are
primarily caused by unhealthy lifestyle choices, environmental factors, and genetic
predisposition. Unlike communicable diseases, NCDs are not caused by infectious agents
(bacteria, viruses, fungi, etc.).

1. Definition of Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs)

• Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) are diseases that are not spread through infection and
are primarily caused by genetic, environmental, or lifestyle factors.

• They tend to be long-lasting, often requiring long-term treatment or management.

2. Types of Non-Communicable Diseases

a. Cardiovascular Diseases (CVDs)

• Description: Disorders of the heart and blood vessels.

Common Cardiovascular Diseases:

• Coronary Artery Disease (CAD): Narrowing of coronary arteries due to plaque buildup,
leading to reduced blood flow to the heart.

• Hypertension (High Blood Pressure): Elevated blood pressure that strains the heart and
blood vessels.

• Stroke: Occurs when blood flow to the brain is disrupted, leading to brain cell damage.

• Heart Attack: Blockage of blood flow to the heart muscle, causing damage to the heart.

Risk Factors:

• Unhealthy diet, high salt intake, lack of physical activity, smoking, alcohol consumption,
stress, genetics.

Symptoms:

• Chest pain, shortness of breath, dizziness, numbness, severe headache (in stroke).

Prevention:

• Healthy diet, regular physical activity, managing stress, avoiding tobacco and excessive
alcohol use, maintaining healthy weight.

b. Diabetes Mellitus

• Description: A condition where the body is unable to produce or effectively use insulin,
leading to high blood sugar levels.

Types of Diabetes:

• Type 1 Diabetes: An autoimmune disorder where the immune system attacks the insulin-
producing cells of the pancreas.
• Type 2 Diabetes: More common; occurs when the body becomes resistant to insulin or
when the pancreas doesn’t produce enough insulin.

• Gestational Diabetes: Develops during pregnancy and usually resolves after childbirth.

Risk Factors:

• Genetics, obesity, lack of physical activity, unhealthy diet, age, family history.

Symptoms:

• Increased thirst, frequent urination, unexplained weight loss, fatigue, blurry vision.

Prevention:

• Regular physical activity, balanced diet, maintaining healthy weight, avoiding smoking,
regular monitoring of blood sugar levels.

c. Cancer

• Description: A group of diseases characterized by the uncontrolled growth of abnormal

cells in the body.

Common Types of Cancer:

• Lung Cancer: Most commonly caused by smoking or exposure to harmful chemicals.

• Breast Cancer: Affects the breast tissue, more common in women.

• Colorectal Cancer: Cancer of the colon or rectum, often linked to diet and lifestyle.

• Prostate Cancer: Affects the prostate gland in men.

• Skin Cancer: Most commonly caused by prolonged exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation.

Risk Factors:

• Smoking, poor diet, lack of physical activity, obesity, genetics, exposure to environmental
toxins, alcohol consumption, and UV radiation.

Symptoms:

• Unexplained weight loss, fatigue, changes in skin, lumps, abnormal bleeding, difficulty
swallowing, persistent cough.

Prevention:
 • Healthy diet, regular exercise, avoiding tobacco and excessive alcohol use, protecting skin
from sun exposure, regular screenings.

d. Chronic Respiratory Diseases

• Description: A group of diseases that affect the lungs and airways, causing long-term
breathing problems.

Common Respiratory Diseases:

• Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD): Includes emphysema and chronic

bronchitis, primarily caused by smoking.

• Asthma: Chronic inflammation of the airways causing difficulty breathing and wheezing.

• Pulmonary Fibrosis: Scarring of lung tissue that causes difficulty in breathing.

Risk Factors:

• Smoking, air pollution, exposure to occupational hazards (e.g., dust, fumes), genetics.

Symptoms:

• Shortness of breath, chronic cough, wheezing, chest tightness, fatigue.

Prevention:

• Avoiding smoking, reducing exposure to air pollutants, regular exercise, maintaining a

healthy weight, using air purifiers.

e. Kidney Disease

• Description: Chronic kidney disease (CKD) occurs when the kidneys become damaged and
lose their ability to filter waste from the blood.

Causes:

• Diabetes, hypertension, genetic factors, infections, prolonged use of certain medications.

Symptoms:

• Swelling in the legs, ankles, and feet, fatigue, difficulty concentrating, reduced urine output,
blood in urine.
Prevention:

• Control of blood sugar and blood pressure, avoiding smoking, drinking plenty of water, and
regular health check-ups.

f. Mental Health Disorders

• Description: These are conditions that affect a person’s emotional, psychological, and
social well-being.

Common Mental Health Disorders:

• Depression: Persistent feelings of sadness and loss of interest in activities.

• Anxiety Disorders: Excessive worry, fear, and nervousness.

• Schizophrenia: Affects a person’s ability to think, feel, and behave clearly.

• Bipolar Disorder: Characterized by extreme mood swings, from high manic episodes to low
depressive episodes.

Risk Factors:

• Genetic predisposition, stressful life events, substance abuse, lack of social support.

Symptoms:

• Feelings of hopelessness, extreme mood swings, withdrawal from social activities,

irritability, fatigue, disturbed sleep.

Prevention:

• Building strong social connections, stress management, seeking therapy, maintaining

physical health, avoiding substance abuse.

3. Risk Factors for Non-Communicable Diseases

• Lifestyle Factors:

• Poor diet (high in fats, sugar, and salt), lack of physical activity, smoking, excessive alcohol
consumption.

• Genetic Factors:
• Family history of diseases like heart disease, cancer, or diabetes.

• Environmental Factors:

• Pollution, exposure to harmful chemicals, and occupational hazards.

• Age and Gender:

• Many NCDs are age-related. Men and women may be susceptible to different NCDs based
on hormonal and genetic differences.

4. Prevention and Control of NCDs

1. Healthy Lifestyle:

• Regular physical activity (at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity exercise weekly).

• Balanced diet rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and low in processed foods, salt, and
sugars.

• Avoid tobacco and excessive alcohol consumption.

2. Regular Screenings:

• Regular check-ups for blood pressure, blood sugar, cholesterol levels, and cancer
screenings (e.g., mammograms, colonoscopies).

3. Mental Health Care:

• Managing stress, building emotional resilience, and seeking therapy when needed.

4. Environmental Changes:

• Reducing exposure to environmental hazards, including air pollution and toxic substances.

5. Health Education:

• Raising awareness about NCDs and healthy behaviors through public health campaigns and
education.

Plant Biology
1. Structure of Plants

a. Plant Cell

• Basic Unit: The plant cell is the structural and functional unit of plants. It has a rigid cell
wall made of cellulose, unlike animal cells.

• Parts of Plant Cells:

• Cell Membrane: Semi-permeable, controlling the movement of substances.

• Nucleus: Contains genetic material (DNA).

• Chloroplasts: Contain chlorophyll and are the site for photosynthesis.

• Vacuole: A large central vacuole maintains turgidity and stores water and nutrients.

• Mitochondria: Powerhouse of the cell, involved in cellular respiration.

b. Plant Tissues

• Meristematic Tissue: Contains actively dividing cells. Found at growing tips of roots and
shoots.

• Permanent Tissue: Cells that have lost the ability to divide. Includes:

• Simple Tissues: Parenchyma (storage, support), Collenchyma (flexible support),

Sclerenchyma (rigid support).

• Complex Tissues: Xylem (water transport), Phloem (food transport).

2. Plant Growth and Development

• Growth: The irreversible increase in size and mass of the plant. Growth occurs primarily in
meristematic regions.

a. Phases of Growth

• Cell Division: Occurs in meristems, where new cells are produced.

• Elongation: Cells increase in size, particularly in the elongation zone of roots and shoots.

• Maturation: Cells differentiate and become specialized for particular functions (e.g., xylem,
phloem).

b. Factors Affecting Plant Growth

• Intrinsic Factors: Genetic makeup, hormones (e.g., auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins).

• Extrinsic Factors: Light, temperature, water, soil nutrients.

3. Photosynthesis

• Process: The process by which plants convert light energy into chemical energy, producing
glucose and oxygen.

• Formula:

\[

6CO_2 + 6H_2O \xrightarrow{light} C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2

\]

• Chloroplasts: Contain chlorophyll, which captures light energy.

• Two Stages:

• Light-dependent Reactions: Occur in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplasts,

producing ATP and NADPH.

• Calvin Cycle (Light-independent): Occurs in the stroma of the chloroplasts, where carbon
dioxide is fixed into glucose.

4. Respiration in Plants

• Process: Cellular respiration is the process by which plants convert glucose into energy in
the form of ATP.

• Formula:

• Types:
• Aerobic Respiration: Requires oxygen, produces a large amount of ATP.

• Anaerobic Respiration (Fermentation): Occurs in the absence of oxygen, produces less ATP
(e.g., lactic acid fermentation in plants under stress).

5. Transport in Plants

a. Water Transport

• Xylem: Tissue responsible for the transport of water and minerals from the roots to the rest
of the plant.

• Mechanism: Includes root pressure, capillarity, and transpiration pull.

• Transpiration: The evaporation of water from plant leaves, creating a negative pressure that
pulls water upward.

b. Food Transport

• Phloem: Tissue responsible for transporting food (sugars) from leaves (source) to other
parts (sink).

• Mechanism: The movement of sugars occurs via pressure flow hypothesis, where sugars are
actively transported into phloem, creating a high pressure that pushes them towards sinks.

6. Reproduction in Plants

a. Asexual Reproduction

• Vegetative Propagation: New plants are produced from vegetative parts like stems, roots,
and leaves (e.g., runners in strawberries, tubers in potatoes).

• Spores: Some plants (like ferns and mosses) reproduce through spores, which germinate
into new plants.

b. Sexual Reproduction
• Flowers: The reproductive organs of flowering plants.

• Male Parts: Stamen (anther and filament) produce pollen.

• Female Parts: Pistil (stigma, style, and ovary) contain the ovules.

• Pollination: The transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma. It can be self-pollination
or cross-pollination (by wind, water, or animals).

• Fertilization: The fusion of male and female gametes (pollen and ovule), resulting in the
formation of seeds.

• Seed Dispersal: Seeds are dispersed by wind, water, animals, or mechanical means.

7. Plant Hormones

Plant hormones are chemical substances that regulate growth, development, and responses
to stimuli.

• Auxins: Promote cell elongation, root formation, and differentiation.

• Gibberellins: Stimulate stem elongation, seed germination, and flowering.

• Cytokinins: Promote cell division and lateral bud growth.

• Ethylene: A gas that promotes fruit ripening and abscission (falling of leaves).

• Abscisic Acid (ABA): Involved in plant stress responses and inhibition of growth.

8. Plant Diseases

• Causes: Can be caused by pathogens (fungi, bacteria, viruses) or non-infectious factors like
nutrient deficiencies.

• Common Plant Diseases:

• Rusts and Smuts: Fungal diseases that affect cereals and other crops.

• Bacterial Wilt: Caused by bacteria, leading to wilting of plants.

• Tobacco Mosaic Virus: A viral disease affecting tobacco and other plants.
9. Plant Ecology

• Ecological Adaptations: Plants adapt to their environment in various ways. For example:

• Desert Plants: Have thick cuticles, deep roots, and store water in leaves or stems.

• Aquatic Plants: Have specialized structures like air spaces for buoyancy.

• Succession: The process by which plant communities change over time in a given area, from
pioneer species to climax communities.

10. Importance of Plants

• Oxygen Production: Through photosynthesis, plants produce oxygen, which is essential for
life on Earth.

• Food Source: Plants provide food for humans and animals (directly or indirectly).

• Medicinal Value: Many plants are used in traditional and modern medicine (e.g., neem, aloe
vera, turmeric).

• Ecological Balance: Plants play a crucial role in maintaining the ecosystem by stabilizing the
soil, reducing erosion, and supporting biodiversity.

Classification of Animals:

Animal classification is a method used by scientists to organize and categorize animals based
on shared characteristics and evolutionary relationships. The system of classification used
today is known as taxonomy, and it groups animals into hierarchical categories from broad to
specific.

1. Taxonomic Hierarchy

The basic taxonomic hierarchy used for animal classification is as follows:

1. Kingdom (most general classification)

2. Phylum
3. Class

4. Order

5. Family

6. Genus

7. Species (most specific classification)

Each level or rank in the hierarchy represents a broader group with shared features, with
species being the most specific level, grouping organisms that can interbreed and produce
fertile offspring.

2. Major Animal Phyla

Animals are broadly classified into different phyla based on shared body plans and
fundamental characteristics. The major phyla are as follows:

a. Phylum Porifera (Sponges)

• Characteristics:

• Simple, multicellular organisms with porous bodies.

• Lack true tissues and organs.

• Filter feeders.

• Examples: Sponges.

b. Phylum Coelenterata (Cnidaria)

• Characteristics:

• Radial symmetry.

• Two body forms: polyp and medusa.

• Have stinging cells (cnidocytes) to capture prey.

• Examples: Jellyfish, Corals, Sea Anemones.

c. Phylum Platyhelminthes (Flatworms)

• Characteristics:

• Bilateral symmetry.

• Soft, flattened body.

• Lack a true body cavity (acoelomates).

• Examples: Planarians, Tapeworms.

d. Phylum Nematoda (Roundworms)

• Characteristics:

• Bilateral symmetry.

• Cylindrical, unsegmented body.

• Have a pseudocoelom (body cavity).

• Examples: Ascaris, Hookworms.

e. Phylum Annelida (Segmented Worms)

• Characteristics:

• Bilateral symmetry.

• Segmented body.

• True coelom.

• Examples: Earthworms, Leeches.

f. Phylum Arthropoda (Arthropods)

• Characteristics:
• Bilateral symmetry.

• Exoskeleton made of chitin.

• Jointed appendages.

• Largest animal phylum.

• Examples: Insects, Spiders, Crustaceans (e.g., crabs, lobsters).

g. Phylum Mollusca (Mollusks)

• Characteristics:

• Soft-bodied animals, often with a hard shell.

• Bilateral symmetry.

• True coelom.

• Examples: Snails, Clams, Octopuses, Squids.

h. Phylum Echinodermata (Echinoderms)

• Characteristics:

• Radial symmetry (in adults).

• Marine animals.

• Possess a water vascular system.

• Examples: Starfish, Sea Urchins, Sea Cucumbers.

i. Phylum Chordata (Chordates)

• Characteristics:

• Bilateral symmetry.

• Presence of a notochord (cartilage-like rod) at some stage of life.

• Dorsal hollow nerve cord.

• Pharyngeal slits.

• Post-anal tail.

• Examples: Humans, Fish, Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds, Mammals.

3. Classification of Chordates

Within the phylum Chordata, animals are further classified into the following subphyla:

a. Subphylum Vertebrata (Vertebrates)

• Characteristics:

• Presence of a vertebral column (backbone).

• Endoskeleton made of bone or cartilage.

• Well-developed brain encased in a skull.

• Examples: Fish, Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds, Mammals.

Classes within Vertebrates:

1. Class Pisces (Fish)

• Aquatic animals with gills for breathing.

• Scales on the body and fins for movement.

• Examples: Goldfish, Sharks, Tuna.

2. Class Amphibia (Amphibians)

• Live both in water and on land.

• Moist skin; breathe through skin and lungs.

• Examples: Frogs, Toads, Salamanders.

3. Class Reptilia (Reptiles)

• Cold-blooded, scaly skin.

• Lay eggs with leathery shells.

• Examples: Snakes, Lizards, Crocodiles.

4. Class Aves (Birds)

• Warm-blooded, feathers for insulation.

• Lay hard-shelled eggs.

• Have a beak and adapted wings for flight.

• Examples: Eagles, Parrots, Pigeons.

5. Class Mammalia (Mammals)

• Warm-blooded, with hair or fur.

• Give live birth (except monotremes).

• Mammary glands produce milk to feed young.

• Examples: Humans, Dogs, Elephants, Whales.

b. Subphylum Invertebrata (Invertebrates)

• Characteristics:

• Lack a vertebral column.

• Include various phyla such as Arthropoda, Mollusca, Annelida, etc.

• Examples: Insects, Jellyfish, Sponges.

4. Characteristics for Classification

Animals are classified based on several key features:

• Symmetry:

• Bilateral Symmetry: Body has two equal halves (e.g., humans, insects).

• Radial Symmetry: Body parts arranged around a central axis (e.g., starfish, jellyfish).

• Asymmetry: No symmetry (e.g., sponges).

• Body Cavities:

• Acoelomate: No body cavity (e.g., flatworms).

• Pseudocoelomate: A body cavity not fully lined with mesoderm (e.g., roundworms).

• Coelomate: A true body cavity fully lined with mesoderm (e.g., humans, annelids).

• Body Segmentation: The division of the body into segments (e.g., earthworms, arthropods).

• Exoskeleton vs. Endoskeleton: Arthropods have an exoskeleton (external), while

vertebrates have an endoskeleton (internal).

5. Importance of Animal Classification

• Understanding Evolution: Helps trace the evolutionary history of animals.

• Medical and Veterinary Science: Knowledge of animal anatomy aids in treatment and
research.

• Conservation: Understanding biodiversity and the classification of species is crucial for

conservation efforts.

• Ecology: Classification helps in understanding ecological roles and relationships among

species.

Dedication

I dedicate this Science UPPSC book to my parents,

whose selfless sacrifices, despite their own struggles,

gave me the best of everything.

Their love, strength, and resilience continue to inspire me

every day.

Yours,

ADITYA (IRON MAN)

Founder, KARMAYOGI IAS

Appeared in 3 Civil Services Interviews