Kamal Abdelrahman

• The geologic record is made of layers or strata with different characteristics (Figure 1).
• Normally the sedimentary strata are deposited on top of each other and the layers
beneath are older than the strata on top (Steno’s strata succession principle, Figure
2).
• The presence of layers indicates that conditions were changing during geologic time
and this change led to differing aspects of the deposits.
• One of the prominent features is the bed thickness (Figure 3) , but other features are
lithology, color, grainsize, fossil contents and mineral assemblages.
• Cyclicity and the regular repetitive change of the deposits (Figure 4) provide a means
to subdivide the stacked pile of sediments in the basin fills (Figures 6 and 7).
Figure 1: Older rocks are overlain by younger strata in a normal sedimentary succession. This basic principle is useful
to date sedimentary deposits in the geologic record. A quick relative age is therefore easily deduced from geometrical
relationships seen in the field.
Figure 2: Thin-bedded carbonate layers are overlain by thick-bedded massive carbonate deposits. It reflects a break in
the sedimentation pattern and can be used to subdivide the stratigraphic succession. Here a regressive sequence of slope
turbidites is overlain by higher energy reefal limestones.
Figure 3: The geologic rock record is made up of sedimentary cycles. Thinning upward cycles alternate with each-other
and reflect a repetitive tendency of the energy level of the deposits. Successive cycles of transgressive fining upward trends
in the various layers are illustrated, that were laid down in the sedimentary basin.
Figure 4: The cyclicity of sedimentary layers is sometimes eyestriking and is enhanced by the difference in coloration.
Various aspects and also the regional setting will help to deduce the mode of deposition for the exposed rocks in the field.
Figure 5: Example of thickening upward trend in various sedimentary cycles in a carbonate sequence. The thickening and
coarsening upward trend is related to episodic progradational steps of the carbonate platform margin.
Stratigraphy deals with the graded grouping of rocks according to their
age and mode of formation.
• It allows to establish a time scale useful for correlation purposes.
• It gives a handle on the age-dating of geological processes and events.
• It provides the basic framework to unravel the depositional history of a
study area.
 Types of stratigraphy
1. Chronostratigraphy: defines the age of rocks using isotopes, which results
in an absolute age.
• Radiometric dating measures the amount of naturally occurring parent
isotopes of certain elements together with their corresponding daughter
product.
• The half-life radioactive decay of the parent chemical element yields an
absolute age.
• This method is mainly applied to igneous rocks.
2. Magneto-stratigraphy uses the change of the polarity of the earth’s
magnetic field over earth’s history.
3. Chemo-stratigraphy exploits variations in the relationship of stable isotopes
over time, like Sr /Sr , O /O and C /C .
87 86 16 18 12 13

• Fission track dating uses radiation damage to mineral crystal lattice for
determining an age.
• Seismic reflections can also be considered as some sort of time line and this
helps to establish a chronostratigraphic framework.
• Well control is needed to relate observations to the geologic time scale.
4. Biostratigraphy defines a relative age using fossils, which show over geologic
history very fast development and variability.
• Extinction of a species is useful information for dating layers.
• Examples of fossil groups in the earth’s history are: trilobites, graptolithes (both
in the Paleozoic) and ammonites in the Mesozoic (Figure 6).
• Microfossils are also very useful, like: foraminifera, ostracodes, nanno plancton
etc.
• They are used a lot in the petroleum industry because they are more abundant
and may also be used as indicators for the paleo depositional environment.
• Biological activity in the past also may produce trace fossils.
• Biostratigraphy delivers primarily a relative age dating tool.
Figure 6: Fossils are used to age-date the rocks. They can also help to determine the environment of deposition
e.g. fish swim and die in the sea, while the trees are growing on land and can be preserved in swamps/deltas.
Biostratigraphy uses the fossil content to subdivide the rock sequence and assign a relative age.
5. Lithostratigraphy is a correlation based on lithology and does not
comprise any direct age dating.
• Heavy mineral assemblages can be used for relative age dating and
demonstrating sudden switching of source areas.
• Fossil contents may help to separate the layers.
6. Sequence Stratigraphy is a sub-discipline of stratigraphy.
• It subdivides sedimentary basin fills into genetic packages bounded by
unconformities and their correlative conformities.
• Other surfaces are outlined that are related to the cyclicity in the
stratigraphic rock record (maximum flooding surfaces etc.) and these are
useful for correlation purposes.
• Sequence stratigraphy provides a chronostratigraphic framework for
mapping sedimentary facies and forms a solid basis for stratigraphic
predictions in a basinfill.
7. Climate stratigraphy is based on cyclic changes in the sedimentation
pattern induced by climatic controls (Nio et al. 2006).
▪ This cyclicity is also recognized in the expression of log shapes in well
boreholes (Figure 3.13).
▪ The changes are assumed also to be governed by regular orbital variations
of the planet Earth.