How the mind ages

The way mental function changes is largely determined by three factors-mental lifestyle,
the impact of chronic disease and flexibility of the mind.
Experiments have shown that younger monkeys consistently outperform their older
colleagues on memory tests. Formerly, psychologists concluded that memory and other
mental functions in humans deteriorate over time because of changes in the brain. Thus
mental decline after young adulthood appeared inevitable. The truth, however, is not
quite so simple.
Stanley Rapoport at the National Institute of Health in the United States measured the
flow of blood in the brains of old and young people as they completed different tasks.
Since blood flow reflects neural activity. Rapoport could compare which networks of
neurons were the same, the neural networks they used were significantly different. The
older subjects used different internal strategies to accomplish comparable results at the
same time,'Rapoport says. At the Georgia Institute of Technology, psychologist Timothy
Salthouse compared a group of fast and accurate typists of college age with another
group in their 60s. Both groups typed 60 words a minute. The older typists, it turned out,
achieved their speed with cunning little strategies that made them more efficient than
their younger counterparts. They made fewer finger shifts, gaining a fraction of a second
here and there. They also read ahead in the test. The neural networks involved in typing
appear to have been reshaped to compensate for losses in motor skills or other age
changes.
In fact, there's evidence that deterioration in mental functions can actually be reversed.
Neuropsychologist Marion Diamond at the University of California has shown that
mental activity maks neurons sprout new dendrites* which establish connections with
other neurons. The dendrites shrink when the mind is idle. For example,'when a rat is
kept in isolation, the animal's brain shrinks, but if we put that rat with other rats in a large
cage and give them an assortment of toys, we can show, after four days, significant
differences in its brain.'says Diamond. After a month in the enriched surroundings, the
whole cerebral cortex has expanded, as has its blood supply.'But even in the enriched
surroundings, rats get bored unless the toys are varied. Animals are just like we are.
They need stimulation,'says Diamond. A busy mental lifestyle keeps the human mind fit,
says Warner Schaie of Penn State University. ‘People who regularly participate in
challenging tasks retain their intellectual abilities better than mental couch potatoes.'
In his studies, Schaie detected a decline in mental function among individuals who
underwent lengthy stays in hospital for chronic illness. He postulated it might be due to
the mental passivity encouraged by hospital routine.
One of the most profoundly important mental functions is memory. Memory exists in
more than one form, what we call knowledge- facts- is what psychologists such as Harry
Bahrick of Ohio Wesleyan University call semantic memory. Events, conversations and
occurrences in time and space, on the other hand, make up episodic memory. It's true
that episodic memory begins to decline when most people are in their 50s, but it's never
perfect at any age.
Probing the longevity of knowledge, Bahrick tested 1,000 high school graduates to see
how well they remembered the school subject algebra. Some had completed the course
a month before, other 50 years earlier. Surprisingly, he found that a person's grasp of
algebra did not depend on how long ago he'd taken the course. The determining factor
was the duration of instruction. Those who had spent only a few months learning
algebra forgot most of it within two or three years while others who had been instructed
for longer remembered better. According to Bahrick,'the long-term residue of knowledge
remains stable over the decades, independent of the age of the person and the
memory.'
Perhaps even more important than the ability to remember is the ability to manage
memory- a mental function known as metamemory.'You could say metamemory is a
byproduct of going to school,'says psychologist Robert Kail of Purdue University,'The
question-and-answer process,especially exam taking, helps children learn and teaches
them how their memory functions.This may be one reason why the better educated a
person is, the more likely they are to perform well in many aspects of life and in
psychological assessments: A group of adult novice chess players were compared with
a group of child experts at the game. But when asked to remember the patterns of
chess pieces arranged on a board, the children won.' Because they'd played a lot of
chess, their knowledge of chess was better organized than that of the adults, and their
existing knowledge of chess served as a framework for new memory,'explains Kail.
Cognitive style, another factor in maintaining mental function, is what Schaie calls the
ability to adapt and roll with life's punches.'He measured mental flexibility with questions
and tests requiring people to carry out in an offbeat way an everyday activity they had
done millions of times. One example was asking people to copy a paragraph
substituting uppercase letters for lowercase ones. These tests seem silly, but flexible-
minded people manage to complete them,'says Schaie. The rigid person responds with
tension instead and performs poorly. Those who score highly on tests of cognition at an
advanced age are those who tested high in mental flexibility at middle age'.
On a more optimistic note, one mental resource that only improves with time is
specialized knowledge. Crystallised intelligence about one's occupation apparently does
not decline at all until at least age 75. Vocabulary is another such specialized form of
knowledge. Research clearly shows that vocabulary develops with time. Retired
teachers and journalists consistently score higher on tests of vocabulary and general
information than college students.

Questions 1-3

Choose the correct letter A, B, C or D.

Write the correct letter in boxes 1-3 on your answer sheet

1. What does the writer say about the performance of older typists on the test?
A
They used different motor skills from younger typists.
B
They had been more efficiently trained than younger typists.
C

They used more time-saving techniques than younger typists.

D

They had better concentration skills than younger typists.

2. The experiment with the rats showed that
A
brain structure only changed when the rats were given a familiar toy
B

the rats became anxious after a lengthy period of time alone

C

the rats lived longer then they were part of a social group
D

the rats'brains expanded or shrank depending on the level of mental activity

3. A comparison between adults and children who played chess showed that
A
the children were as capable as the adults of remembering a series of numbers
B

the children had better recall of the layout of pieces

C

the adults stored memories of chess moves in a more logical manner

D

the adults had clearer memories of chess games they had played

Questions 4-9

Complete the summary below.

Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.

Write your answers in boxes 4-9 on your answer sheet.

Psychologists distinguish between two different types of memory:............. and

……………. memory. A study was conducted into people's knowledge of ……………. to
determine recall ability. This aspect of memory was found to be a function not of age but
rather of length of tuition.
School also helps with a brain function called ………………….. . This is why a more
highly educated person is generally more successful and does better in ………………
tests.

Some of our mental functions remain unaffected by age or even improve. For example,
as we get older, our knowledge of ………………… increases.

Questions 10-13

Look at the following statements and the list of people below.

Match each statement with the correct person, A-E.

List of People

A. Stanley
Rapoport

B. Marion Diamond

C. Warner Schaie

D. Harry Bahrick

E. Robert Kail

Write the correct letter, A-E, in boxes 10-13 on your answer sheet.

10. The educational system makes students aware of how their memory works.

11. Although older people may use a different mental approach when completing a task,
they can still achieve the same result as younger people

12. Being open to new ways of doing things can have a positive impact on your mental
condition as we get older

13. Both animals and humans need to exist in an environment full of interest.
 Ensuring our future food supply
Climate change and new diseases threaten the limited varieties of seeds we depend on
for food. Luckily, we still have many of the seeds used in the past-but we must take
steps to save them.
Six miles outside the town of Decorah, Iowa in the USA, an 890-acre stretch of rolling
fields and woods called Heritage Farm is letting its crops go to seed. Everything about
Heritage Farm is in stark contrast to the surrounding acres of intensively farmed fields of
corn and soybean that are typical of modern agriculture. Heritage Farm is devoted to
collecting rather than growing seeds. It is home to the Seed Savers Exchange, one of
the largest non government-owned seed banks in the United States.
In 1975 Diane Ott Whealy was given the seedlings of two plant varieties that her great
grandfather had brought to America from Bavaria in 1870: Grandpa Ott’s morning glory
and his German Pink tomato. Wanting to preserve similar traditional varieties, known as
heirloom plants, Diane and her husband, Kent, decided to establish a place where the
seeds of the past could be kept and traded. The exchange now has more than 13,000
members, and the many thousands of heirloom varieties they have donated are kept in
its walk-in coolers, freezers, and root cellars the seeds of many thousands of heirloom
varieties and, as you walk around an old red barn that is covered in Grandpa Ott’s
beautiful morning glory blossoms, you come across the different vegetables, herbs, and
flowers they have planted there.
"Each year our members list their seeds in this,"Diane Ott Whealy says, handing over a
copy of the Seed Savers Exchange 2010 Yearbook. It is as thick as a big-city telephone
directory, with page after page of exotic beans, garlic, potatoes, peppers, apples, pears,
and plums-each with its own name and personal history .For example, there’s an
Estonian Yellow Cherry tomato, which was brought to the seed bank by “an elderly
Russian lady” who lived in Tallinn, and a Persian Star garlic from “a bazaar in
Samarkand.”There’s also a bean donated by archaeologists searching for pygmy
elephant fossils in New Mexico.
Heirloom vegetables have become fashionable in the United States and Europe over
the past decade, prized by a food movement that emphasizes eating locally and
preserving the flavor and uniqueness of heirloom varieties. Found mostly in farmers'
markets and boutique groceries, heirloom varieties have been squeezed out of
supermarkets in favor of modern single-variety fruits and vegetables bred to ship well
and have a uniform appearance, not to enhance flavor. But the movement to preserve
heirloom varieties goes way beyond the current interest in North America and Europe in
tasty, locally grown food. It’s also a campaign to protect the world’s future food
supply.Most people in the well-fed world give little thought to where their food comes
from or how it’s grown. They wander through well-stocked supermarkets without
realizing that there may be problem ahead.We’ve been hearing for some time about the
loss of flora and fauna in our rainforests.Very little,by contrast,is being said or done
about the parallel decline in the diversity of the foods we eat.
Food variety extinction is happening all over the world - and it's happening fast. In the
United States an estimated 90 percent of historic fruit and vegetable varieties are no
longer grown. Of the 7,000 different apple varieties that were grown in the 1800s, fewer
than a hundred remain. In the Philippines thousands of varieties of rice once thrived;
now only about a hundred are grown there. In China 90 percent of the wheat varieties
cultivated just a hundred years ago have disappeared. Experts estimate that in total we
have lost more than 50 percent of the world's food varieties over the past century.
Why is this a problem? Because if disease or future climate change affects one of the
handful of plants we've come to depend on to feed our growing planet, we might
desperately need one of those varieties we've let become extinct. The loss of the
world's cereal diversity is a particular cause for concern. A fungus called Ug99, which
was first identified in Uganda in 1999, is spreading across the world's wheat crops.
From Uganda it moved to Kenya, Ethiopia, Sudan, and Yemen. By 2007 it had jumped
the Persian Gulf into Iran. Scientists predict that the fungus will soon make its way into
India and Pakistan, then spread to Russia and China, and eventually the USA.
Roughly 90 percent of the world's wheat has no defense against this particular fungus. If
it reached the USA, an estimated one billion dollars' worth of crops would be at risk.
Scientists believe that in Asia and Africa alone, the portion currently in danger could
leave one billion people without their primary food source. A famine with significant
humanitarian consequences could follow, according to Rick Ward of Cornell University.
The population of the world is expected to reach nine billion by 2045. Some experts say
we’ll need to double our food production to keep up with this growth. Given the added
challenge of climate change and disease, it is becoming ever more urgent to find ways
to increase food yield. The world has become increasingly dependent upon a
technology-driven, one-size-fits-all approach to food supply. Yet the best hope for
securing our food's future may depend on our ability to preserve the locally cultivated
foods of the past.

Questions 14-20

Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in Reading Passage? In
boxes 14-20 on your answer sheet, write.

TRUE. if the statement agrees with the

information

FALSE. if the statement contradicts the information

NOT GIVEN. If there is no information on this

14. Heritage Farm is different from most other nearby farms.

15. Most nongovernment-owned seed banks are bigger than Seed Savers Exchange.

16. Diane Ott Whealy's grandfather taught her a lot about seed varieties.
17. The seeds people give to the Seed Savers Exchange are stored outdoors.

18. Diane and her husband choose which heirloom seeds to grow on Heritage Farm.

19. The seeds are listed in alphabetical order in The Seed Savers Exchange Yearbook.

20. The Seed Savers Exchange Yearbook describes how each seed was obtained.

Questions 21-26

Complete the notes below.

Choose ONE WORD AND/OR A NUMBER from the passage for each answer. Write
your answers in boxes 21-26 on your answer sheet.

The food we grow and eat

Supermarkets

 sell fruit and vegetables that transport well

 want fruit and vegetables to be standard in their …………

Public awareness

 while people know about plants disappearing from ……………….

 very few know about the decline in fruit and vegetable varieties

Extinction of food varieties

 less than 100 of the types of ………… once available in the USA are still grown
 over ……….. of food varieties around the world have disappeared in the last 100
years

Current problems in food production

 a particular fungus is attacking wheat in various countries

 Rick Ward believes the threat to food supplies in Asia and Africa might lead to a
……………..

Food production in the future

 climate change and disease may put pressure on food production

 twice the amount of food may be needed because of an increase in………..
 The long-standing debate about whether to fluoridate our drinking water
continues Fluoridation is the addition of fluorine to public water supplies with the
aim of reducing tooth decay. The fluorine, when mixed with water, becomes
fluoride and the desired concentration of fluoride in public water is approximately
one part per million, depending on the regional temperature and hence the
amount of water people are likely to drink. Many studies, such as those by
McClure in 1970 through to Burt in 1983, have shown that when children drink
fluoridated water, their average rate of tooth decay seems greatly reduced. A
typical figure claimed is 50 percent reduction. This apparently enormous benefit
for children's teeth is the major argument in favor of fluoridation.
 Three main grounds for opposition to fluoridation have been expressed. First,
opponents claim the benefits are exaggerated or not established. Second, there
are claims of health risks to pans of the population, for example, allergic
reactions. It is also accepted that high levels of fluoride can cause discoloration
of otherwise healthy teeth. Proponents do not consider this to be a problem in
such small concentrations, whereas opponents disagree - especially because
some people drink more water and obtain much more than the standard 1
milligram of fluoride per day. Third, fluoridation is thought to be an infringement
on individual rights because it is compulsory medication of all members of a
community.
 An understanding of the fluoridation issue has important implications. If,
according to the experts, fluoridation is unquestionably a beneficial and non-
hazardous measure, then the wisdom of allowing the public to vote on, and reject
it must be questioned.
 Almost all studies that have been done have assumed that the scientific aspects
of the controversy are unproblematic, and they have excluded science from
sociological examination. The traditional view is that science is a special kind of
knowledge, which is established through scientific methods and objectively
applied by members of a scientific community. However, in recent years there
has been a major challenge to this picture by a sociology of science that shows
how scientific knowledge is socially negotiated, and inevitably linked to the
values of the relevant parties, both scientists and nonscientists. These
challengers do not see scientific knowledge as exempt from social inquiry.
 Kuhn (1970) argued that scientific knowledge does not always develop as an
orderly process, but is characterized by periodic revolutions. in which the
methods of study and the assessment criteria change in a fragmented way.
According to Kuhn, the shift from one scientific way of thinking to another is not
made solely on the basis of clear rules of formal scientific practice, but can
include social factors, though Kuhn has never developed a full analysis of what
these might be. Collins (1975) took this concept further when he asserted that
the outcome of experiments was not something whose meaning could be
immediately comprehended, but rather something for interpretation, discussion
between scientists, and reinterpretation in the light of other experiments.
 One interpretation of this analysis of science is that traditional distinctions
between facts and theories, and between scientific knowledge and values, can
 no longer be justified. Because social processes are involved at all stages of the
creation, evaluation, and establishing of scientific knowledge, social values may
also be involved.
 In the same way as many scientists who study fluoridation have overlooked
social values, sociologists have also downplayed an important part of the debate
by ignoring the number of eminent scientists who have questioned aspects of
fluoridation. An example is the study by Sutton in 1960, which analyzed the
classic North American studies of the effect of fluoridation on tooth decay, and
found that each showed significant methodological shortcomings. Sutton's
detailed study throws doubt as to the extent of reductions in tooth decay from
fluoridation. Yet Sutton's book is not cited in a single analysis of the fluoridation
issue by any sociologist. In a situation of some scientific uncertainty, differences
in values are highlighted. A supporter of fluoridation might argue. The evidence
for the benefits of fluoridation is quite substantial, while the evidence for harm is
limited and dubious. I think the likely benefits outweigh the possible dangers;
hence I support fluoridation because it is the cheapest and easiest way to make
sure every child reaps the benefits. An opponent might argue, 'Though the
evidence for the benefits of fluoridation is substantial, there is some doubt about
it. Since fluoridation is not necessary for good teeth, we should forego the
benefits if there is some slight chance of harm. Some scientists claim that a small
percentage of the population could be harmed by fluoride. Therefore I oppose
fluoridation of water supplies and favor the voluntary use of fluoride tablets by
those who want to take them.'
 Both arguments consider the scientific evidence concerning fluoridation, but differ
in their assessments of the social benefits and costs. This difference is not
between rationality and irrationality but is a legitimate difference in values, for
example, the positive value placed on good teeth, the negative value placed on
possible health risks, and the social benefits or costs of compulsory or voluntary
intake of fluorides.
 From the sociological point of view, opposition to fluoridation is not necessarily
irrational. Rather, claims to rationality and to scientific authority are better seen
as part of a strategy to promote fluoridation than as incontrovertible statements of
fact. Second, social values are likely to be bound up in any decision about
fluoridation, so this is not an issue on which declarations by scientific experts
ought to be considered the final word.
 27. The optimum amount of fluorine in fluoridated water is calculated partly
according to
 A
 how hot the area is.
 B
 how warm the water is.
 C
 how many dental problems there are in the community.
 D
 how much fluorine the community chooses to have in its water.
 28. One reason given by the writer for opposing fluoridation is that
 A
  it may contribute to tooth decay
 B
 it will be unacceptably expensive for the public.
 C
 obligatory fluoridation takes away personal freedom.
 D
 excessive fluoride could be added to the water by mistake.
 29. The writer mentions Kuhn in order to
 A
 provide a contrast with the view of Collins.
 B
 support the rational nature of scientific inquiry.
 C
 demonstrate that Kuhn did not argue his case adequately.
 D
 show that science can be influenced by non-scientific considerations
 30. What did Sutton's research discover about earlier studies in North
America?
 A
 There were failings in the way they were carried out.
 B
 The scientists involved had achieved unique results.
 C
 Proponents of fluoridation had not understood its long-term effects.
 D
 Fluoridation had a greater effect on tooth decay than previously believed.
 31. In the last paragraph, what does the writer say about scientists?
 A
 They should reveal their true motivations.
 B
 They should not decide the fluoridation policy.
 C
 They are solely concerned with scientific truths.
 D
 They cannot reach agreement on the fluoridation issue.
 Questions 32-35
 Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in Reading
Passage?
 In boxes 32-35 on your answer sheet, write

YES. if the statement agrees with the views of the writer

NO. if the statement contradicts the views of the writer

NOT if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
GIVEN.
 32.YESNONOT GIVEN Scientific knowledge should be kept separate from social
values.
 33.YESNONOT GIVEN Many sociologists have disregarded the doubts that some
scientists have concerning fluoridation.
 34.YESNONOT GIVEN Sutton's findings have been given insufficient attention by
scientists outside of North America.
 35.YESNONOT GIVEN There are valid arguments on both sides of the fluoridation
debate.
 Questions 36-40
 Complete each sentence with the correct ending. A-G.
 Write the correct letter. A-G, in boxes 36-40 on your answer sheet.
 The traditional view of science is that 36.ABCDEFG
 A sociological view of science argues that 37.ABCDEFG
 Collins is of the opinion that 38.ABCDEFG
 The writer suggests that a supporter of fluoridation may conclude that
39.ABCDEFG
 The writer suggests that an opponent of fluoridation may conclude that
40.ABCDEFG

A. the results of scientific research are not always understood at first

B. scientific knowledge is based on experiments conducted by scientists.

C. people should be able to choose whether they want fluoride.

D. there is insufficient proof to support a cautious approach.

E. the serious damage fluoride causes far outweighs any positive effects.

F. children are not the only ones who benefit from fluoridation.

G. scientific knowledge is affected by the beliefs of everyone concerned.