Explore the full ebook collection and download it now at textbookfull.

com

Applications of Metaheuristic Optimization

Algorithms in Civil Engineering 1st Edition A.
Kaveh (Auth.)

https://textbookfull.com/product/applications-of-
metaheuristic-optimization-algorithms-in-civil-
engineering-1st-edition-a-kaveh-auth/

OR CLICK HERE

DOWLOAD EBOOK

Browse and Get More Ebook Downloads Instantly at https://textbookfull.com

Click here to visit textbookfull.com and download textbook now
 Your digital treasures (PDF, ePub, MOBI) await
Download instantly and pick your perfect format...

Read anywhere, anytime, on any device!

Advances in Metaheuristic Algorithms for Optimal Design of

Structures Third Edition Ali Kaveh

https://textbookfull.com/product/advances-in-metaheuristic-algorithms-
for-optimal-design-of-structures-third-edition-ali-kaveh/

textbookfull.com

Optimization Using Evolutionary Algorithms and

Metaheuristics: Applications in Engineering 1st Edition
Kaushik Kumar
https://textbookfull.com/product/optimization-using-evolutionary-
algorithms-and-metaheuristics-applications-in-engineering-1st-edition-
kaushik-kumar/
textbookfull.com

Metaheuristic and Evolutionary Computation: Algorithms and

Applications Hasmat Malik

https://textbookfull.com/product/metaheuristic-and-evolutionary-
computation-algorithms-and-applications-hasmat-malik/

textbookfull.com

Metaheuristic Algorithms for Image Segmentation Theory and

Applications Diego Oliva

https://textbookfull.com/product/metaheuristic-algorithms-for-image-
segmentation-theory-and-applications-diego-oliva/

textbookfull.com
A Primer on Machine Learning Applications in Civil
Engineering 1st Edition Paresh Chandra Deka (Author)

https://textbookfull.com/product/a-primer-on-machine-learning-
applications-in-civil-engineering-1st-edition-paresh-chandra-deka-
author/
textbookfull.com

Glowworm Swarm Optimization Theory Algorithms and

Applications 1st Edition Krishnanand N. Kaipa

https://textbookfull.com/product/glowworm-swarm-optimization-theory-
algorithms-and-applications-1st-edition-krishnanand-n-kaipa/

textbookfull.com

Optimization of Complex Systems: Theory, Models,

Algorithms and Applications Hoai An Le Thi

https://textbookfull.com/product/optimization-of-complex-systems-
theory-models-algorithms-and-applications-hoai-an-le-thi/

textbookfull.com

Optimization Concepts and Applications in Engineering 3rd

Edition Ashok D. Belegundu

https://textbookfull.com/product/optimization-concepts-and-
applications-in-engineering-3rd-edition-ashok-d-belegundu/

textbookfull.com

Computing Algorithms with Applications in Engineering:

Proceedings of ICCAEEE 2019 1st Edition V. K. Giri

https://textbookfull.com/product/computing-algorithms-with-
applications-in-engineering-proceedings-of-iccaeee-2019-1st-edition-v-
k-giri/
textbookfull.com
A. Kaveh

Applications of
Metaheuristic
Optimization
Algorithms in
Civil Engineering
Applications of Metaheuristic Optimization
Algorithms in Civil Engineering
A. Kaveh

Applications of Metaheuristic
Optimization Algorithms in
Civil Engineering
A. Kaveh
Iran University of Science and Technology
Centre of Excellence for Fundamental Studies
in Structural Engineering
Tehran, Iran

ISBN 978-3-319-48011-4 ISBN 978-3-319-48012-1 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-48012-1

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016959614

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or
dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt
from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained
herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface

Recent advances in civil engineering technology require greater accuracy, effi-

ciency, and speed in the analysis and design of the corresponding systems. It is
therefore not surprising that new methods have been developed for optimal analysis
and design of real-life systems and models with complex configurations and a large
number of elements.
This book can be considered as an application of metaheuristic algorithms to
some important optimization problems in civil engineering. This book is addressed
to those scientists and engineers, and their students, who wish to explore the
potential of newly developed metaheuristics by some practical problems. The
concepts presented in this book are not only applicable to civil engineering prob-
lems but can equally be used for optimizing the problems involved in mechanical
and electrical engineering.
The author and his graduate students have been involved in various develop-
ments and applications of various metaheuristic algorithms to structural optimiza-
tion in the last two decades. This book contains part of this research suitable for
various aspects of optimization in civil engineering.
The book is likely to be of interest to civil, mechanical, and electrical engineers
who use optimization methods for design, as well as to those students and
researchers in structural optimization who will find it to be necessary professional
reading.
In Chap. 1, a short introduction is provided for the goals and contents of this
book. Chapter 2 discusses optimum design of laterally supported castellated beams
using tug-of-war optimization algorithm. Chapter 3 provides optimum design of
multi-span composite box girder bridges using the well-known cuckoo search
algorithm. In Chap. 4, the sizing optimization of skeletal structures using the
recently developed enhanced whale optimization algorithm is presented. Examples
are chosen from both trusses and frame structures. Chapter 5 contains the size and
geometry optimization of double-layer grids from the family of space structures
using the colliding bodies optimization (CBO) and Enhances colliding bodies

v
vi Preface

optimization (ECBO) algorithms. Chapter 6 presents the sizing and geometry

optimization of different mechanical system of domes via the ECBO algorithm.
Special domes are discussed in the chapter. Chapter 7 presents improved magnetic
charged system search method for optimal design of single-layer barrel vault.
Chapter 8 contains optimal design of double-layer barrel vaults using the CBO
and ECBO algorithms. In Chap. 9, optimum design of steel floor system is
performed using ECBO. In Chap. 10, optimal design of the monopole structures
is performed using the CBO and ECBO algorithms. Chapter 11 deals with damage
detection in skeletal structures based on the charged system search (CSS) optimi-
zation using incomplete modal data. Such a study is an important issue in earth-
quake engineering. In Chap. 12, modification of the ground motions is performed
utilizing the ECBO. In Chap. 13, a combinatorial optimization is considered and the
bandwidth, profile, and wavefront of sparse matrices are optimized using four
metaheuristic algorithms consisting of the PSO, CBO, ECBO, and TWO. In
Chap. 14, optimal analysis and design of large-scale domes with frequency con-
straints is presented. Here, the importance of using optimal analysis in optimal
design of structures for large-scale domes is illustrated. In Chap. 15, an accurate and
efficient technique, so-called multi-DVC cascade optimization, is presented for
optimal design of 3D truss towers with a large number of design variables to
illustrate its applicability to optimum design of practical structures. Chapter 16
utilizes the vibrating particles system algorithm for truss optimization with fre-
quency constraints. Five examples are used for evaluating this algorithm. In
Chap. 17, the cost and CO2 emission optimization of reinforced concrete frames
is performed employing the ECBO algorithm. Nowadays, this is an important
environmental issue in civil engineering. Chapter 18 presents a study of the
construction site layout planning problem using the CBO and ECBO algorithms.
This chapter shows the use of optimization methods in construction management.
I would like to take this opportunity to acknowledge a deep sense of gratitude to a
number of colleagues and friends who in different ways have helped in the preparation
of this book. My special thanks are due to Ms. Silvia Schilgerius, the senior editor of
the Applied Sciences of Springer, for her constructive comments, editing, and unfail-
ing kindness in the course of the preparation of this book. My sincere appreciation is
extended to our Springer colleagues, in particular Mr. R.R. Pavan Kumar, the project
manager, who prepared the careful page design of this book.
I would like to thank my former and present Ph.D. and M.Sc. students,
Dr. A. Zolghadr, Dr. T. Bakhshpoori, Mr. V.R. Mahdavi, Mr. M. Ilchi Ghazaan,
Mr. M.H. Ghafari, Mrs. Sh Bijari, Mr. M. Alipour, Mr. F. Shokohi. Mr. M.
Kamalinejad, Mr. M. Maniat, Mr. M. Moradveisi, Mr. M. Rezaei, and
Mr. M. Rasteghar Moghaddam, for using our joint papers and for their help in various
stages of writing this book. I would like to thank the publishers who permitted some of
our papers to be utilized in the preparation of this book, consisting of Springer, John
Wiley and Sons, and Elsevier.
My warmest gratitude is due to my son, Mr. B. Kaveh, for his help in editing the
first chapter, and my wife, Mrs. L. Kaveh, for her continued support in the course of
preparing this book.
Preface vii

Every effort has been made to render the book error free. However, the author
would appreciate any remaining errors being brought to his attention through his
e-mail address: [email protected].

Tehran, Iran A. Kaveh

January 2017
Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Metaheuristic Algorithms for Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Optimization in Civil Engineering and Goals of the
Present Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Organization of the Present Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2 Optimum Design of Castellated Beams Using the Tug of War
Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Design of Castellated Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.1 Overall Flexural Capacity of the Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2.2 Shear Capacity of the Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2.3 Flexural and Buckling Strength of Web Post . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.4 Vierendeel Bending of Upper and Lower Tees . . . . . . . 14
2.2.5 Deflection of Castellated Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3 Problem Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3.1 Design of Castellated Beam with Circular Opening . . . 16
2.3.2 Design of Castellated Beam with Hexagonal
Opening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.4 Optimization Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.5 Test Problems and Optimization Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.5.1 Castellated Beam with 4 m Span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.5.2 Castellated Beam with 8 m Span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.5.3 Castellated Beam with 9 m Span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.6 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

ix
x Contents

3 Optimum Design of Multi-span Composite Box Girder

Bridges Using Cuckoo Search Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.2 Design Optimization Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2.1 Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2.2 Geometric Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.2.3 Strength Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.2.4 Serviceability Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.3 Parallel Metaheuristic Based Optimization Technique . . . . . . . . 35
3.3.1 Cuckoo Search Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.3.2 Parallel Computing System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.4 Design Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.4.1 A Three-Span Continuous Composite Bridge . . . . . . . . 38
3.4.2 Discussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.5 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4 Sizing Optimization of Skeletal Structures Using the Enhanced
Whale Optimization Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.2 Statement of the Optimization Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.3 Optimization Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.3.1 Whale Optimization Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.3.2 Enhanced Whale Optimization Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.4 Test Problems and Optimization Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.4.1 Spatial 72-Bar Truss Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.4.2 Spatial 582-Bar Tower Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.4.3 A 3-Bay 15-Story Frame Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.4.4 A 3-Bay 24-Story Frame Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.5 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
5 Size and Geometry Optimization of Double-Layer Grids Using
the CBO and ECBO Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5.2 Optimal Design of Double-Layer Grids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.3 CBO and ECBO Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.3.1 A Brief Explanation and Formulation of the CBO
Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.3.2 Pseudo-Code of the ECBO Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.4 Structural Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.5 Numerical Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.5.1 A 15  15 m Double-Layer Square Grid . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.5.2 A 40  40 m Double-Layer Square Grid . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Contents xi

5.5.3 The Effect of Support Location on the Weight of

Double-Layer Grids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.6 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
6 Sizing and Geometry Optimization of Different Mechanical
Systems of Domes via the ECBO Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
6.2 Optimal Design Problem of Lamella Domes According
to LRFD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6.2.1 Nominal Strengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
6.3 Metaheuristic Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
6.3.1 Colliding Bodies Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
6.3.2 Enhanced Colliding Bodies Optimization . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.4 Configuration of Single-Layer Lamella Dome, Suspen-Dome,
and Double-Layer Dome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6.4.1 Configuration of Single-Layer Lamella Dome
with Rigid-Jointed Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6.4.2 Configuration of Lamella Suspen-Domes . . . . . . . . . . 102
6.4.3 Configuration of Double-Layer Lamella Dome . . . . . . 104
6.5 Convergence Curves of the Metaheuristic Algorithms . . . . . . . . 104
6.5.1 Comparison of the Convergence Curves of PSO,
CBO, and ECBO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
6.6 Comparison of Different Mechanical Systems of Domes . . . . . . 106
6.6.1 Optimal Design of Single-Layer Lamella Dome
with Rigid Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
6.6.2 Optimal Design of Lamella Suspen-Dome
with Pin-Jointed and Rigid-Jointed Connections . . . . . 107
6.6.3 Optimal Design of Double-Layer Lamella Domes . . . . 109
6.6.4 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
6.7 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
7 Simultaneous Shape–Size Optimization of Single-Layer Barrel
Vaults Using an Improved Magnetic Charged System Search
Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
7.2 Statement of Optimization Problem for Barrel Vault Frames . . . 118
7.3 The Optimization Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
7.3.1 Improved Magnetic Charged System Search . . . . . . . . 122
7.3.2 Discrete IMCSS Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
7.3.3 Open Application Programming Interface . . . . . . . . . . 126
7.4 Static Loading Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
7.4.1 Dead Load (DL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
7.4.2 Snow Load (SL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
7.4.3 Wind Load (WL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
xii Contents

7.5 Numerical Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

7.5.1 A 173-Bar Single-Layer Barrel Vault Frame . . . . . . . . 129
7.5.2 A 292-Bar Single-Layer Barrel Vault . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
7.6 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
8 Optimal Design of Double-Layer Barrel Vaults Using CBO
and ECBO Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
8.2 Optimum Design of Double-Layer Barrel Vaults . . . . . . . . . . . 148
8.3 CBO and ECBO Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
8.3.1 A Brief Explanation and Formulation of the CBO
Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
8.3.2 Pseudo-Code of the ECBO Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
8.4 Numerical Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
8.4.1 A 384-Bar Double-Layer Barrel Vault . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
8.4.2 A 910-Bar Double-Layer Braced Barrel Vault . . . . . . . 160
8.5 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
9 Optimum Design of Steel Floor Systems Using ECBO . . . . . . . . . . 165
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
9.2 Structural Floor Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
9.2.1 Deck Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
9.2.2 Castellated Composite Beam Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
9.2.3 Shear Stud Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
9.3 Problem Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
9.3.1 Cost Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
9.3.2 Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
9.3.3 Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
9.3.4 Penalty Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
9.4 Optimization Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
9.4.1 Suboptimization Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
9.4.2 Metaheuristic Optimization Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
9.5 Numerical Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
9.5.1 Example 1: Floor System
(Span 10 m and Width 8 m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
9.5.2 Example 2: Floor System
(Span 6 m and Width 7 m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
9.6 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
10 Optimal Design of the Monopole Structures Using the CBO
and ECBO Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
10.2 Monopole Structure Optimization Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
10.2.1 Design Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Contents xiii

10.2.2 Design Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

10.2.3 Cost Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
10.2.4 The Applied Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
10.2.5 Loading Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
10.3 Enhanced Colliding Bodies Optimization Algorithm . . . . . . . . . 191
10.3.1 Colliding Bodies Optimization Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . 191
10.3.2 Enhanced Colliding Bodies Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
10.4 Design Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
10.4.1 A 30 m High Monopole Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
10.4.2 A 36 m High Monopole Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
10.5 Discussion on the Results of the Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
10.6 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
11 Damage Detection in Skeletal Structures Based on CSS
Optimization Using Incomplete Modal Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
11.2 Damage Identification Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
11.2.1 Objective Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
11.3 Optimization Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
11.3.1 Standard Charged Search System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
11.3.2 Enhanced Charged Search System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
11.4 Numerical Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
11.4.1 A Continuous Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
11.4.2 A Planar Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
11.4.3 A Planar Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
11.4.4 A Space Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
11.5 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
12 Modification of Ground Motions Using Enhanced Colliding
Bodies Optimization Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
12.2 Spectral Matching Problem According to Eurocode-8 . . . . . . . . 215
12.2.1 Standard Design Spectrum in Eurocode-8 . . . . . . . . . . 215
12.2.2 Spectra Matching Requirements Based
on Eurocode-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
12.3 Wavelet Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
12.4 The Proposed Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
12.5 Enhanced Colliding Bodies Optimization Algorithm . . . . . . . . . 221
12.5.1 Colliding Bodies Optimization Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . 221
12.5.2 Enhanced Colliding Bodies Optimization
Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
12.6 Numerical Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
12.7 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
xiv Contents

13 Bandwidth, Profile, and Wavefront Optimization Using CBO,

ECBO, and TWO Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
13.2 Problem Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
13.2.1 Definitions from Graph Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
13.2.2 An Algorithm Based on Priority Queue for Profile
and Wavefront Minimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
13.2.3 The Priority Function with New Integer Weights . . . . . 240
13.3 Metaheuristic Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
13.3.1 Colliding Bodies Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
13.3.2 Enhanced Colliding Bodies Optimization . . . . . . . . . . 243
13.3.3 Tug of War Optimization Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
13.4 Numerical Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
13.4.1 Example 1: The FEM of a Shear Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
13.4.2 Example 2: A Rectangular FEM with
Four Openings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
13.4.3 Example 3: The Model of a Fan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
13.4.4 Example 4: An H-Shaped Shear Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
13.5 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
13.6 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
14 Optimal Analysis and Design of Large-Scale Domes
with Frequency Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
14.2 Formulation of the Optimization Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
14.3 Free Vibration Analysis of Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
14.3.1 Basic Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
14.3.2 Elastic Stiffness Matrix of a Three-Dimensional
Truss Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
14.4 Efficient Eigensolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
14.5 Numerical Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
14.5.1 A 600-Bar Single-Layer Dome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
14.5.2 A 1180-Bar Dome Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
14.5.3 A 1410-Bar Double-Layer Dome Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
14.6 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
15 Optimum Design of Large-Scale Truss Towers Using Cascade
Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
15.2 Cascade Sizing Optimization Utilizing Series of Design
Variable Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
15.2.1 Concept of Cascade Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
15.2.2 Multi-DVC Cascade Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Contents xv

15.3 Enhanced Colliding Bodies Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284

15.4 Design Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
15.4.1 A Spatial 582-Bar Tower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
15.4.2 A Spatial 942-Bar Tower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
15.4.3 A Spatial 2386-Bar Tower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
15.5 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
16 Vibrating Particles System Algorithm for Truss Optimization
with Frequency Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
16.2 Statement of the Optimization Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
16.3 The Vibrating Particles System Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
16.3.1 The Physical Background of the VPS Algorithm . . . . . 300
16.3.2 The VPS Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
16.4 Test Problems and Optimization Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
16.4.1 A 10-Bar Plane Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
16.4.2 A Simply Supported 37-Bar Plane Truss . . . . . . . . . . . 306
16.4.3 A 72-Bar Space Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
16.4.4 A 120-Bar Dome Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
16.4.5 A 600-Bar Single-Layer Dome Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
16.5 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
17 Cost and CO2 Emission Optimization of Reinforced Concrete
Frames Using Enhanced Colliding Bodies Optimization
Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
17.2 Formulation of the RC Frame Optimization Problem . . . . . . . . 321
17.2.1 Design Variables and Section Databases . . . . . . . . . . . 321
17.2.2 Structural Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
17.3 Formulation of the Optimization Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
17.3.1 Objective Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
17.3.2 Proposed Metaheuristic Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
17.4 Design Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
17.4.1 Two-Bay Six-Story Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
17.4.2 Two-Bay Four-Story Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
17.4.3 Two-Bay Six-Story Frame with Unequal Bays . . . . . . . 344
17.5 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
18 Construction Site Layout Planning Using Colliding Bodies
Optimization and Enhanced Colliding Bodies Optimization . . . . . . 351
18.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
18.2 Construction Site Layout Planning Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
18.2.1 Objective Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
18.2.2 Layout Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
xvi Contents

18.3 Metaheuristic Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355

18.3.1 Colliding Bodies Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
18.3.2 Enhanced Colliding Bodies Optimization . . . . . . . . . . 358
18.4 Model Application and Discussion of the Results . . . . . . . . . . . 362
18.5 Case Studies of Construction Site Layout Planning . . . . . . . . . . 363
18.5.1 Case Study 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
18.5.2 Case Study 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
18.6 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Chapter 1
Introduction

1.1 Metaheuristic Algorithms for Optimization

Much has been made of the parallels between engineering and art, and yet a unique
economy of parts and adherence to a plethora of constraints from cost to market
trends, from maintainability to robustness, and from project schedules safely
distinguish engineering design from the arts and engineering projects from art-
works. At the heart of this distinction lies the concept of “optimization” – the
science of choosing design variable values within given constraints such that a
function, e.g., total system cost is minimized, or overall system reliability is
maximized.
While the last three decades has seen an explosion in new methodologies applied
to the problem of optimization, there is also evidence for a resurgence of improved
classical algorithms and a growing number of engineering problems where heuristic
and algorithmic optimization has overtaken and, in some cases, replaced the
engineering graybeards and rule-of-thumb optimization methods.
Some of the most commonly used classical algorithmic optimization techniques
were gradient based and allowed a search of the solution space near a given
parameter point where gradient information about the target function was available
[1, 2]. Gradient-based methods, in general, converge faster and can obtain solutions
of higher accuracy than more modern stochastic approaches. However, the acqui-
sition of gradient information for the target function can be either costly or even
impossible. Moreover, these types of algorithms are only guaranteed to converge to
local minima. Furthermore, a good starting point can be vital for the successful
execution of these methods. In many optimization problems, prohibited zones, side
limits, and non-smooth or non-convex functions need to be taken into consider-
ation, increasing the difficulty of obtaining optimal solutions.
There is a slew of more recently developed optimization methods, known as
metaheuristic algorithms, that are not restricted in the aforementioned manner.
These methods are suitable for global searches over the entire search space due to

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017 1

A. Kaveh, Applications of Metaheuristic Optimization Algorithms in Civil
Engineering, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-48012-1_1
2 1 Introduction

their capability of exploring and finding promising regions in the search space with
reasonable computational effort. Ultimately, metaheuristic algorithms tend to per-
form rather well for most optimization problems [3, 4]. This is because these
methods refrain from simplifying or making assumptions about the original prob-
lem. Evidence of this can be seen in their successful application to a vast variety of
fields, such as engineering, physics, chemistry, arts, economics, marketing, genet-
ics, operations research, robotics, social sciences, and politics.
The word heuristic has its origin in the old Greek work heuriskein, which means
the art of discovering new strategies or rules to solve problems. The suffix meta,
also a Greek prefix, has come to mean a higher level of abstraction in the English
language. The term metaheuristic was introduced by Glover in the paper [5] and
denotes a strategy of solving a problem using higher levels of abstractions and to
guide a heuristic search of the solution space.
A heuristic method can be considered as a procedure that is likely to discover a
very good feasible solution, but not necessarily an optimal solution, for a consid-
ered specific problem. In most cases no guarantee is provided for the quality of the
solution obtained, but a well-designed heuristic method usually can provide a
solution that is nearly optimal. The procedure also should be sufficiently efficient
to deal with very large problems. Heuristic methods are often iterative algorithms,
where each iteration involves conducting a search for a new solution that might be
better than the best solution found in a previous iteration. After a reasonable amount
of time when the algorithm is terminated, the solution it provides is the best one
found during all iterations. A metaheuristic is formally defined as an iterative
generation process which guides a subordinate heuristic by combining intelligently
different concepts for exploring (global search) and exploiting (local search) the
search space in order to efficiently find near-optimal solutions [6]. Learning strat-
egies can be employed to add the “intelligence” to such guided search heuristics.
Metaheuristic algorithms have found many applications in different areas of
applied mathematics, engineering, medicine, economics, and other sciences.
Within engineering, these methods are extensively utilized in the design stages of
civil, mechanical, electrical, and industrial projects.

1.2 Optimization in Civil Engineering and Goals

of the Present Book

In the area of civil engineering that is the main concern of this book, one tries to
achieve certain objectives in order to optimize weight, construction cost, geometry,
layout, topology, construction time, and computational time satisfying certain
constraints. Since resources, fund, and time are always limited, one has to find
solutions to optimize the usage of these resources.
The main goal of this book is to apply some well established and most recently
developed metaheuristic algorithms to optimization problems in the field of civil
1.3 Organization of the Present Book 3

engineering, as detailed in the subsequent section. The subjects considered in this

book are structural design of various types of structures such as trusses, frames,
space structures, castellated beams, floor system, monopole structures, and multi-
span composite box girder bridges. From earthquake engineering, modification of
ground motions and damage detection in skeletal structures are studied. For optimal
analysis, bandwidth, profile, and wavefront optimization is performed using differ-
ent metaheuristic algorithms. From optimization with frequency constraints, large-
scale domes are studied using optimal analysis. For optimal design of large-scale
three-dimensional truss structures, an accurate and efficient technique, so-called
multi-DVC cascade optimization, is presented, and examples with large number of
design variables are investigated to illustrate the applicability of the presented
method for optimum design of practical structures. From concrete structures the
objective function of algorithm is considered as the construction material costs of
reinforced concrete structural elements and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions
through different phases of a building life cycle. From construction management,
the construction of site layout planning problem is presented.

1.3 Organization of the Present Book

The remaining chapters of this book are organized in the following manner:
Chapter 2 introduces the recently developed metaheuristic so-called tug of war
optimization and applies this method to the optimal design of castellated beams.
Two common types of laterally supported castellated beams are considered as
design problems: beams with hexagonal openings and beams with circular open-
ings. In this chapter, castellated beams have been studied for two cases: beams
without filled holes and beams with end-filled holes. Here, tug of war optimization
algorithm is utilized for obtaining the solution of these design problems. For this
purpose, the cost is taken as the objective function, and some benchmark problems
are solved from literature [7].
Chapter 3 presents an integrated metaheuristic-based optimization procedure for
discrete size optimization of straight multi-span steel box girders with the objective
of minimizing the self-weight of girder. The selected metaheuristic algorithm is the
cuckoo search (CS) algorithm. The optimum design of a box girder is characterized
by geometry, serviceability, and ultimate limit states specified by the American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO). Size opti-
mization of a practical design example investigates the efficiency of this optimiza-
tion approach and leads to around 15 % of saving in material (Kaveh et al. [8]).
Chapter 4 addresses a new nature-inspired metaheuristic optimization algo-
rithm, called whale optimization algorithm (WOA), and utilizes this algorithm for
size optimization of skeletal structures. This method is inspired by the bubble-net
hunting strategy of humpback whales. WOA simulates hunting behavior with
random or the best search agent to chase the prey and the use of a spiral to simulate
bubble-net attacking mechanism of humpback whales. In this chapter, EWOA is
4 1 Introduction

also compared with WOA and other metaheuristic methods developed in the
literature using four skeletal structure optimization problems. Numerical results
compare the efficiency of the WOA and EWOA with the latter algorithm being
superior to the standard implementation [9].
Chapter 5 applies the optimum design procedure, based on colliding bodies
optimization (CBO) method and its enhanced version (ECBO), to optimal design of
two commonly used configurations of double-layer grids, and optimum span–depth
ratios are determined. Two ranges of spans as small and large sizes with certain
bays of equal lengths in two directions and different types of element grouping are
considered for each type of square grids. These algorithms obtain minimum weight
grid through appropriate selection of tube sections available in AISC load and
resistance factor design (LRFD). The comparison is aimed in finding the depth at
which each of different configurations shows its advantages. Finally, the effect of
support locations on the weight of the double-layer grids is investigated [10].
Chapter 6 introduces a finite element model based on geometrical nonlinear
analysis of different mechanical systems of large-scale domes consisting of double-
layer domes, suspen-domes, and single-layer domes with rigid connections. The
suspen-dome system is a new structural form that has become a popular structure in
the construction of long-span roof structures. Suspen-dome is a kind of new
prestressed space grid structure which is a spatial prestressed structure and has
complex mechanical characteristics. In this chapter, an optimum geometry and
sizing design is performed using the enhanced colliding bodies optimization algo-
rithm. The length of the strut, the cable initial strain, the cross-sectional area of the
cables, the cross-sectional size of steel elements, and the height of dome are
adopted as design variables for domes, and the minimum volume of each dome is
taken as the objective function. A simple approach is defined to determine the
configurations of the dome structures. The design algorithm obtains minimum
volume domes through appropriate selection of tube sections available in AISC
load and resistance factor design (LRFD). This chapter explores the efficiency of
Lamella suspen-dome with pin-jointed and rigid-jointed connections and compares
them with single-layer Lamella dome and double-layer Lamella dome [11].
Chapter 7 optimizes two single-layer barrel vault frames with different patterns
via the improved magnetic charged system search (IMCSS). In the process of
optimization, contrary to size variables, shape is a continuous variable. In the
case of shape optimization of this type of space structures, since all of the nodal
coordinates as the shape variables are dependent on the height-to-span ratio of the
barrel vault, height is considered as the only shape variable in a constant span of
barrel vault. In comparison, the best height-to-span ratios of barrel vaults under
static loading conditions obtained from CSS, MCSS, and IMCSS algorithms are
approximately close to the value of 0.17 from a comparative study carried out by
Parke. Furthermore, as seen from the results, different patterns of barrel vaults have
different effects on the value of the best height-to-span ratio. Moreover, in com-
parison to CSS and MCSS algorithms, IMCSS found better values for the weight of
the structures with a lower number of analyses [12].
1.3 Organization of the Present Book 5

Chapter 8 implements the recently developed metaheuristic algorithms colliding

bodies optimization (CBO) and its enhanced version (ECBO) for the optimization
of double-layer barrel vaults. Two kinds of double-layer barrel vaults are optimized
considering the weight of the structure as the objective function, where the design
constraints are imposed according to the provisions of AISC-ASD. The numerical
results show the successful performance of the CBO and ECBO algorithms in large-
scale structural optimization problems such as double-layer barrel vaults [10].
Chapter 9 considers a steel floor system consisting of decks, interior beams, edge
beams, and girders. Optimal design of a deck without considering beam optimiza-
tion is simple. However, a deck with a higher cost may increase the composite
action of the beams and decrease the beam cost, thus reducing the total expense.
Also different number of floor divisions can improve the total floor cost. Increasing
beam capacity by using castellated beams is another efficient method to save the
costs. In this study, floor optimization is performed and these three issues are
discussed. Floor division number and deck sections are some of the variables. For
each beam, profile section of the beam, beam-cutting depth, cutting angle, spacing
between holes, and number of filled holes at the ends of castellated beams are other
variables. The objective function is the total cost of the floor, consisting of the steel
profile, cutting and welding, concrete, steel deck, shear stud, and construction costs.
Optimization is performed by enhanced colliding bodies optimization (ECBO).
Results show that using castellated beams, selecting a deck with higher price and
considering different number of floor divisions can decrease the total cost of a
floor [13].
Chapter 10 studies a tubular steel monopole structure widely used for
supporting antennas in telecommunication industries. This chapter utilizes the
two recently developed metaheuristic algorithms, so-called colliding bodies opti-
mization (CBO) and enhanced colliding bodies optimization (ECBO), for size
optimization of monopole steel structures. The design procedure aims to obtain
minimum weight of monopole structures subjected to the TIA-EIA222F specifica-
tion. Two monopole structure examples are examined to verify the suitability of the
design procedure and to demonstrate the effectiveness and robustness of the CBO
and ECBO in creating optimal design for this problem. The outcomes of the ECBO
are also compared to those of the standard CBO to illustrate the importance of the
enhancement [14].
Chapter 11 studies the damage detection in structures by alteration in the
dynamic behavior of the structures. Observation of these changes has often been
viewed as a means to identify and assess the location and severity of damages in
structures. Among the responses of a structure, natural frequencies and natural
modes are both relatively easy to obtain and independent from external excitation
and, therefore, can be used as a measure of the structural behavior before and after
an extreme event which might have led to damage in the structure. This chapter
applies the charged system search algorithm to the problem of damage detection
using vibration data. The objective is to identify the location and extent of multi-
damage in a structure. Both natural frequencies and mode shapes are used to form
the required objective function. To moderate the effect of noise on measured data, a
6 1 Introduction

penalty approach is applied. Numerical examples consisting of beams, frames, and

trusses are examined. The results show that the present methodology can reliably
identify damage scenarios using noisy measurements and incomplete data [15].
Chapter 12 presents a simple and robust approach for spectral matching of
ground motions utilizing the wavelet transform and an improved metaheuristic
optimization technique. For this purpose, wavelet transform is used to decompose
the original ground motions to several levels, where each level covers a special
range of frequency and then each level is multiplied by a variable. Subsequently,
the enhanced colliding bodies optimization technique is employed to calculate the
variables such that the error between the response and target spectra is minimized.
The application of the proposed method is illustrated through modifying 12 sets of
ground motions [16].
Chapter 13 employs three recently developed metaheuristic optimization algo-
rithms, known as colliding bodies optimization (CBO), enhanced colliding bodies
optimization (ECBO), and tug of war optimization (TWO), for optimum nodal
ordering to reduce bandwidth, profile, and wavefront of sparse matrices. The
bandwidth, profile, and wavefront of some graph matrices, which have equivalent
pattern to structural matrices, are minimized using these methods. Comparison of
the achieved results with those of some existing approaches shows the robustness of
the utilized algorithms for bandwidth, profile, and wavefront optimization [17].
Chapter 14 involves the structural optimization of domes with a large number of
structural analyses using the democratic particle swarm optimization. When opti-
mizing large structures, these analyses require a considerable amount of computa-
tional time and effort. However, there are specific types of structure for which the
results of the analysis can be achieved in a much simpler and quicker way due to
their special repetitive patterns. In this chapter, frequency constraint optimization
of cyclically repeated space trusses is considered. An efficient technique is used to
decompose the large initial eigenproblem into several smaller ones, thus decreasing
the required computational time significantly. Some examples are presented in
order to illustrate the efficiency of the presented method [18].
Chapter 15 performs optimum design of real-world structures with high number
of design variables, large size of the search space, and control of a great number of
design constraints in a reasonable time. This chapter presents an accurate and
efficient technique, so-called multi-DVC cascade optimization, for optimal design
of three-dimensional truss towers with large number of design variables to illustrate
its applicability to optimum design of practical structures [19].
Chapter 16 includes application of the recently developed physically inspired
non-gradient algorithm for structural optimization with frequency constraints. The
algorithm being called vibrating particles system (VPS) mimics the free vibration
of single degree of freedom systems with viscous damping. Truss optimization with
frequency constraints is believed to represent nonlinear and non-convex search
spaces with several local optima and therefore is suitable for examining the
capabilities of the new algorithms. A set of five truss design problems are consid-
ered for evaluating the VPS in this article. The numerical results demonstrate the
efficiency and robustness of the new method (Kaveh and Ilchi Ghazaan [20]).
References 7

Chapter 17 investigates discrete design optimization of reinforcement concrete

frames using the recently developed metaheuristic called enhanced colliding bodies
optimization (ECBO) and the non-dominated sorting enhanced colliding bodies
optimization (NSECBO) algorithm. The objective function of algorithms consists
of construction material costs of reinforced concrete structural elements and carbon
dioxide (CO2) emissions through different phases of a building life cycle that meets
the standards and requirements of the American Concrete Institute’s building code.
The proposed method uses predetermined section database (DB) for design vari-
ables that are taken as the area of steel and the geometry of cross sections of beams
and columns. The use of ECBO algorithm for designing reinforced concrete frames
indicates an improvement in the computational efficiency over the designs
performed by Big Bang–Big Crunch (BB–BC) algorithm. The analysis also reveals
that the two objective functions are quite relevant, and designs focused on mitigat-
ing CO2 emissions could be achieved at an acceptable cost increment in
practice [21].
Chapter 18 employs two newly developed metaheuristic algorithms called
colliding bodies optimization and enhanced colliding bodies optimization to solve
construction site layout planning problem. Results show that both of these algo-
rithms have the capability of solving this kind of problem. Two case studies are
presented to illustrate the applicability and performance of the utilized
methods [22].
Finally, it should be mentioned that most of the metaheuristic algorithms are
attractive, because each one has its own striking features. However, the one which
is simple, less parameter dependent, and easy to implement, has a good balance
between exploration (diversification) and exploitation (intensification), has higher
capability to avoid being trapped in local optima and higher accuracy, is applicable
to wider types of problems, and can deal with higher number of variables can be
considered as the most attractive for engineering usage.
The type of problems to be optimized is also important. An algorithm can be
more suitable for a group of problems, while it might not be very efficient to another
group of problems. Therefore, unlike what some people argue, the author thinks no
restriction should be imposed on researchers in relation with developing new
algorithms. Unfortunately, there is no solid approach for characterizing the
metaheuristic algorithms and therefore one cannot easily identify the best ones.

References

1. Majid KI (1974) Optimum design of structures. Newness-Butterworth, UK

2. Kirsch U (1993) Structural optimization: fundamentals and applications. Springer, Berlin,
Heidelberg
3. Gonzalez TF (ed) (2007) Handbook of approximation algorithms and metaheuristics, Com-
puter and information science series. Chapman & Hall/CRC, Boca Raton, FL
4. Yang X-S (2010) Nature-inspired metaheuristic algorithms, 2nd edn. Luniver Press, UK
8 1 Introduction

5. Glover F, Kochenberger GA (eds) (2003) Handbook of metaheuristics. Kluwer Academic

Publishers, Boston, MA
6. Kaveh A (2014) Advances in metaheuristic algorithms for optimal design of structures, 1st
edn. Springer, Switzerland
7. Kaveh A, Shokohi F (2016) Optimum design of laterally-supported castellated beams using
tug of war optimization algorithm. Struct Eng Mech 58(3):533–553
8. Kaveh A, Bakhshpoori T, Barkhori M (2014) Optimum design of multi-span composite box
girder bridges using Cuckoo Search algorithm. Steel Compos Struct Int J 17(5):705–719
9. Kaveh A, Ilchi Ghazaan M (2016) Enhanced whale optimization algorithm for sizing optimi-
zation of skeletal structures. Mech Based Des Struct Mach Int J (Published online: 21 July
2016)
10. Kaveh A, Moradveisi M (2016) Optimal design of double-layer barrel vaults using CBO and
ECBO algorithms. Iran J Sci Technol Trans Civil Eng. doi:10.1007/s40996-016-0021-4
11. Kaveh A, Rezaei M (2015) Optimum topology design of geometrically nonlinear suspended
domes using ECBO. Struct Eng Mech Int J 56(4):667–694
12. Kaveh A, Mirzaei B, Jafarvand A (2014) Shape-size optimization of single-layer barrel vaults
using improved magnetic charged system search. Int J Civil Eng 12(4):447–465
13. Kaveh A, Ghafari MH (2016) Optimum design of steel floor system: effect of floor division
number, deck thickness and castellated beams. Struct Eng Mech 59(5):933–950
14. Kaveh A, Mahdavi VR, Kamalinejad M (2016) Optimal design of the monopole structures
using CBO and ECBO algorithms. Periodica Polytech Civil Eng (Published online)
15. Kaveh A, Maniat M (2014) Damage detection in skeletal structures based on charged system
search optimization using incomplete modal data. Int J Civil Eng IUST 12(2):291–298
16. Kaveh A, Mahdavi VR (2016) A new method for modification of ground motions using
wavelet transform and enhanced colliding bodies optimization. Appl Soft Comput 47:357–369
17. Kaveh A, Bijary Sh (2016) Bandwidth, profile and wavefront reduction using PSO, CBO,
ECBO and TWO algorithms. Iran J Sci Technol Trans Civ Eng. doi:10.1007/s40996-016-
0026-z
18. Kaveh A, Zolghadr A (2016) Optimal analysis and design of large-scale domes with frequency
constraints. Smart Struct Syst 18(4):733–754
19. Kaveh A, Ilchi Ghazaan M (2016) Optimum design of large-scale truss towers using cascade
optimization. Acta Mech. doi:10.1007/s00707-016-1588-3
20. Kaveh A, Ilchi Ghazaan M (2016) Vibrating particles system algorithm for truss optimization
with multiple natural frequency constraints. Acta Mech. doi:10.1007/s00707-016-1725-z. First
online: 20 Sept 2016
21. Kaveh A, Ardalani S (2016) Cost and CO2 emission optimization of reinforced concrete
frames using ECBO algorithm. Asian J Civil Eng 17(6):831–858
22. Kaveh A, Khanzadi M, Alipour M, Rastegar Moghaddam M (2016) Application of two new
metaheuristic algorithms for construction site layout planning problem. Iran J Sci Technol 40
(4):263–275
Chapter 2
Optimum Design of Castellated Beams Using
the Tug of War Algorithm

2.1 Introduction

In this chapter, the tug of war algorithm is applied to optimal design of castellated
beams. Two common types of laterally supported castellated beams are considered
as design problems: beams with hexagonal openings and beams with circular
openings. Here, castellated beams have been studied for two cases: beams without
filled holes and beams with end-filled holes. Also, tug of war optimization (TWO)
algorithm is utilized for obtaining the solution of these design problems. For this
purpose, the cost is taken as the objective function, and some benchmark problems
are solved from literature (Kaveh and Shokohi [1]).
Since the 1940s, the manufacturing of structural beams with higher strength and
lower cost has been an asset to engineers in their efforts to design more efficient
steel structures. Due to the limitations on maximum allowable deflections, using
section with heavyweight and high capacity in the design problem cannot always be
utilized to the best advantage. As a result, several new methods have been created
for increasing the stiffness of steel beams without increase in the weight of steel
required. Castellated beam is one of the basic structural elements within the design
of building, like a wide-flange beam (Konstantinos and D’Mello [2]).
A castellated beam is constructed by expanding a standard rolled steel section in
such a way that a predetermined pattern (mostly circular or hexagonal) is cut on
section webs and the rolled section is cut into two halves. The two halves are shifted
and connected together by welding to form a castellated beam. In terms of structural
performance, the operation of splitting and expanding the height of the rolled steel
sections helps to increase the section modulus of the beams.
The main initiative for manufacturing and using such sections is to suppress the
cost of material by applying more efficient cross-sectional shapes made from
standard rolled beam. Web-openings have been used for many years in structural
steel beams in a great variety of applications because of the necessity and economic
advantages. The principal advantage of steel beam castellation process is that

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017 9

A. Kaveh, Applications of Metaheuristic Optimization Algorithms in Civil
Engineering, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-48012-1_2
10 2 Optimum Design of Castellated Beams Using the Tug of War Algorithm

Fig. 2.1 (a) A castellated beam with circular opening. (b) A castellated beam with hexagonal

designer can increase the depth of a beam to raise its strength without adding steel.
The resulting castellated beam is approximately 50 % deeper and much stronger
than the original unaltered beam (Soltani et al. [3], Zaarour and Redwood [4],
Redwood and Demirdjian [5], Sweedan [6], Konstantinos and D’Mello [7]).
In recent years, a great deal of progress has been made in the design of steel
beams with web-openings, and a cellular beam is one of them. A cellular beam is
the modern form of the traditional castellated beam, but with a far wider range of
applications in particular as floor beams. Cellular beams are steel sections with
circular openings that are made by cutting a rolled beam web in a half circular
pattern along its centerline and re-welding the two halves of hot rolled steel sections
as shown in Fig. 2.1. An increase in beam depth provides greater flexural rigidity
and strength to weight ratio.
In practice, in order to support high shear forces close to the connections,
sometimes it becomes necessary to fill certain openings. In cellular beams, this is
achieved by inserting discs made of steel plates and welding from both sides
(Fig. 2.2). The openings are usually filled for one of two reasons:
(i) At positions of higher shear, especially at the ends of a beam or under
concentrated loads
(ii) At incoming connections of secondary beams
It should be noted that for maximum economy infills should be avoided when-
ever possible, even to the extent of increasing the section mass.
In the last two decades, many metaheuristic algorithms have been developed to
help solve optimization problems that were previously difficult or impossible to
solve using mathematical programming algorithms. Metaheuristic algorithms pro-
vide mechanisms to escape from local optima by balancing exploration and exploi-
tation phases, being based either on solution populations or iterated solution paths,
2.2 Design of Castellated Beams 11

Fig. 2.2 Example of a

beam with filled opening

for instance, by using neighborhoods. In general, these algorithms are simple to

implement and present (near) optimal solutions in acceptable computational times
even in complex search spaces. TWO is a multi-agent

 metaheuristic algorithm,
which considers each candidate solution Xi ¼ xi, j as a team engaged in a series of
tug of war competitions.
The main aim of this study is to optimize the cost of castellated beams with and
without end-filled openings. For this purpose, the tug of war optimization approach
is utilized for design of such beams with circular and hexagonal holes.
The present chapter is organized as follows: In the next section, the design of
castellated beam is introduced. In Sect. 2.3, the problem formulation including the
mathematical model is presented, based on the Steel Construction Institute Publi-
cation Number 100 and Eurocode3. In Sect. 2.4, the algorithm is briefly introduced.
In Sect. 2.5, numerical examples are studied, and finally the concluding remarks are
provided in Sect. 2.6.

2.2 Design of Castellated Beams

The theory behind the castellated beam is to reduce the weight of the beam and to
improve the stiffness by increasing the moment of inertia resulting from increased
depth without usage of additional material. Due to the presence of holes in the web,
the structural behavior of castellated steel beam is different from that of the
standard beams. At present, there is no prescribed design method due to the
complexity of the behavior of castellated beams and their associated modes of
failure (Soltani et al. [3]). The strength of a beam with different shapes of web-
openings is determined by considering the interaction of bending moment and shear
at the openings. There are many failure modes to be considered in the design of a
beam with web-opening, consisting of lateral-torsional buckling, Vierendeel mech-
anism, flexural mechanism, rupture of welded joints, and web post buckling.
Lateral-torsional buckling may occur in an unrestrained beam. A beam is consid-
ered to be unrestrained when its compression flange is free to displace laterally and
rotate. In this chapter it is assumed that the compression flange of the castellated
beam is restrained by the floor system. Therefore, the overall buckling strength of
the castellated beam is omitted from the design considerations. These modes are
closely associated with beam geometry, shape parameters, type of loading, and
12 2 Optimum Design of Castellated Beams Using the Tug of War Algorithm

provision of lateral supports. In the design of castellated beams, these criteria

should be considered (EN 1993-1-1 [8], Ward [9], Erdal et al. [10], Saka [11],
Raftoyiannis and Ioannidis [12], British Standards [13], AISC-LRFD [14]):

2.2.1 Overall Flexural Capacity of the Beam

This mode of failure can occur when a section is subjected to pure bending. In the span
subjected to pure bending moment, the tee sections above and below the openings
yield in a manner similar to that of a standard webbed beam. Therefore, the maximum
moment under factored dead and imposed loading should not exceed the plastic
moment capacity of the castellated beam (Soltani et al. [3], Erdal et al. [10]).

MU  MP ¼ ALT PY H U ð2:1Þ

where ALT is the area of lower tee, PY is the design strength of steel, and HU is the
distance between center of gravities of upper and lower tees.

2.2.2 Shear Capacity of the Beam

In the design of castellated beams, two modes of shear failure should be checked.
The first one is the vertical shear capacity, and the upper and lower tees should
undergo that. The vertical shear capacity of the beam is the sum of the shear
capacities of the upper and lower tees. The factored shear force in the beam should
not exceed the following limits:

PVY ¼ p ffiffiffi Y ð0:9AWUL Þ

0:6P circular opening
3 ð2:2Þ
PVY ¼ PY ðAWUL Þ hexagonal opening
3

The second one is the horizontal shear capacity. It is developed in the web post due
to the change in axial forces in the tee section as shown in Fig. 2.3. Web post with
too short mid-depth welded joints may fail prematurely when horizontal shear
exceed the yield strength. The horizontal shear capacity is checked using the
following equations (Soltani et al. [3], Erdal et al. [10]):

PVH ¼ p ffiffiffi Y ð0:9AWP Þ

0:6P circular opening
3 ð2:3Þ
PVH ¼ PY ðAWP Þ hexagonal opening
3

where AWUL is the total area of the web-opening and AWP is the minimum area of
web post.
2.2 Design of Castellated Beams 13

Fig. 2.3 Horizontal shear in the web post of castellated beams. (a) Hexagonal opening. (b)
Circular opening

2.2.3 Flexural and Buckling Strength of Web Post

In this study, it is assumed that the compression flange of the castellated beam is
restrained by the floor system. Thus the overall buckling of the castellated beam is
omitted from the design consideration. The web post flexural and buckling capacity
in a castellated beam is given by Soltani et al. [3] and Erdal et al. [10]):

MMAX  
¼ C1  α  C2  α2  C3 ð2:4Þ
ME

where MMAX is the maximum allowable web post moment and ME is the web post
capacity at critical section A–A shown in Fig. 2.3. C1, C2, and C3 are constants
obtained by the following expressions

C1 ¼ 5:097 þ 0:1464β  0:00174β2 ð2:5Þ

C2 ¼ 1:441 þ 0:0625β  0:000683β 2
ð2:6Þ
C3 ¼ 3:645 þ 0:0853β  0:00108β 2
ð2:7Þ

where α ¼ 2d
S
is for hexagonal openings and α ¼ DS0 is for circular openings, also
tw is for hexagonal openings, and β ¼ tw is for circular openings and S is the
β ¼ 2d D0

spacing between the centers of holes, d is the cutting depth of hexagonal opening,
D0 is the hole diameter, and tw is the web thickness.
14 2 Optimum Design of Castellated Beams Using the Tug of War Algorithm

2.2.4 Vierendeel Bending of Upper and Lower Tees

Vierendeel mechanism is always critical in steel beams with web-openings, where

global shear force is transferred across the opening length, and the Vierendeel
moment is resisted by the local moment resistances of the tee sections above and
below the web-openings. This mode of failure often occurs in web-expanded beams
with long horizontal opening lengths.
Vierendeel bending results in the formation of four plastic hinges above and
below the web-opening. The overall Vierendeel bending resistance depends on the
local bending resistance of the web-flange sections. This mode of failure is associ-
ated with high shear forces acting on the beam. The Vierendeel bending stresses in
the circular opening obtained by using the Olander’s approach. The interaction
between Vierendeel bending moment and axial force for the critical section in the
tee should be checked as follows (Erdal et al. [10]):

P0 M
þ  1:0 ð2:8Þ
PU M P

where P0 and M are the force and the bending moment on the section, respectively.
PU is equal to the area of critical section PY , and MP is calculated as the plastic
modulus of critical section PY in plastic section or elastic section modulus of
critical section PY for other sections.
The plastic moment capacity of the tee sections in castellated beams with
hexagonal opening is calculated independently. The total of the plastic moment is
equal to the sum of the Vierendeel resistances of the above and below tee sections
(Soltani et al. [3]). The interaction between Vierendeel moment and shear forces
should be checked by the following expression:

V OMAX  e  4MTP  0 ð2:9Þ

where VOMAX and MTP are the maximum shear force and the moment capacity of
tee section, respectively.

2.2.5 Deflection of Castellated Beam

Serviceability checks are of high importance in the design, especially in beams with
web-opening where the deflection due to shear forces is significant. The deflection
of a castellated beam under applied load combinations should not exceed span/360.
Methods for calculating the deflection of castellated beam with hexagonal and
circular openings are shown in Raftoyiannis and Ioannidis [12], and Erdal et al.
[10], respectively.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
machinery then in use were ready |213| in case of accidents.
Smelting, casting, moulding, and modelling were all carried on in the
place. The storeroom was filled with every imaginable tool and
article required for the smithy, carpenters’ shops, and the boats. All
the metal of the Soudan had been collected here. There were parts
of cotton presses; sugar-mills; bars of steel and iron; ingots of brass
and copper; iron, copper, and brass plates; the heavier class of tools
and implements; and I was assured by Osta Abdallah, a rivetter in
the shops in Gordon’s time, that there was material in the place to
build three more boats and keep the whole fleet going for many
years. He did not exaggerate either. All other administrations were
supplied by the Khartoum arsenal with whatever they required in the
way of tools, furniture, iron and other metal work, cartridge presses
and steel blocks for coinage; and very efficiently indeed was the
work turned out.
The little time I spent in the arsenal was of course fully occupied
with the coinage question. Two men were kept constantly engaged
casting square steel blocks for the Omdurman mint; these blocks
were polished and cut in Omdurman, and twenty-five sets were
generally in use at the same time. Possibly two hundred men were
employed in the melting of the copper and casting it into moulds the
size and thickness of the dollars. The discs were next passed on to
the people who gave them the impression; this was obtained by
placing the disc on the lower block, and then hammering the upper
block upon it. The impressions produced were in the main very poor;
the |214| coins spread and split, and the dies were constantly
splitting and breaking. After we had studied the process, and
Abbajee had explained his ideas of a press, I suggested that we
should commence operations with the punching-machine. We
experimented until we had succeeded in smashing dies, spoiling
sheets of copper, and in the end smashing the machine itself; then
Abbajee, as the chief of the operations, was roundly abused. Being
of an excitable temperament, he wanted me to take part of the
blame, but I only laughed at him. Then it was I learned that he had
just reason to be angry; he had gone surety for me with the
Khaleefa, and, as I was expecting Hawanein and Abdallah every day,
I kept the quarrel going until Abbajee left the work in disgust, for I
wished him to be out of the way when I escaped. His return to
Omdurman, leaving me in complete charge of the invention, put an
end to his surety for me. I might have saved myself this trouble, and
the temporary misunderstanding with my old friend, for, before I had
time to settle upon an idea for a coining press, Slatin escaped, and I
was taken back to the Saier.
I have been frequently asked what estimate should be put upon
the Khaleefa’s buried treasure. It is next to impossible to say; one
thing only is certain: all good gold and silver jewellery and coins
have disappeared during the last fifteen years. Thousands of
individuals may have their hoards here and there. Some idea of what
the Khaleefa’s treasure may amount to might be gleaned from an
examination of the Beit-el-Mal books, for these were well kept. The
real |215| question is, Where is it? But this is a matter people need
not trouble themselves about. It was generally believed in
Omdurman that those who actually buried the money were soon
afterwards buried themselves. “Dead men tell no tales.” I doubt
myself if the Khaleefa’s hoards will ever be found—officially. The
fortunate discoverers are hardly likely to exhibit any particular
anxiety to ask their friends or the Government to share in their good
fortune. Perhaps a small amount might be found, but it will be a
very small one. The few millions he has buried in various places will,
no doubt, be discovered some day, and we shall hear about it—a
long time after the fact.
 CHAPTER XVIII
MY SECOND IMPRISONMENT

It was some days after my return to the Saier before I learned that I
had been incarcerated against the wish of the Khaleefa and Yacoub;
but Hamadan and Khaleel-Hassanein, fearing that I might escape,
declined to be responsible for me any longer, arguing that Slatin’s
escape had been effected through Government agents, and that
mine would certainly follow. In deference to the wishes of Hassanein
more than those of Hamadan, the Khaleefa ordered my return to the
Saier, but it is very probable that he sent Idris es Saier instructions
how to treat me; so that, taking it all in all, my life was not rendered
so unendurable as it had been on my first entry into the prison.
Added to Abdullahi’s kindly interest (?) in me, Idris himself had
become a sort of reformed character; he had tasted the sweets of
imprisonment and the lash which he had been so generous with,
and had also experienced himself what it was to be robbed on the
Nebbi Khiddr account. The tables had been completely turned on
him, and he had learned a lesson.
When Adlan was executed and his house searched |217| for
incriminating papers without result, Idris es Saier was accused by
the Khaleefa of having assisted Adlan in disposing of the documents
which he was in search of. Idris was imprisoned in his own house
and flogged into the bargain; he was in disfavour for some time, and
this gave released Baggara prisoners an opportunity of getting even
with him. They explained the Nebbi Khiddr affair to Abdullahi, who
ordered Idris to repay all the moneys he had collected on this
account; he was deprived of all he had, but right up to the end, any
former Baggara prisoner in want of a dollar knew where to find one.
He presented himself to Idris, and asked for a further contribution
towards a settlement of his claim.
These importunities drove Idris into begging from the prisoners,
since the Nebbi Khiddr tale would only work with prisoners coming in
from outlying districts, and they were few. As Idris never knew when
the next call would be made upon him, he found it politic to be as
kind and considerate to the prisoners as possible, and to relax
discipline to the utmost. This state of affairs, added to the presumed
instructions of the Khaleefa regarding myself, must have accounted
for Idris’ assembling the gaolers, and telling them in my presence
that I was only brought into the Saier to prevent any Government
people from carrying me off to Egypt; that if any one of them
begged money from me or ill-treated me in any way, he would be
imprisoned, flogged, and deprived of his post; Umm es Shole and
her child were to be allowed to come into the prison at any hour
they chose—but, |218| and this spoiled all, I was never to be allowed
to sleep out in the open, and must pass my nights in the Umm
Hagar.
 FAUZI PASHA IN DERVISH DRESS.

I have already described a night in this “Black Hole of Calcutta,”

but it might not be out of place to try and give a slight description of
the first night Ibrahim Pasha Fauzi—one of Gordon’s favourite
officers—spent in that inferno, especially as he wishes me to do so.
When taken to the anvil, as I have already remarked, Fauzi broke
down completely, was carried off in a swoon to the Umm Hagar,
placed sitting with his back in the angle of the wall furthest from the
door, and there left—as I was, to “come round.” When the first batch
of prisoners was driven in at sunset, there was room for all to lie
down on the foul and saturated ground. When the second batch was
driven in about an hour and a half later, those lying down had to sit
up with the new-comers, and Fauzi’s outstretched legs gave a dry
and comfortable seat to four big Soudanese. I was driven in with the
third batch after the night prayers, and then all in the Umm Hagar
had to stand up or be trampled on. Fauzi, still suffering from the
effects of the shell wound he received in one of the sorties from
Khartoum, with four people sitting or standing on him, and being
heavily chained as well, was unable to rise to his feet. I could hear
him from my place near the door feebly expostulating with the
people who were standing upon him; I thought that maybe he was
being trampled to death, and in my then frenzied state commenced
to fight my way towards him, striking friend and foe |219|
indiscriminately, and striking harder as I received blows in return. A
general fight was soon in progress over the few yards I had to
travel, as none were certain in the darkness who struck the blow
they had received, and struck out at random in retaliation. My
friends told me afterwards that I was a “shaitan” (devil), a mad fool,
and showered other dubious compliments upon me; but I reached
Fauzi. The warders, hearing the uproar, had opened the doors, and,
as usual, commenced to belabour the heads of all they could reach
with their sticks and whips. While the uproar was at its height, and
the prisoners swaying from side to side, I recognized the voices of
one or two near Fauzi who were under obligations to me for
occasional little kindnesses in the way of food; and, enlisting their
services on most extravagant promises, we tackled the people
standing on Fauzi’s legs, pushed them away, and made a sort of
barricade round him with our bodies. In clearing the space, we must
have struck each other as often as we struck those whom we wished
to get out of the way, and Fauzi could not tell whether an attempt
was being made to murder or to rescue him. When we did at last
get him clear, we had to use a bit of old rag as a sort of punka in
order to bring him round; then he babbled.
At midnight, the doors of the cell were thrown open again, and
about twenty men, each wearing a shayba, were thrust into the
place; practically there was no room for them, but they had to be
driven in by some means. To make space for them, the gaolers
resorted to their favourite device of throwing into the cell handfuls of
|220| blazing straw and grass, and at the same time laying about the
bare heads and shoulders of the prisoners with their whips. The
scene must be imagined. Fauzi, seeing the fire falling on the heads
of the prisoners, believed that he had really been sent to hell—but
communed with himself in a dazed sort of way as to whether he was
in hell or not. He appeared to call to memory all that he had ever
read of the place of torment, and tried to compare the picture his
brain had formed of it from the descriptions, with what he was
experiencing, coming to the conclusion that he could not be in hell,
as hell could not be so bad. At this stage I was able to get him to
take notice of me, and we discussed hell and its torments until
sunrise; but nothing could even now shake Fauzi’s opinion that hell
could not be as bad as such a night in the Umm Hagar, and the
worst he can wish any one is to pass such a night. To Youssef
Mansour he wishes an eternity of them.*
* This Mansour was formerly an officer in the Egyptian Army, who had
surrendered with the garrison at El Obeid. After this surrender, the governor
of the town—Mohammad Said Pasha—arranged with his old officers and black
regiments to seize their arms, on a given signal, and to turn against the
Mahdists. Mansour, who, as one of Said’s former subordinates, was in the plot,
is thought to have betrayed it to the Mahdi. Said and his principal adherents
were sent out of camp by Mohammad Ahmed, and quietly done away with;
but Mansour became the favourite of the Mahdi, and commanded his artillery
at the battle of Omdurman. It is also said that the Christian captives were
circumcised on his representations, and that he suggested the imprisonment
 of Fauzi, lest, when the Government troops advanced, Fauzi should seize an
opportunity of joining them. Yet Mansour is reputed to be coming to Cairo to
claim his back pay and pension from the Egyptian Government.
Among others who spent that memorable night in the Saier, were
Ahmed and Bakheit Egail, Sadik Osman, Abou-el-Besher and others
from Berber, arrested for assisting in the escape of Slatin; they were
later transported to the convict station at Gebel Ragaf on the
evidence of the guide Zecki, who |221| conducted Slatin from
Omdurman to Berber. Zecki had been arrested with them on
suspicion of complicity in the escape, and confessed that he had
been engaged by Egail and others to bring away from Omdurman a
man with “cat’s eyes,” but that he did not know who the man was.
Close to the common cell was an offshoot of it—a smaller one
named “Bint Umm Hagar” (the daughter of Umm Hagar), which took
the place of the condemned cell in Europe. On my return to prison, I
learned that my old enemy, Kadi Ahmed, had been confined there
for a year. The ostensible reason for his imprisonment was that he
had been in league with the false coiners, and had made large
amounts of money; but the real reason was that the Khaleefa was
angry with him on account of the death of Zecki Tummal, who had
conducted the Abyssinian campaign when King John was killed. Kadi
Ahmed had been induced by Yacoub to sentence Zecki to
imprisonment and starvation; so when Ahmed’s turn came, the
Khaleefa said, “Let him receive the same punishment as Zecki.” He
was placed in the Bint Umm Hagar, and after about ten months the
doorway was built up; there Ahmed was left, with his ablution bottle
of water only, for forty-three days according to one tale, and fifty
days according to another. When, for days, no sounds had been
heard from his living tomb, he was presumed to be dead; but on the
doorway being opened up, to the astonishment, not to say
superstitious fear, of all, he was still alive, but unconscious, though
the once big fat Kadi had wasted to a skeleton. |222| Abdullahi must
have received a fright too, for he ordered Ahmed to be tenderly
nursed and given small doses of nourishing food every twenty-four
hours, until the stomach was able to retain food given oftener; but
in spite of all care and attention, the Kadi died on or about May 3,
1895. He was regretted by no one but the Khaleefa, in whose hands
he had been a willing tool, dispensing justice(?) as his master
dictated it, only to die the lingering death in the end to which he had
condemned so many at his master’s nod.
Kadi Ahmed’s place in the “Bint” was soon taken by his successor
—Kadi Hussein Wad Zarah. His offence was that of refusing to
sentence people unjustly, when ordered by the Khaleefa and Yacoub
to do so. When first walled up in his tomb, he was given, through a
small aperture left for the purpose, a little food and water every four
or five days, but towards the end of July, 1895, the doorway was
built up entirely, and Zarah, not being a big stout man like Ahmed,
starved, or rather parched, to death in about twenty-two or twenty-
three days. It is hot in the Soudan in July.

NEUFELD’S HUT IN THE SAIER, SHOWING THE FAMOUS ANVIL.

 During the first weeks of my imprisonment, Umm es Shole had
little difficulty in begging a small quantity of grain, and borrowing an
occasional dollar to keep us in food. But soon people became afraid
of assisting us any further, and we were bordering upon semi-
starvation, when, in the month of September, an Abyssinian woman
came into the prison to see me under pretence of requiring medical
treatment. She handed me a small packet, which she said contained
letters from my friends, and which had been given to |223| her by a
man outside, who had said he also had money for me, and wished
to know who he should pay it to. Three days elapsed before I found
an opportunity of opening the packet unobserved, for with all letters
received and written then, I had to wait until I found myself alone in
the pestilential atmosphere of an annexe to the place of ablution.
The packet contained a letter from my sister posted in 1891, another
from Father Ohrwalder, and a note from Major Wingate. They were
all to the same import—to keep up hope, as attempts were to be
made to assist me.
Nearly two months must have slipped away before I succeeded in
getting my replies written. I sent these to the guide, Onoor Issa,
who promised that he would return for me in a few months’ time.
Father Ohrwalder has handed me the letter I sent to him. The
following is in brief its contents:―
“I have received your letter enclosing that of my sister written four years ago,
and the note from Wingate. Before everything else, let me thank you for the
endeavours you are to make to assist me. Your letter was delayed in reaching me
owing to the imprisonment of the guide, followed by the watch kept upon us after
Slatin’s escape, and my transfer to the Saier, from which I hope to be released
soon. There is great need of coins here; up to the present, no one has been able
to produce a silver-resembling dollar. If I could produce such a coin, it would lead
to my release from prison, and lend probability to my chances of escape. Could
you send me instructions for the simple mixing of any soft metals to produce a
silvery appearance, and send me some ingredients? I should like also an
instrument to imitate the milling of coins; the dies can be cut here. I should be
glad of any tools or instruments which you think cannot be had here. If I am not
released by the time these arrive, I feel sure that I shall be released through their
agency. Please send the enclosed notes to their respective destinations, and when
the answers arrive, send them |224| on with the things I ask for. Can you give me
any news as to how my business is progressing at Assouan, and the transactions
of my manager? Our common friends here are in a sad way. Slatin will have told
you all about the forced circumcisions; and now all the Christians have been
ordered to marry three or four wives, and are engaged with marriage ceremonies.
Beppo and I are in prison together in chains; other prisoners are Ibrahim Fauzi,
Ibrahim Hamza, of Berber, who was arrested after Slatin’s escape; Ahmed and
Bekheit Egail; Sadik and Besher have been transported to Equatoria, with two of
their relations. Your messenger brought with him seventy dollars, which have been
given to Beppo, and I enclose his receipt for them. Kindly translate the letter I
enclose for Wingate; I have written it in German, as no one here but me
understands the language. Please keep these letters secret. For God’s sake, do not
let the newspaper people get hold of them, as you know, if they did, it would cost
me my head. Perhaps, if you could get them to give as news something like this, it
would help me: ‘We hear that, after the escape of Slatin, Neufeld was secured
against escape; he has rendered great services to Mahdieh with the saltpetre; he
would be able to replace Osta Abdallah, who is now old and feeble; Neufeld is in
the greatest distress, and in prison with his certain death close at hand; the
people in the Soudan believe he is a relation of Slatin.’”
Onoor Issa went off with my replies, undertaking to return in a
few months, after having made arrangements between Berber and
Cairo for my escape; and during his absence I was to scheme for
any excuse to get out of prison; escape from there was impossible.
Onoor—or the translators of his accounts—are mistaken in saying
that he actually met me in prison; all negotiations were carried on
through the Abyssinian woman whom he employed to come into the
prison for “medical attendance,” or Umm es Shole, and days and
days elapsed between the visits sometimes, in all amounting to
maybe two months. There were times |225| of mental tension in the
Saier of Omdurman. To me ill luck and good luck appeared to be
ever striving for the ascendency during my long captivity. Good luck
gained in the end—the same good luck which had accompanied the
Sirdar throughout his daring campaign to conquer, not only Abdullah,
but the Soudan, and which, God grant, may ever accompany him in
future campaigns; but the cup-and-ball-catch-and-miss strain was to
me terrible. My one prayer was that an end might come. Liberty, of
course, I hoped for to the end; but I often discovered myself
speculating as to whether it was true or not that those suddenly
decapitated by a single blow experienced some seconds of really
intellectual consciousness, and wondering to myself whether, when
my head was rolled into the dust by the Khaleefa’s executioner, there
would be time to give one last look of defiance.
Yet when I come to think of it, there was nothing very strange in
such contemplations. What soldier or sailor has not often in his quiet
moments tried to picture his own death, defiant to the last as he
goes down before a more powerful enemy? And, after all, thousands
and thousands of men and women in civilized countries are enduring
a worse captivity and imprisonment than many did in the Soudan;
but they are unfortunate in this—that no one has thrown a halo of
romance over their sufferings. My lot was a hard, very hard one, I
must admit; but the lot of some other captives was such that
thousands in Europe would have been pleased to exchange theirs for
it, and would have gained in the exchange.
 CHAPTER XIX
RUMOURS OF RELIEF

Soon after the departure of Onoor Issa I was saved any further
trouble in the way of scheming for excuses to get out of the Saier.
Awwad-el-Mardi, the successor of Nur-el-Gerafawi as the Amin Beit-
el-Mal on the appointment of the latter as director of the Khaleefa’s
ordnance stores, had been approached by Nahoum Abbajee and
others on the subject of the extraction of gold and silver from certain
stones which had been discovered in the neighbourhood. Awwad
sent Nahoum to see me about the erection of a crushing-mill or
furnaces. My interview with Nahoum was a stormy one. It
commenced by his upbraiding me for the pranks I had played in
smashing the arsenal punching-machine when we were associated in
the establishment of a mint. The more I laughed the angrier
Nahoum became; he is deaf, and like most deaf people, invariably
speaks in an undertone, which is as distressing to the hearer as is
the necessity he is under of bawling back his replies. It is next to
impossible to hold a conversation with a deaf person without the
natural result of raising the voice exhibiting itself in the features; the
annoyance is there plain |227| enough, but when the face flushes
with the unwonted exertion, your deaf friend thinks you are getting
angry, and follows suit. This is precisely what Abbajee did. He
showed me his specimens, and I bawled into his ear, “Mica—not
gold, not silver—mica;” and he yelled back, “Gold, silver, gold.” The
noisy discussion, accompanied as it was with gesticulations,
attracted other prisoners around us, and Nahoum went off in high
dudgeon.

ONOOR ISSA.
 When he had gone, a few of my friends asked why I did not offer
to assist him, and even if the thing was a failure, they thought I was
clever enough to find something else to do; but, as they said,
“promise anything provided it gets you out of the Saier.” There were
excellent reasons, but which I might not confide to them, why any
work I undertook to do should occupy months, and, if necessary,
years in completion. To offer to assist Nahoum in extracting gold and
silver from such stones meant that two or three weeks at the outside
would evidence our failure to do so, and then it was Saier again for
me. Whether any work I undertook to do for the Khaleefa was to
end in success or failure was immaterial to me; but it was very
material that the result, whatever it was to be, should not be
attained for months, as by the time my guides returned, the
conditions surrounding my escape might have so changed as to
necessitate an entire change in plans and programme. They might
even entail the guides’ return to Cairo or the frontier, and this
occupied months. But the advice to accept Nahoum’s proposals and
trust |228| to luck for discovering some other excuse for remaining
out of the Saier when failure could no longer be concealed, appealed
to me, and, in reply to my offer of assistance, a messenger came
from the Khaleefa ordering the Saier to hand me over to the director
of the Beit-el-Mal. His other instructions were that the bars and
heavy chains were to be taken off my feet and legs, and that I was
to be secured by a single pair of anklets connected with a light
chain. While this change was being made I received the
congratulations of the gaolers and prisoners, and (February, 1896)
was escorted out of the prison by two guards to enter upon a new
industry which had in it as much of the elements of success as
would accompany an attempt to squeeze blood out of a cobbler’s
lap-stone. I had not forgotten Shwybo’s fate.
When I reached Khartoum, Awwad-el-Mardi had not yet arrived. It
was the month of Ramadan, and as all transactions were in
abeyance until after sunset, I was not allowed to land until Awwad
arrived to hand me over officially. I was left alone on one of
Gordon’s old steamers, moored at the spot where Gordon fell, and
where the victorious Sirdar and his troops landed to conduct the
burial service. During the hours I had to wait gazing at the ruined
town and the dismantled palace which saw the martyrdom of as
good a man and soldier as ever trod this earth, I ruminated over his
blasted hopes and my own. I shall not pretend to call to mind all the
thoughts which surged through my brain as I paced alone over the
shell-and bullet-splintered deck; but you can imagine what they |229|
were when I reflected that I was the only European in the Soudan
who had fired a shot for Gordon, and that I was now a captive in the
hands of the successor of the Mahdi, gazing at the ruined town from
which, just eleven years ago, we had hoped to rescue its noble
defender. I should be ashamed to say that when Awwad did at last
come I was not in tears.
I felt more acutely than I did when first taken to Khartoum to be
“impressed,” and still more acutely than when I was hurriedly
bundled into the old Mission to start the saltpetre works. For the first
time since my captivity I had been left absolutely alone. I was sitting
on one of that fleet of “penny steamers” which, had Gordon not sent
down the Nile to bring up his rescuers, might have saved him and
the Soudan in spite of the wicked delay resulting from the attempt to
make a theatrically impressive show of an expedition intended to be
one of flying succour to the beleaguered garrison and its brave
commander, praying for months for the sight of one single red coat.
Gordon, I had been told, towards the end, called the Europeans
together in Khartoum, and telling them that, in his opinion, the
Government intended to sacrifice him, recommended them to make
their escape. A deliberate attempt to sacrifice him could not have
succeeded better. What wonder, when such thoughts as these and
many others had been affecting me for hours, that when Awwad
came, as darkness was setting in, the darkness of night had settled
too upon my mind. He, believing that my chains were the real cause
of |230| my depression, ordered that they should be exchanged
immediately for lighter and smoother ones, for the anklets and
chains given me by Idris were rough in the extreme.
After being officially handed over to the Governor of Khartoum,
the question arose as to my quarters. I was offered quarters in his
house, but I had already experienced life amongst his Baggara
bodyguard, and begged hard to be allowed to live in the same place
with Nahoum Abbajee and Sirri—the former telegraph-clerk at
Berber, with whom I was to work. We were given the house of
Ghattas, an old slave-dealer, to live in. It was one of the best houses
left standing in Khartoum, and boasted an upper floor, which was
taken possession of by Nahoum Abbajee as head of what I might
call the gold syndicate, while Sirri and I shared the ground floor. In
the East the West is reversed; you climb to the garret with your
rising fortunes, and descend with them, as they fall, to the lower
floors. Instead of having Saier or Baggara guards to watch me,
Awwad gave me some slaves from the Beit-el-Mal as guardians, and
they had, in addition to watching me, to perform the household
duties; in fact, they were my servants.
After the evening prayers, Awwad called together the employés of
the arsenal and my guards, and explained to them that I was no
longer a Saier prisoner; that my chains were left on only to prevent
the Government people taking me; that I was “beloved” of the
Khaleefa, and was to be treated as his friend, and that if any one
treated me differently, he would be sent to |231| take my place in the
Saier. Awwad then taking me aside under the pretence of giving me
instructions from the Khaleefa, said, “I am your friend; do not be
afraid; if you cannot find gold and silver, tell me of anything else you
can do, and I will see that the work is given to you, so that you may
not be sent back to the Saier.” As Awwad was then a perfect
stranger to me, I at first had suspicions in my mind as to the
genuineness of his friendship; but he was a Jaalin, and I trusted
him.
 We were told to get to work at once with the extraction of the
precious metals. As the engineer, I had to design and superintend
the construction of the furnaces to be made by Hassan Fahraani (the
potter), who also supplied the crucibles. Our first furnace crumbled
to pieces after being started, and a stronger one had to be made.
Then the crucibles gave out. We did all we could to coax gold and
silver out of those stones, and obtained some extraordinary results.
We added earth, common salt, saltpetre, oxide of lead—anything
and everything to the split stones in the crucibles. Sometimes we
found the crucible and its contents fused together. The only thing we
actually found which gave an idea that we were working for metals
was a small shiny black ball, very much resembling a black pearl,
and this Hamadan at once took possession of and carried off to
Abdullahi, telling him that it only required time for us to succeed.
Hamadan, being our chief, was much interested in the work, and he
was doubtless looking forward to the day when part of the contents
of the crucibles would find its way to him. |232|
But our experiments were destined never to be finished. About
April, 1896, rumours first, and then precise news, reached
Omdurman that the Government troops were again advancing. Then
came the startling news that Dongola had been taken, only to be
followed by the news of the capture of Abou Hamad. The fulminate
factory presided over by Hassan Zecki had run short of ingredients,
and as the stock of chlorate of potash ordered from Egypt had not
arrived, it was believed that now the troops held all the country
between Dongola and Abou Hamad, it would have no chance of
getting through. Abdalla Rouchdi, the chemist of the Beit-el-Mal,
had, with Hassan Zecki, failed to produce chlorine, as had also
others, therefore we were ordered to experiment at once. Nahoum
was sent over to the Beit-el-Mal to collect all appliances, chemicals,
and anything else he chose to lay his hands upon. Our establishment
was growing, and Hamadan was delighted at having under his
charge people who were to do so much for Mahdieh. But the
chlorine required for the production of the chlorate of potash refused
to appear. Our laboratory was a dangerous place to visit, for we had
jar upon jar containing mixed acids, and explosions were the order
of the day. Nahoum had a lively time, deaf as he was. Once, and
once only, Hamadan made pretence of understanding our
experiments; he took a good inhalation from a vessel which had in it
a mixture of various acids with permanganate of potash. He was
almost suffocated, but he was much impressed, and told the
Khaleefa what devoted |233| adherents he had when we would work
in such a poison-laden atmosphere.
There was good reason why I should do all in my power to keep
Hamadan interested and hopeful of grand results. Onoor Issa had
sent me word by a messenger from Berber that he was at that town
with letters and money for me, but that he had been detained by the
Emir; he hoped, however, to be able to get away very soon and
arrange my escape. Then the consignment of chlorate of potash put
in its appearance—about twelve hundredweight, I was told—and
Sirri getting hold of a small sample of it, we showed it to Hamadan
to prove that we were just succeeding with our experiments. He was
satisfied, as was also Abdullahi, and we were told to continue our
work.
However, the tales which were coming in every few days were
causing no little anxiety to the Khaleefa. None of us believed that
the troops were coming across the desert in “iron devils,” and it was
some time before we understood that a railway was being built.
Indeed we could hardly believe it. Whatever the “iron devil” was, it
behoved the Khaleefa to look well to his arms and ammunition.
Sheikh ed Din was sent on a round of inspection of stores and
arsenals,* and discovered that a large quantity of the |234| powder
had caked with the absorption of moisture, that other large
quantities were of very poor quality, and that the powder-stores in
general were not as he thought they were. The Khaleefa threatened
to cut a hand and foot off both Abd es Semmieh and Hassan Hosny,
the directors of the factory, if they did not work the powder up again
into a good explosive. Awwad, as the head of the Beit-el-Mal, came
and asked if it was not possible to make some sort of machine for
pulverizing the ingredients for the powder; the work was then being
done by hand. I tried to interest Nahoum Abbajee in the work, as it
was about time we got clear of our alchemists’ establishment on
some excuse or another, otherwise I foresaw trouble if Sheikh ed Din
should inquire too closely into our work. But Abbajee thought that
he had had quite enough of me in connection with experiments and
machinery, and decided to be out of the affair altogether; he
thought his life had been in enough jeopardy already. Sirri elected to
remain.
* A few errors have crept into the report submitted to the Earl of Kimberley in
April, 1895, after the escape of Slatin.
On page 4 it is stated that the church of the Austrian Mission in Khartoum
was utilized as the repairing shops of the arsenal. The church was never put
to such a purpose. The account I have given of the purpose to which it was
put is the correct one.
On page 7 it is stated “Neufeld started the first saltpetre refinery in
Khartoum.” This may or may not be correct, but it is very misleading. The
refining of saltpetre for the Khaleefa was a big industry in Darfour and the
environs of Omdurman and Khartoum long before I had anything to do with
it. The account I have given as to how I came to be connected with this
industry may be relied upon as being correct, while there are many living
witnesses, irrespective of the stock of my saltpetre still existing, to prove that
I deliberately prevented “the refining of saltpetre” so far as it lay in my power
to do so.
In the following paragraph to that quoted, it is stated that the powder-
factory was at Halfeyeh. It never was. It was first in Omdurman, and, after
the explosion, was gradually removed to Tuti Island. The transfer was not
complete when I left Khartoum for the Saier in November, 1897.
On page 10, when speaking of the coins in circulation, it is said, “This
decrease in the intrinsic value of money is an interesting indication of the
decline of dervish power and government.” The inference to be drawn from
my account of its depreciation is just the reverse, but is the correct inference
to be drawn.
I invented a powder machine on the principle of the old German
“dolly” toy. We spent a few weeks, assisted by Hamaida, the head of
the carpenters, in making a model, which worked beautifully; and
when it was shown to the Khaleefa, he was so delighted that he
ordered my chains to be removed. The mortars were put in hand at
once, also the beam which |235| was to lift and let fall the
pulverizers, and then it was discovered that the machine could not
be made to my dimensions. I knew this when I designed it, but I
had hoped that some one would have been sent south to try and
find trees large enough to provide the beams, and so delay would be
assured. Osta Abdallah and Khaleel Hassanein, jealous maybe of me,
and fearing that their positions were in danger of being taken by
myself, went to the Khaleefa, and told him that, in their opinion, I
was only “fooling” with him. They also suggested that Awwad-el-
Mardi was a friend of the Government, and was helping me on this
account; but Yacoub, who was present, supported me. In the course
of the interview, the Khaleefa said he had heard that in my country
women and children made cartridges with machines, and as I must
know all about it, I was to make him such a machine while the
powder-mill was being constructed.
For ten years I had been so chained and weighted with iron that it
was only with effort I was able to raise my feet from the ground in
order to shuffle from place to place; the bars of iron connected with
the anklets had limited the stride or shuffle to about ten or twelve
inches. When freed from all this, I ran and jumped about the whole
day long like one possessed; but the sudden call upon muscles so
long unused resulted in a swelling of the legs from hips to ankles,
and this was accompanied with most excruciating pains. I had just
got the drawings ready for the cartridge-machine when I was
compelled to lie up. This gave Osta Abdallah and Hassanein another
|236| chance to approach the Khaleefa, and again they suggested
that I was “fooling.”
Awwad was sent for, and in reply to the Khaleefa, said that he
believed I was doing my best, and would certainly succeed; that had
he not believed in me himself, he would never have recommended
him to employ me on such important works. Yacoub again took my
part, and said that whoever did not assist me, or whoever hindered
me, would be considered an enemy of Mahdieh. Although, as he
admitted, he did not understand the machines, yet in his opinion
“there must be something in the head of the man who invented
them, and he was better employed in the arsenal than idling his time
in the Saier.” Awwad also said that if Osta Abdallah and Hassanein
had not and could not find the materials for the construction of the
machines, he believed that I could make another one with such
materials as they had. This decided the matter—both machines were
to be proceeded with; but the Khaleefa agreed to my being put into
chains to prevent my escaping, and on the thirteenth day of my
freedom the chains were replaced. Being unable to move from my
house, the joiners, with a lathe, their tools and material, were sent
to me, as the Khaleefa wished the machine to be completed as
rapidly as possible. Abdallah Sulieman, the chief of the cartridge-
factory, was then employing upwards of fifteen hundred men, and
the Khaleefa wished to release them for fighting purposes.
 POWDER-MACHINES.

My efforts to obtain either the original models or photographs of

them not having so far been successful, |237| I have had models of
the machines made here. Those interested in mechanics will
discover for themselves the mechanical defects and unnecessary
complications introduced into them. I was working under the
supervision of fairly good mechanical engineers, so that defects
might not be made too glaring. Some were detected and rectified,
but the main defects were not seen, being beyond the powers of
calculation of Abdallah; and Hamaida, who could and did see them,
was enjoying the pranks which were played. The various ideas I had
picked up while associated with Gordon’s old corps were now
standing me in good stead. When the model of the cartridge-
machine was taken over to Abdullahi, instead of being pleased with
it he was furious: Berber had been taken! He said, “I want
cartridges, not models;” and gave orders that I should be taken from
my house, kept at work all day in the arsenal, and locked up at night
in the arsenal prison with the convicts employed there as labourers.
To gain more time, I insisted upon a full-sized wooden model of
the cartridge-machine being first made for the metal workers to
work from. Yacoub had given orders that all the material and labour
of the arsenal was to be put at my disposition. While the wooden
model was being made, I occupied myself in selecting the metal
required, and in doing this I laid hands upon everything Osta
Abdallah required for the ordinary works in hand. I appropriated the
paddle axle of one of the steamers, as I said I required this to be cut
with eccentric |238| discs, and did my best to smash the best lathe
with it, to give me still more time; but the lathe stood the strain, and
four or five discs were actually cut in the axle.
It would have taken them another year to cut the remainder at
the rate the work was progressing, and probably four years to make
the machine; then when it was finished there would have been an
accident, and some people would have been killed or maimed, for
that paddle axle would have come tearing through the machine with
the first revolution. I was taking a fiendish delight in destroying
every good piece of metal I could lay my hands on under pretence
of its being required for the machine; the copper and brass which I
appropriated interfered considerably with the production of the
cartridges, and the skilled workmen whom I kept employed delayed
for months the finishing touches to the new powder-factory on Tuti
Island. But there could be no going back now. Abdallah was my
sworn enemy; but I knew that the more I destroyed under his own
eyes, the less risk there was of his going to the Khaleefa again to
induce him to believe that the whole of my work was, as he called it,
“shoogal khabbass”—all lies, for Abdallah himself would get into
trouble for not having discovered it before all the damage had been
done.
While still engaged on collecting material for the machine (for no
sooner was one lot cut up when it was discovered that some mistake
had been made in either length or thickness, so that another raid
had to be made on the stores), the steamer Safia |239| was brought
up and beached opposite Mokran fort for repairs. Instead of being
allowed to settle on a cradle running the whole length of her keel,
she was supported only amidships, and her bow and stern tore
away. All the boats were at this time in the charge of the Beit-el-Mal,
and when Osta Abdallah condemned the Safia , and said it was
impossible to repair her, Awwad-el-Mardi, fearing the Khaleefa’s
displeasure at such a time, asked me if it was not possible to repair
her. Taking with us a number of men discontented with Osta
Abdallah, we examined the boat, and declared that she could be
repaired. Awwad was pleased, and I was appointed superintendent
of this work too. My superintendence consisted in hiding below and
smoking surreptitiously.
Sometime in August, 1897, Onoor returned to Omdurman, and
sent messages to me through Umm es Shole. The import of them
will be seen from the following letter, which I was able to write and
smuggle over to him; the letter was to be delivered to the first
officer he came across:―
“In accordance with my arrangement with the bearer Onoor, I succeeded in
getting liberated from the Saier, and moved over to Khartoum, where I have spent
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

textbookfull.com