Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203.

Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 1

LANs: WIRELESS

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 2

Outline
• CDMA
• Communication Issues
• MACA
• Bluetooth
• Broadband Wireless

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 3

Dynamic LANs
• Wireless networks are formed by groups of nodes within “range
of each other”.
• BSS (Basic Service Set) is a group of nodes that coordinate
their access to the medium and forming a BSA (Basic Service
Area), i.e., a geographic area covered by a BSS. Each BSS has
an AP (Access Point)
• A distribution system is being used to extend a set of BSSs to
an ESS (Extended Service Set).
• To join an ESS a node must select an AP and establish an
association with it. The node can reassociate by moving
association to another AP. It disconnects by dissociating.

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 4

Collisions in Wireless Networks

• Let D be a point at the intersection of three disks centered at
A, B, C.
• If A, B, C transmit at the same time then D will not be able to
“hear” the message and may not even know who attempted to
talk to it.

A B

• The issue is: How do you avoid collisions?

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 5

Spread Spectrum (1/3)

• Spread-spectrum is a radio transmission technique which refers
to any method that widens the frequency band of a signal.
• Frequency hopping is the simplest version of Spread-spectrum.
• Radio stations broadcast on a single carrier frequency, which
makes eavesdropping deliberately easy: You tune your radio to
the correct frequency and receive the programming.
• Frequency hopping prevents the interception and decipherment
of a transmission by shifting the carrier frequency in a
predetermined, usually pseudorandom fashionin other words, in
a way that appears random but is produced by a deterministic
algorithm.

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 6

Spread Spectrum (2/3)

• A receiver hopping around in synchrony with the transmitter
can pick up the message, but an eavesdropper tuned to a single
frequency will hear only a blip as that bit of message flashes by.
• Frequency hopping is largely jam-proof as well. If the
frequencies are spaced widely enough, any jamming signal will
interfere with only a small part of the message.

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 7

Spread Spectrum (3/3)

• Essential idea:
“spread the information signal over a wider bandwidth
to make jamming (and interception) more difficult.”
• There are two types of spread spectrum techniques:
1. Direct Sequencing.
2. Frequency hopping.
• The advantage of doing this is to
1. hide or encrypt signals,
2. avoid various kinds of noise,
3. use independently the same bandwidth (CDMA).

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 8

DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum)

• DSSS
1. For chosen n, each transmitted bit is represented by a
sequence of n bits.
2. The n bit sequence is generated as follows: sender uses a
pseudorandom generator to produce n bits, b1 , b2 , . . . , bn
and XORs b with each bit of the sequence.

Original Bit Chipping Code

↓ ↓
b → b ⊕ b1 , b ⊕ b2 , . . . , b ⊕ bn

• DSSS looks like CDMA but it is implemented in the physical

layer! It is not a multiple access method.

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 9

DSSS Example
• If chip code for 0 is 101101 and for 1 is 000111 then
• Sender:

Input Data 0 1 0 0 1
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
Chip Code 101101 000111 101101 101101 000111

• Receiver: Must do the reverse.

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 10

FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum)

• This is a technique whereby the sender hops from frequency to
frequency sending bits at each frequency for the same amount
of time.
• After n hops the cycle is repeated.
• If B is the total bandwidth of the spectrum allocated then each
hop must be allocated bandwidth B/n, this is the bandwidth
of the subband.
• Sender and receiver must agree in advance on the subbands
allocated for each hopping.
• The time a user stays in a subband is called the dwell time.

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 11

CDMA: Code Division Multiple Access

• CDMA is a multiplexing technique used with spread spectrum.
• Looks like DSSS but is on a different layer.
• The scheme works in the following manner.
– Start with a data signal with rate R, called the bit data
rate.
– Break each bit into k chips according to a fixed pattern that
is specific to each user, called the user’s code.
– The new channel has a “chip data” rate of kR chips per
second.

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 12

CDMA

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 13

Sharing a Channel
• A familiar Question:

• How is it possible for both pairs to use the same wire without
interfering with each other?

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 14

Sharing Methods
• Exclusive use of FDMA or TDMA

• Simultaneous use of FDMA and TDMA

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 15

CDMA: Idea
• Calls are distinguished along the “code” dimension.

• All calls may operate over the same frequencies and at the
same times, because each transmission in the network is
assigned a unique code

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 16

CDMA: Cocktail Party

• With CDMA, each code is like a separate language.

• In the cocktail party analogy, multiple conversations can occur

in a room if they use different languages.
• The issue then becomes controlling speaking volume levels.

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 17

CDMA
• Consider a simple example with k = 6.
• It is simplest to write a code as a sequence of
– (+1)s and (−1)s.
• For three users, A, B, C, each of which is communicating with
the same base station receiver, say R. let the codes be

cA = (+1, −1, −1, +1, −1, +1)

cB = (+1, +1, −1, −1, +1, +1)
cC = (+1, +1, −1, +1, +1, −1).

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 18

CDMA Example
• If A wants to send a 1 bit:
A transmits its code as a chip pattern (1, −1, −1, +1, −1, +1).
• If A wants to send a 0 bit:
A transmits the complement (+1s and −1s reversed) of its
code, (−1, +1, +1, −1, +1, −1)
• Something analogous happens with B and C.

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 19

CDMA Example

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 20

CDMA: Code Division Multiple Access

• CDMA works as follows:
Every user U owns a specific bit pattern consisting of n
bits:
(b1 , b2 , · · · , bn ).
• The main question is
How are patterns selected?

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 21

CDMA (1/2)
• Each of n users, U , is assigned a vector u ∈ {−1, +1}n .

U ←u

ui are the components of the vector u.

• Let ū = (−u1 , −u2 , . . . , −un ) denote the bit-complement of
u = (u1 , u2 , . . . , un ).
• Note thata
n
1X
< u, u > = ui ui = 1
n i=1
n
1X
< u, ū > = ui (−ui ) = −1
n i=1

a The notation < ·, · > means inner product of vectors.

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 22

CDMA (2/2)
• Orthogonality Condition: The vectors assigned to the users
are pairwise orthogonal, i.e. for any users U 6= V ,
n
1X
< u, v >:= ui vi = 0
n i=1

• Hence, also
n
1X
< u, v̄ >:= ui (−vi ) = 0
n i=1

• Transmission: To transmit a bit 0 or 1 user U sends a vector

as follows:

To transmit 1 user U sends its vector: u

To transmit 0 user U sends complement of its vector: ū

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 23

CDMA Example
• Code assignment
User {0, 1}-Vector {−1, +1}-Vector
A 00011011 a := -1-1-1+1+1-1+1+1
B 00101110 b := -1-1+1-1+1+1+1-1
C 01011100 c := -1+1-1+1+1+1-1-1
D 01000011 d := -1+1-1-1-1-1+1+1
To transmit data sequence 1011:
• A sends: aāaa = 00011011111001000001101100011011
• B sends: bb̄bb = 00101110110100010010111000101110
• etc

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 24

CDMA: Additivity
• Let {bU : U is a user} be the vectors transmitted by the users
on a given transmitted bit b = 1 or b = 0.
• According to our assumptions/definitions this means that

bU = u if b = 1
bU = ū if b = 0

• When a subset S of the set of users transmits simultaneously

then the vector sum
X
bU
U ∈S

is being transmitted.
• How does a user recover the bit from this sum?

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 25

CDMA: Decoding (1/2)

• If a station wants to recover the message transmitted by user U
from a set S of users then it computes the inner product
X
< u, bV >
V ∈S

A user can do this because u is known!

• Also note thata
X X
< u, bV > = < u, bV >
V ∈S V ∈S

by the linearity of the inner product.

a This is called additivity property of the inner product.

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 26

CDMA: Decoding (2/2)

• But for each user V we have that

 < u, v > if bV = v
< u, bV > =
 < u, v̄ > if bV = v̄

 0 if U

 6= V
= +1 if U = V and bV = v


−1 if U = V and bV = v̄


• This is because:
– if U 6= V then < u, v >=< u, v̄ >= 0;
– if U = V and bV = v then < u, bV >=< u, v >= 1;
– if U = V and bV = v̄ then < u, bV >=< u, v̄ >= −1;
• In other words, each user V will recover the bit that was sent
to it in encoded form!

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 27

CDMA: Walsh Matrices

• The Walsh matrices of dimension 2k are given by the recursive
formula  
1 +1 +1
W (2 ) =  
+1 −1
and  
W (2k ) W (2k )
W (2k+1 ) =  
W (2k ) −W (2k )

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 28

Communication Issues

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 29

Communication Problems
• Collision Avoidance
• Exposed Node
• Communication Paths
• Asymmetry
• Attenuation
• Power Level
• Interference
• SIR

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 30

Collision Avoidance
• B and C will collide if they transmit at the same time.

A D
B C

• A can reach B but is unaware of C.

• C can reach B but is unaware of A.

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 31

Exposed Node
• C can hear if B sends to A.
• It is a mistake for C to assume that it cannot transmit to D.

A D
B C

• In fact: C can transmit to D and simultaneously B can

transmit to A.

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 32

Communication Paths in Wireless

• Each node forwards to a node within its range:

A B C D E F G

• This gives a communication path:

A→B→C→D→E→F →G

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 33

Communication Asymmetry in Wireless

• In the real world, there is asymmetry:

A B

• A can reach B but B cannot reach A.

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 34

Attenuation
• The farther a transmitter is from its receiver, the higher the
attenuation is, and the more objects there are to obstruct the
path.

• Here, A has a short, clear path to the tower, while B has a long
path that is obstructed by objects (e.g., trees)

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 35

Power Levels
• Transmission power control (TPC) algorithm.

• Attempts to equalize received signal powers.

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 36

Interference
• Ideally, only the power from the transmitter of a link would be
present at its receiver.

• But this is not the reality: here, some of A’s transmission will
be coupled into B’s receiver, and vice versa.

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 37

Signal to Interference Ratio (SIR)

• Tower tells a device its current received signal-to-interference
ratio (SIR), which serves as a negative feedback signal.

• Each device can update its transmission power independently.

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 38

MACA

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 39

Hexagonal Cell Organization

• Multiple mobile stations (MSs) & base stations (BSs).

• Shading of a cell indicates frequency band that the cell is using.

• Neighboring cells have different frequency bands.

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 40

MACA Algorithm
• 802.11 uses Multiple Access Collision Avoidance (MACA):
1. Sender sends Request To Send (RTS) message to receiver
that includes how long it wants to hold medium.
2. Receiver responds with Clear To Send (CTS) message.
3. If CTS not received nodes realize after a period of time that
collision occurred, in which case a backoff algorithm is being
used.
4. Receiver sends ACK after receiving.
5. All other nodes must wait for ACK prior to transmitting.
• In practice, it is much more complicated than this!

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 41

Access and Distribution: Not All Nodes are Equal!

• Nodes are associated to access points.
• A sends frame to B as follows:
Access Points

Distribution System

A
B

• A sends to A’s Access Point., A’s Access Point sends to B’s

Access Point that forwards to B.

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 42

Scanning for Access Points

• Stations select access points by scanning:
1. Station sends Probe frame.
2. All Access Points within reach of station reply with Probe
Response frame.
3. Station selects access point and responds with Association
Request frame.
4. Access Point responds with Association Response frame.
• 802.11 frames include a control field indicating whether or not
frame is data, RTS or CTS.
• It has four addresses to account for the fact that it must be
transmitted through the distribution system.

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 43

IEEE 802.11: Frames

• It has three types of frames: management frames (MF), control
frames (CF), and data frames(DF).
• MF: Used for node association, disassociation, timing,
synchronization, authentication and deauthentication.
• CF: Used for Handshaking and positive ACKs during an
exchange.
• DF: Used for data transmission.
• IEEE 802.11: MAC
– MAC protocol is specified in terms of a coordination
function that determines when a node in a BSS is allowed to
transmit and when it may be able to receive.

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 44

Bluetooth

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 45

How to Establish a Link

• A set of nodes wants to establish a connected network.
ipad
printer
cellphone
cellphone
laptop

iphone

android
scanner
• What protocol should they follow to get connected?

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 46

Bluetooth
• Originally conceived as cable replacement technology.
• Is the first defacto standard for ad hoc networking brought
about by several companies.
• Its particular design is less suited for other applications.

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 47

Organization: Piconets
• They are star networks.
• In the leftmost piconet the master has seven slaves, in the
rightmost it has three.

= Master = Slave

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 48

Organization: Piconets
• They are managed by a single master that implements
centralized control over channel access.
• All other participants are called slaves.
• Communication is strictly
master → slave,
and
slave → master.
• Direct slave-to-slave communication is impossible.
• A master has at least one and at most seven slaves.
• Piconets can be enlarged to form scatternets.

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 49

Double Personalities
• Roles of Master and Slave:
– Since a slave may want to set up a new piconet or take over
an existing piconet, during the existence of a piconet the
role of master and slave can be switched.
– This is done by employing a different frequency.

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 50

Example of a 14-node Scatternet

• Piconets are joined to form scatternets.
• A node can be slave in two piconets, or become master in a
new piconet and slave in the old piconet.



 





 









= Master

 

= Bridge = Slave

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 51

Bluetooth Communication
• If you want to communicate with more than eight nodes at the
same time multiplexing is required. Moreover, nodes would
need to alternate between their respective piconets.
• Bluetooth does not provide for slave-to-slave communication
(maybe technology will improve in the future).
To solve this problem one has
1. either to channel traffic through a master (this increases
communication and power consumption)
2. or one of the two slaves could setup its own piconet or even
switch roles with a master.

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 52

Scatternet
Scatternets are collections of piconets satisfying the following rules.
1. The scatternet is a connected network formed from piconets.
2. It has masters and slaves. Slaves are of two types:
“pure” slaves (i.e., slaves belonging to a single piconet), and
“bridge” slaves (i.e.. slaves that belong to multiple piconets).
3. Two masters can share only a single slave.
4. A bridge may connect only two piconets.
5. A piconet can have at most seven slaves.

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 53

How to Establish a Link

Bluetooth nodes want to establish a connected network.
They follow the protocol below:
1. Start
2. Synchronization
3. Discovery
4. Paging
5. Connection established.

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 54

Discovery Delay Procedure

Bluetooth supports the paradigm of spontaneous connectivity.
The procedure used for node discovery is called Inquiry and
connections are established based on information exchange.
1. Bluetooth node is set into Inquiry mode by the application.
2. Then sends Inquiry messages to probe for other nodes.
3. Other Bluetooth nodes (within the range) only listen.
4. They reply to Inquiry messages only when they have been set
explicitily to InquiryScan mode.
To prevent “collisions” and since Inquiry needs to be initiated
periodically then some type of randomness must be employed in
order to determine the time interval between two Inquiries. This
technique is called Collision Avoidance.

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 55

Connection Establishment
• Once a unit has discovered another unit, connection
establishment is very fast.
• In an ideal scenario, the expected delay for link formation
(Discovery plus Connection) is about 1 sec when both nodes
follow the uniform distribution between the Inquiry and
InquiryScan.
• In practice this takes several seconds.

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 56

IEEE 802.15 (Bluetooth Protocol Architecture)

Does not follow any of the OSI, TCP/IP or 802 models.

Application
Application Profiles

Middleware
Other Service
RFComm Telephony
LLC Discovery
Audio Control
Logical Link Control Adaptaion

DLC
Link Manager
Baseband

Physical
Physical Radio

The Radio layer moves bits from master to slave. The baseband
resempbles the MAC sublayer.

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 57

IEEE 802.15 (Bluetooth Frames)

The Bluetooth frame includes an access code identifying the master
so that slaves can tell which traffic belongs to them.
72 54 0−2744
Access Code Header Data

In the Header, Addr identifies which of the active devices frame is

intended for. Type identifies frame type.
3 4 111 8
Addr Type F A S Checksum

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 58

Broadband Wireless

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 59

Broadband Wireless (IEEE 802.16): Wireless Last Mile

Running fiber optic, coaxial cable, etc, to millions of homes is
rather expensive. A big antenna on a hill solves last mile
transmission problems.

802.16 is different than 802.11: 1) it provides service to static

buildings not nomadic devices, 2) buildings can have more than one
computer, 3) uses full-duplex 4) more spectrum in the range 10-66
GHz is used, 5) provides QoS.

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 60

Broadband Wireless (IEEE 802.16): Protocol Stack

Upper Layers
Service Specific
MAC Sublayer (Common Part) DLC
Security Sublayer
Transmission Convergence Sublayer Physical
Physical QPSK QAM−16 QAM−64 Layer
Medium

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 61

Broadband Wireless (IEEE 802.16): Wireless Last Mile

802.16a, 802.16b planned: to operate on differenct frequency
ranges. Service specific sublayer interfaces with the network layer.

Modulation Mbps Bits/Baud

QAM-64 150 6
QAM-16 100 4
QPSK 50 2

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 62

Broadband Wireless (IEEE 802.16): MAC Sublayers

The DLC has three sublayers.
Security: Only the payloads are encrypted with symmetric DES
(or triple DES). Authentication is done with RSA using X.509
certificates. Integrity uses SNA-1.
MAC Sublayer (Common Part). In downstream: the base
station decides what to put in which subframe. In upstream: four
classes of service are defined. CBR (for uncompressed voice),
RTVariable Bit Rate (for compressed multimedia), Non-RTVariable
Bit Rate (for large file transfers), Best Effort (for everything else).
Bandwidth allocation is either per station (subscriber station
makes collective requests for all users in a building) or per
connection (base station manages each connection directly).

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 63

Broadband Wireless (IEEE 802.16): Frames

MAC frames begin with a generic header: EC (tells if payload is
encrypted), Type (gives frame type), CI (indicates presence or
absence of final checksum), EK (tells which encryption key is being
used), Connection ID (gives connection frame belongs to), Header
CRC uses polynomial x8 + x2 + x + 1.
1 1 6 1 1 2 1 11 16 8 4
E C Header
0 Type EK Length Connection ID Data CRC
C I CRC
Frames requesting bandwidth have different header type and do not
carry payload. Instead of 0 they start with bit 1.
11 6 16 16 8
Header
1 0 Type Bytes needed Connection ID
CRC

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 64

WiMax
• The name ”WiMAX” was created by the WiMAX Forum,
which was formed in June 2001 to promote conformity and
interoperability of the standard.
• WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) is
a trademark for a family of telecommunications protocols that
provide fixed and mobile Internet access.
• The 2005 WiMAX revision provided bit rates up to 40 Mbit/s
with the 2011 update up to 1 Gbit/s for fixed stations.
• WiMAX is a standards-based technology enabling the delivery
of last mile wireless broadband access as an alternative to cable
and DSL.
• WiMax requires special antennae and Network Interface Cards.

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 65

LTE Wireless
• Long Term Evolution (LTE) is a standard for wireless
communication of high-speed data.
• Goal of LTE is to increase the capacity and speed of wireless
data networks utilizing cutting-edge hardware and DSP
techniques that have recently been developed.
• Its wireless interface is incompatible with 2G and 3G networks,
and so it must be operated on separate wireless spectrum.
• LTE includes an all-IP flat network architecture, end-to-end
QoS including provisions for low-latency communications, peak
download rates nearing 300 Mbps and upload rates of 75 Mbps,
capacity exceeding 200 active users per cell, the ability to
manage fast-moving mobiles, and support for multi-cast and
broadcast streams.

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 66

Satellite Based
• Satellite based services deliver broadband to customers in the
US and Canada.
• ViaSat (a recent satellite) with a total data throughput of some
140 Gbps, the satellite has more capacity than all other
commercial communications satellites over North America
combined.
• This is a wave of new satellites operating in the Ka-band, a
part of the satellite-apportioned radio spectrum that allows
high data-rates (download range of 8-12 Mbps)

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 67

Exercisesa
1. What are the differences between TDMA, FDMA, and CDMA.
2. Can you devise an algorithm for sharing a given bandwidth
both with TDMA and FDMA? Give details of how it would
work.
3. What are the difference between Multiple Access Collision
Avoidance and Multiple Access Collision Detections? Why do
they have to be different?
4. Compute
(a) the inner product of the vectors
u := (−1, +1, +1, +1, −1, −1),
v := (+1, +1, −1, +1, −1, +1),
(b) and the complements ū, v̄, where u, v are as above.
a Not to submit!

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 68

5. Generate two vectors u = (u1 , o2 ) and v = (v1 , v2 ) such that

u1 , u2 , v1 , v2 are +1 or −1 with probability 1/2 independently
at random. What is the probability that the inner product of u
and v is 0?
6. The power of a signal attenuates according to the inverse
square law P (d) = P (0)/d2 , where d > 0 is the distance, P (d)
is the power at distance d, and P (0) is its power at the start.
How far can a signal reach if its power at distance d has to be
at least 1/4 its power at the start?
7. Due to the presence of obstacles, the power of a signal
attenuates according to the inverse cubic law P (d) = P (0)/d3 ,
where d > 0 is the distance, P (d) is the power at distance d,
and P (0) is its power at the start. If the power at distance
d = 1 is 8, up to what distance d is the power of the signal at
least 1/10 its power at the start?

November 7, 2019
Principles of Computer Networks, COMP 3203. Evangelos Kranakis, Carleton University, SCS 69

8. Two stations located at A and B transmit wireless signals

simultaneously and against each other. The signal at station A
has speed u and the signal at station B has speed v. Determine
the point at which the two signals collide.
(a) Do the same exercise as above when the signals are
transmitted with a time difference ∆t > 0.
9. Why is the number of slaves of a piconet limited to a small
number (in our case seven)?
10. Consider bluetooth networks.
(a) How many bluetooth networks with exactly one master are
possible? Describe them all.
(b) Recall that two masters can share only a single slave. How
many bluetooth networks with at most two masters are
possible? Draw one with a total of 13 nodes.

November 7, 2019