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Back Analysis in Rock Engineering
ISRM Book Series
Series editor: Xia-Ting Feng
Institute of Rock and Soil Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China

ISSN : 2326-6872
eISSN: 2326-778X

Volume 4

International Society for Rock Mechanics

Back Analysis in Rock Engineering

Shunsuke Sakurai
Kobe University, Kobe, Japan
CRC Press/Balkema is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2017 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK
Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India
Printed and Bound by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY
All rights reserved. No part of this publication or the information contained
herein may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, by photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without written prior permission from the publishers.
Although all care is taken to ensure integrity and the quality of this publication
and the information herein, no responsibility is assumed by the publishers nor
the author for any damage to the property or persons as a result of operation
or use of this publication and/or the information contained herein.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Sakurai, Shunsuke, 1935– author.
Title: Back analysis in rock engineering / Shunsuke Sakurai, Kobe University,
Kobe, Japan.
Description: Leiden,The Netherlands : CRC Press/Balkema, [2017] | Series:
ISRM book series ; volume 4 | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017015576 (print) | LCCN 2017031028 (ebook) |
ISBN 9781315375168 (ebook) | ISBN 9781138028623 (hardcover : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Rock mechanics. | Geotechnical engineering.
Classification: LCC TA706 (ebook) | LCC TA706 .S25 2017 (print) |
DDC 624.1/5132—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017015576

Published by: CRC Press/Balkema

Schipholweg 107C, 2316 XC Leiden,The Netherlands
e-mail: [email protected]
www.crcpress.com – www.taylorandfrancis.com
ISBN: 978-1-138-02862-3 (Hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-37516-8 (eBook)
Table of contents

Acknowledgements xi
About the author xiii

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Aims and scope 1
1.2 Field measurements and back analyses 1

2 Back analysis and forward analysis 3

2.1 What is back analysis? 3
2.2 Difference between back analysis and forward analysis 4
2.3 Back analysis procedures 5
2.3.1 Introduction 5
2.3.2 Inverse approach 6
2.3.3 Direct approach 7
2.3.4 Probabilistic approach 8
2.3.5 Fuzzy systems, Artificial Intelligence (AI),
Neural network, etc. 8
2.4 Brief review of back analysis 9

3 Modelling of rock masses in back analysis 13

3.1 Modelling of rock masses 13
3.2 Back analysis and modelling 14
3.3 Difference between parameter identification and back analysis 15

4 Observational method 19
4.1 What is observational method? 19
4.2 Design parameters for different types of structures 19
4.3 Difference between stress-based approach and strain-based
approach 21
4.4 Strain-based approach for assessing the stability of tunnels 23
4.5 Displacement measurements in observational method 24
4.6 Back analysis in observational method 26
4.7 Flowchart of observational methods 27
4.8 Hazard warning levels 27
4.8.1 Introduction 27
4.8.2 Numerical analysis methods 29
4.8.3 Critical strain methods 29
vi Table of contents

5 Critical strains of rocks and soils 31

5.1 Definition of critical strain of geomaterials 31
5.2 Scale effect of critical strains 32
5.3 Simple approach for assessing tunnel stability 35
5.4 Hazard warning level for assessing crown settlements
and convergence 38
5.5 Uniaxial compressive strength and Young’s modulus
of rock masses 40

6 Environmental effects on critical strain of rocks 43

6.1 Critical strain in triaxial condition 43
6.2 Effects of confining pressure 43
6.3 Effects of moisture content 45
6.4 Effects of temperature 49

7 General approach for assessing tunnel stability 51

7.1 Critical shear strain of geomaterials 51
7.2 Hazard warning levels in terms of maximum shear strain 53
7.3 How to determine the maximum shear strain distribution
around a tunnel 55

8 Back analyses used in tunnel engineering practice 59

8.1 Introduction 59
8.2 Mathematical formulation of the proposed back analyses 60
8.2.1 Introduction 60
8.2.2 Assumption of mechanical model 61
8.2.3 Mathematical formulation 61
8.3 Case study I (Washuzan tunnels) 64
8.3.1 Exploration tunnel (work tunnel) 64
8.3.1.1 Introduction 64
8.3.1.2 Displacement measurements and back analyses 64
8.3.1.3 Design analysis of the main tunnels 66
8.3.2 Excavation of the main tunnels 68
8.3.2.1 Brief description with respect to the tunnels and
instrumentation 68
8.3.2.2 Back analysis of measured displacements 69
8.3.2.3 Assessment of the stability of tunnels 71
8.4 Case study II (two-lane road tunnel in shallow depth) 72
8.4.1 Introduction 72
8.4.2 Brief description of the tunnel 73
8.4.3 Field measurements 75
8.4.3.1 Convergence measurements 75
8.4.3.2 Multi-rod extensometer and sliding micrometer
measurements 75
8.4.4 Back analysis of measured displacements 77
8.4.5 Assessment of the stability of tunnels 81
 Table of contents vii

9 Universal back analysis method 83

9.1 Introduction 83
9.2 Mathematical formulation considering non-elastic strain 83
9.3 Case study (tunnel excavated in shallow depth) 86
9.3.1 Tunnel configuration and instruments 86
9.3.2 Back analyses 86
9.3.3 Supporting mechanism of rock bolts, shotcrete
and steel ribs 90
9.4 Modelling of support structures 92
9.4.1 Modelling of rock bolts 92
9.4.2 Modelling of shotcrete and steel ribs 93

10 Initial stress of rock masses determined by boundary

element method 95
10.1 Introduction 95
10.2 Three-dimensional back analysis method 96
10.2.1 Mathematical formulation of the method 96
10.2.2 Computational stability 98
10.3 Case study 98

11 Back analysis for the plastic zone occurring around

underground openings 103
11.1 Introduction 103
11.2 Assumptions 104
11.3 Fundamental equations 104
11.3.1 Maximum shear strain on the elasto-plastic
boundary 104
11.3.2 Relationship between real and equivalent Young’s
modulus 105
11.4 The method for determining the elasto-plastic
boundary 107
11.5 Computer simulation 108
11.5.1 Procedure 108
11.5.2 An example problem and simulation results 108

12 Back analysis considering anisotropy of rocks 111

12.1 Introduction 111
12.2 Constitutive equations 111
12.3 Different modes of deformation 113
12.3.1 Spalling of joints 113
12.3.2 Sliding along joints 113
12.3.3 Plastic flow 113
12.4 Computer simulations 114
12.4.1 Spalling of joints 114
12.4.2 Plastic flow 116
12.5 Case study (underground hydropower plant) 118
viii Table of contents

13 Laboratory experiments 123

13.1 Absolute triaxial tests (true triaxial tests) 123
13.2 Conventional triaxial compression tests 125
13.3 Simple shear tests 126

14 Constitutive equations for use in back analyses 131

14.1 Fundamental theory of constitutive equations for geomaterials 131
14.2 Failure criteria 131
14.2.1 Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion 131
14.2.2 Von Mises yield criterion 132
14.2.3 Nadai’s failure criterion and Drucker–Prager failure
criterion 132
14.3 Anisotropic parameter and anisotropic damage parameter 134
14.3.1 Anisotropic parameter 134
14.3.2 Anisotropic damage parameter 135
14.4 Proposed constitutive equation for geomaterials 135
14.4.1 Constitutive equation 135
14.4.2 Objectivity of constitutive equation 139
14.5 Applicability of the proposed constitutive equation 140
14.6 Conclusions on the results of the numerical simulation 143
14.7 Forward analysis vs. back analysis 144

15 Cylindrical specimen for the determination of material

properties 147
15.1 Introduction 147
15.2 Constitutive equation for cylindrical coordinate systems 147
15.3 Numerical simulation 148
15.3.1 Introduction 148
15.3.2 Stress distribution in differently shaped specimens 148
15.3.3 Principal stress distributions 149
15.3.4 Distribution of stress components along a given cross
section 149
15.3.5 Discussion/conclusions 150

16 Applicability of anisotropic parameter for back analysis 153

16.1 Physical model tests in laboratory 153
16.2 Excavation of the tunnels and strain distributions around them 154
16.3 Back analysis for simulating the maximum shear strain
distributions 155
16.3.1 Optimisation of anisotropic parameter 155
16.3.2 Minimisation of the error function 156
16.4 Results and discussion 157

17 Assessing the stability of slopes 159

17.1 Factor of safety of slopes 159
17.2 Paradox in the design and monitoring of slopes 160
 Table of contents ix

17.3 Difference between the factor of safety of tunnels and slopes 160
17.3.1 Tunnels 160
17.3.2 Slopes 161
17.4 Factor of safety for toppling of slopes 162

18 Back analysis of slopes based on the anisotropic

parameter 165
18.1 Mechanical model of rock masses 165
18.2 Laboratory experiments for toppling 166
18.3 Numerical analysis of toppling behaviours 167
18.3.1 Introduction 167
18.3.2 Constitutive equation 168
18.3.3 Mechanical model of slopes 169
18.3.4 Applicability of the back analysis method to toppling
behaviours 170
18.4 Applicability of the anisotropic parameter to simulation of
various deformational modes 172
18.4.1 Three different deformational modes 172
18.4.2 Monitoring slope stabilities by displacements
measured on the ground surface 173
18.4.2.1 Introduction 173
18.4.2.2 Numerical simulations on deformational
modes of slopes 175
18.5 Factor of safety back-calculated from measured displacements 175

19 Back analysis method for predicting a sliding plane 179

19.1 Introduction 179
19.2 Procedure of the method 179
19.3 Accuracy of the method 180

20 Back analysis of landslides 183

20.1 Introduction 183
20.2 Finite element formulation 183
20.3 Applicability of the proposed method (forward analysis) 184
20.4 Case study of landslide due to heavy rainfall (back analysis) 186

21 Back analysis for determining the strength parameters 189

21.1 Introduction 189
21.2 Back analysis procedure 189

22 Application of back analysis for assessing the stability

of slopes 193
22.1 Cut slope 193
22.1.1 Introduction 193
22.1.2 Modelling and back analysis 194
22.1.3 Assessment of slope stability 196
x Table of contents

22.2 Slope of open-pit coal mine 197

22.2.1 Introduction 197
22.2.2 Cross section together with measuring points in the
open-pit coal mine 198
22.2.3 Input data for the back analysis 198
22.2.4 Back analysis procedure and the results 199
22.2.5 Results of the back analysis 199
22.2.6 No-tension analysis 200
22.2.7 Discussion on the back analysis results 201

23 Monitoring of slope stability using GPS in geotechnical

engineering 203
23.1 Introduction 203
23.2 Displacement monitoring using GPS 203
23.2.1 Monitoring procedure 203
23.2.2 Improvements in accuracy: Error corrections 204
23.3 Practical application of GPS displacement monitoring 205
23.3.1 Monitoring site: Unstable steep slope 206
23.3.2 Effects of error corrections 207
23.3.3 Monitoring results 208
23.4 Back analysis in GPS displacement monitoring 209

References 213
Subject index 221
Acknowledgements

This book has been prepared on the basis of the outcomes of theoretical and
experimental research works carried out by many of the graduate students as well as
undergraduate students who studied at the Rock Mechanics Laboratory, Kobe Univer-
sity, Japan, during the past 40 years. If it had not been for former students’ continuous
efforts, this book would not have been published. The author extends his gratitude to
all the former students for their great contributions to rock mechanics research per-
formed at Kobe University. The author also heartily acknowledges the great support
from rock mechanics research colleagues, working together on back analyses in the
geotechnical engineering field. One of the chapters of this book on monitoring slope
stability by using GPS in geotechnical engineering was written by Prof. N. Shimizu,
Yamaguchi University, Japan. Regarding GPS displacement monitoring, its suggested
method was established under the leadership of Prof. Shimizu, and it was officially
approved by the ISRM Board as “ISRM Suggested Method for Monitoring Rock Dis-
placements Using the Global Positioning System’’. The author would like to heartily
thank him for his great contribution to Chapter 23. Thanks are also due to my wife
Motoko, and daughter Junko, for their continuous encouragement and kind support
during the course of preparing the manuscript.
About the author

Born in 1935, Prof. Sakurai studied Civil Engineering, first at Kobe University (B.E.,
1958), then at Kyoto University (M.E., 1960), and finally at Michigan State University
USA (Ph.D., 1966), having received his Dr Eng. from Nagoya University in 1975.
Prof. Sakurai worked at Kobe University, where he held the position of Associate
Professor (1966–73) and Professor in the Division of Rock Mechanics, Dept. of Civil
Engineering (1973–1999), and then worked at the Hiroshima Institute of Technology
as President (1999–2003). He is now Professor Emeritus of Kobe University, and
also Professor Emeritus of Hiroshima Institute of Technology. Prof. Sakurai worked
as President of the Construction Engineering Research Institute Foundation (CERIF)
(2003–2011).
In 1978–79 he was Guest Professor at the Federal Institute of Technology Zurich
ETHZ, Switzerland, and in 1984 Visiting Professor at the University of Queensland,
Australia. He was also Visiting Professor at Graz University of Technology in 1998.
He has given lectures in Brazil, Canada, China, Czech Republic, Germany, Greece,
India, Indonesia, Italy, Kazakhstan, Korea, Poland, Taiwan, Thailand, Russia, and
many other countries.
In the ISRM, Prof. Sakurai was Vice-President at Large (1988–91), President of
the Commission on Communications (1987–91), and Member of the Commissions
on Computer Programs (1978–87), on Rock Failure Mechanisms in Underground
Openings (1981–91), and on Testing Methods (1983–91). He was also Vice-President
of the Japanese Committee for ISRM (the ISRM NG JAPAN) (1995–99).
Professionally, Prof. Sakurai has been involved in various kinds of Rock Mechan-
ics projects (hydropower, nuclear power, pumped storage and compressed air energy
storage schemes; highway and railway tunnels; slopes), in Japan and abroad.
His research activities have been principally connected to numerical and analyti-
cal methods, back analysis, and field measurements, the aim of these activities being
mainly concerned with making a bridge between the theory and practice. Prof. Shun-
suke Sakurai is the author or co-author of over 100 publications, and the editor
of “Field Measurements in Geomechanics’’ (Proceedings of the 2nd International
Symposium, Kobe, 1987).
Prof. Sakurai received the IUE Award (1974), the JSCE Prize for the Best Paper
(1990), and the ICMAG Award for Significant Paper (1994). He also received the
Science Award of Hyogo Prefecture (1997).
Other documents randomly have
different content
 Then will the happy day appear,
That virtue shall increase;
Lay up the sword and drop the spear,
And Nations seek for peace.

SERVANT

Then shall we see the happy end,

Tho’ still in some distress;
That distant foes shall act like friends,
And leave their wickedness.

Jupiter Hammon’s birth and death dates are uncommemorated because

unknown. Unknown, too, is his grave. But to his memory, no less than to
that of Crispus Attucks, there should somewhere be erected a monument.
Since Stedman included in his Library of
American Literature a picture of Phillis
Wheatley and specimens of her verse, a few
white persons, less than scholars and more than
general readers, knew, when Dunbar appeared,
that there had been at least one poetic
predecessor in his race. But the long stretch
between the slave-girl rhymer of Boston and the
elevator-boy singer of Dayton was desert. They
knew not of George Moses Horton of North
Carolina, who found publication for Poems by a
Slave in 1829, and Poetical Works in 1845.
Phillis Wheatley
Horton, who learned to write by his own efforts,
is said to have been so fond of poetry that he
would pick up any chance scraps of paper he saw, hoping to find verses.
They knew not of Ann Plato, of Hartford, Connecticut, a slave girl who
published a book of twenty poems in 1841; nor of Frances Ellen Watkins
(afterwards Harper) whose Poems on Miscellaneous Subjects appeared in
1857, reaching a circulation of ten thousand copies; nor of Charles L.
Reason, whose poem entitled Freedom, published in 1847, voiced the cry of
millions of fellow blacks in bonds.
 2. Charles L. Reason
Thus bursts forth Reason’s poetic
cry, not unlike that of the crude
Spirituals:

O Freedom! Freedom! Oh, how oft

Thy loving children call on Thee!
In wailings loud and breathings soft,
Beseeching God, Thy face to see.

With agonizing hearts we kneel,

While ’round us howls the oppressor’s cry,—
And suppliant pray that we may feel
The ennobling glances of Thine eye.
Charles L. Reason
The apostrophe continues through
forty-two stanzas, commemorating,
with appreciative knowledge of history, the countries, battle fields, and
heroes associated with the advance of freedom. After an arraignment of
civil rulers and a recreant priesthood, the learned and noble apostrophe thus
concludes:

Oh, purify each holy court!

The ministry of law and light!
That man no longer may be bought
To trample down his brother’s right.

We lift imploring hands to Thee!

We cry for those in prison bound!
Oh, in Thy strength come! Liberty!
And ’stablish right the wide world round.

We pray to see Thee, face to face:

To feel our souls grow strong and wide:
So ever shall our injured race
By Thy firm principles abide.

3. George Moses Horton

 By some means or other, self-guided, the North Carolina slave, George
Moses Horton, learned to read and write. His first book, Poems by a Slave,
appeared in 1829, and other books followed until 1865. Like Hammon, and
true to his race, Horton is religious, and, like Reason, and again true to his
race, he loves freedom. I choose but a few stanzas to illustrate his quality as
a poet:

Alas! and am I born for this,

To wear this slavish chain?
Deprived of all created bliss,
Through hardship, toil, and pain?

How long have I in bondage lain,

And languished to be free!
Alas! and must I still complain,
Deprived of liberty?
* * * *
Come, Liberty! thou cheerful sound,
Roll through my ravished ears;
Come, let my grief in joys be drowned,
And drive away my fears.

4. Frances Ellen Watkins Harper

A female poet of the same period as Horton wrote in the same strain
about freedom:

Make me a grave wher’er you will,

In a lowly plain or a lofty hill;
Make it among earth’s humblest graves,
But not in a land where men are slaves.

Like Horton, she lived to see her prayer for freedom answered. Of the
Emancipation Proclamation she burst forth in joy:

It shall flash through coming ages,

It shall light the distant years;
And eyes now dim with sorrow
Shall be brighter through their tears.
 This slave woman was Frances Ellen Watkins, by marriage Harper. Mrs.
Harper attained to a greater popularity than any poet of her race prior to
Dunbar. As many as ten thousand copies of some of her poems were in
circulation in the middle of the last century. Her success was not unmerited.
Many singers of no greater merit have enjoyed greater celebrity. She was
thoroughly in the fashion of her times, as Phillis Wheatley was in the yet
prevalent fashion of Pope, or, perhaps more accurately, Cowper. The models
in the middle of the nineteenth century were Mrs. Hemans, Whittier, and
Longfellow. It is in their manner she writes. A serene and beautiful
Christian spirit tells a moral tale in fluent ballad stanzas, not without poetic
phrasing. In all she beholds, in all she experiences, there is a lesson. There
is no grief without its consolation. Serene resignation breathes through all
her poems—at least through those written after her freedom was achieved.
Illustrations of these traits abound. A few stanzas from Go Work in My
Vineyard will suffice. After bitter disappointments in attempting to fulfil the
command the “lesson” comes thus sweetly expressed:

My hands were weak, but I reached them out

To feebler ones than mine,
And over the shadows of my life
Stole the light of a peace divine.

Oh, then my task was a sacred thing,

How precious it grew in my eyes!
’Twas mine to gather the bruised grain
For the Lord of Paradise.

And when the reapers shall lay their grain

On the floors of golden light, F. E. W. Harper
I feel that mine with its broken sheaves
Shall be precious in His sight.

Though thorns may often pierce my feet,

And the shadows still abide,
The mists will vanish before His smile,
There will be light at eventide.

How successfully Mrs. Harper could draw a lesson from the common
objects or occurrences of the world about us may be illustrated by the
following poem:
TRUTH
A rock, for ages, stern and high,
Stood frowning ’gainst the earth and sky,
And never bowed his haughty crest
When angry storms around him prest.
Morn, springing from the arms of night,
Had often bathed his brow with light,
And kissed the shadows from his face
With tender love and gentle grace.

Day, pausing at the gates of rest,

Smiled on him from the distant West,
And from her throne the dark-browed Night
Threw round his path her softest light.
And yet he stood unmoved and proud,
Nor love, nor wrath, his spirit bowed;
He bared his brow to every blast
And scorned the tempest as it passed.

One day a tiny, humble seed—

The keenest eye would hardly heed—
Fell trembling at that stern rock’s base,
And found a lowly hiding-place.
A ray of light, and drop of dew,
Came with a message, kind and true;
They told her of the world so bright,
Its love, its joy, and rosy light,
And lured her from her hiding-place,
To gaze upon earth’s glorious face.

So, peeping timid from the ground,

She clasped the ancient rock around,
And climbing up with childish grace,
She held him with a close embrace;
Her clinging was a thing of dread;
Where’er she touched a fissure spread,
And he who’d breasted many a storm
Stood frowning there, a mangled form.

A Truth, dropped in the silent earth,

May seem a thing of little worth,
Till, spreading round some mighty wrong,
It saps its pillars proud and strong,
And o’er the fallen ruin weaves
 The brightest blooms and fairest leaves.

The story of Vashti, who dared heroically to disobey her monarch-

husband, is as well told in simple ballad measure as one may find it. I give
it entire:
VASHTI
She leaned her head upon her hand
And heard the King’s decree—
“My lords are feasting in my halls;
Bid Vashti come to me.

“I’ve shown the treasures of my house,

My costly jewels rare,
But with the glory of her eyes
No rubies can compare.

“Adorn’d and crown’d I’d have her come,

With all her queenly grace,
And, ’mid my lords and mighty men,
Unveil her lovely face.

“Each gem that sparkles in my crown,

Or glitters on my throne,
Grows poor and pale when she appears,
My beautiful, my own!”

All waiting stood the chamberlains

To hear the Queen’s reply.
They saw her cheek grow deathly pale,
But light flash’d to her eye:

“Go, tell the King,” she proudly said,

“That I am Persia’s Queen,
And by his crowds of merry men
I never will be seen.

“I’ll take the crown from off my head

And tread it ’neath my feet,
Before their rude and careless gaze
My shrinking eyes shall meet.

“A queen unveil’d before the crowd!—

Upon each lip my name!—
Why, Persia’s women all would blush
And weep for Vashti’s shame!

“Go back!” she cried, and waved her hand,

And grief was in her eye:
“Go, tell the King,” she sadly said,
“That I would rather die.”
 That I would rather die.

They brought her message to the King;

Dark flash’d his angry eye;
’Twas as the lightning ere the storm
Hath swept in fury by.

Then bitterly outspoke the King,

Through purple lips of wrath—
“What shall be done to her who dares
To cross your monarch’s path?”

Then spake his wily counsellors—

“O King of this fair land!
From distant Ind to Ethiop,
All bow to thy command.

“But if, before thy servants’ eyes,

This thing they plainly see,
That Vashti doth not heed thy will
Nor yield herself to thee,

“The women, restive ’neath our rule,

Would learn to scorn our name,
And from her deed to us would come
Reproach and burning shame.

“Then, gracious King, sign with thy hand

This stern but just decree,
That Vashti lay aside her crown,
Thy Queen no more to be.”

She heard again the King’s command,

And left her high estate;
Strong in her earnest womanhood,
She calmly met her fate,

And left the palace of the King,

Proud of her spotless name—
A woman who could bend to grief
But would not bow to shame.

Those last stanzas are quite as noble as any that one may find in the
poets whom I named as setting the American fashion in the era of Mrs.
Harper. The poems of this gentle, sweet-spirited Negro woman deserve a
better fate than has overtaken them.

5. James Madison Bell and Albery A. Whitman

Although this is not a history of American Negro poetry, yet a brief
notice must be given at this point to two other writers too important to be
omitted even from a swift survey like the present one. They are J. Madison
Bell and Albery A. Whitman.
Bell, anti-slavery orator and friend of John
Brown’s, was a prolific writer of eloquent verse.
His original endowments were considerable.
Denied an education in boyhood, he learned a
trade and in manhood at night-schools gained
access to the wisdom of books. He became a
master of expression both with tongue and pen.
His long period of productivity covers the
history of his people from the decade before
Emancipation till the death of Dunbar. Bell’s
themes are lofty and he writes with fervid
eloquence. There is something of Byronic
power in the roll of his verse. An extract from
James Madison Bell
The Progress of Liberty will be representative,
though an extract cannot show either the
maintenance of power or the abundance of resources:
O Liberty, what charm so great!
One radiant smile, one look of thine
Can change the drooping bondsman’s fate,
And light his brow with hope divine.

His manhood, wrapped in rayless gloom,

At thy approach throws off its pall,
And rising up, as from the tomb,
Stands forth defiant of the thrall.
No tyrant’s power can crush the soul
Illumed by thine inspiring ray;
The fiendishness of base control
Flies thy approach as night from day.

Ride onward, in thy chariot ride,

Thou peerless queen; ride on, ride on—
With Truth and Justice by thy side—
From pole to pole, from sun to sun!
Nor linger in our bleeding South,
Nor domicile with race or clan;
But in thy glorious goings forth,
Be thy benignant object Man—

Of every clime, of every hue,

Of every tongue, of every race,
’Neath heaven’s broad, ethereal blue;
Oh! let thy radiant smiles embrace,
Till neither slave nor one oppressed
Remain throughout creation’s span,
By thee unpitied and unblest
Of all the progeny of man.

We fain would have the world aspire

To that proud height of free desire,
That flamed the heart of Switzer’s Tell
(Whose archery skill none could excell),
When once upon his Alpine brow,
He stood reclining on his bow,
And saw, careering in his might—
In all his majesty of flight—
A lordly eagle float and swing
Upon his broad, untrammeled wing.

H b hi b h i d hi d
 He bent his bow, he poised his dart,
With full intent to pierce the heart;
But as the proud bird nearer drew,
His stalwart arm unsteady grew,
His arrow lingered in the groove—
The cord unwilling seemed to move,
For there he saw personified
That freedom which had been his pride;
And as the eagle onward sped,
O’er lofty hill and towering tree,
He dropped his bow, he bowed his head;
He could not shoot—’twas Liberty!

Whitman, a younger contemporary of Bell’s, is the author of several long

tales in verse. Like Bell, he wrote only in standard English, and like him
also, shows a mastery of expression, with fluency of style, wealth of
imagery, and a command of the forms of verse given vogue by Scott and
Byron. Both likewise write fervently of the wrongs suffered by the black
man at the hands of the white. Thus far they resemble; but if we extend the
comparison we note important differences. Bell has more of the fervor of
the orator and the sense of fact of the historian. He adheres closely to events
and celebrates occasions. Whitman invents tragic tales of love and romance,
clothing them with the charm of the South and infusing into them the pathos
which results from the strife of thwarted passions, the defeat of true love.
A stanza or two from Whitman’s An Idyl of the South will exemplify his
qualities. The hero of this pathetic tale is a white youth of aristocratic
parentage, the heroine is an octoroon. He is thus described:

He was of manly beauty—brave and fair;

There was the Norman iron in his blood,
There was the Saxon in his sunny hair
That waved and tossed in an abandoned flood;
But Norman strength rose in his shoulders square,
And so, as manfully erect he stood,
Norse gods might read the likeness of their race
In his proud bearing and patrician face.

The heroine is thus portrayed:

 A lithe and shapely beauty; like a deer,
She looked in wistfulness, and from you went;
With silken shyness shrank as if in fear,
And kept the distance of the innocent.
But, when alone, she bolder would appear;
Then all her being into song was sent
To bound in cascades—ripple, whirl, and gleam,
A headlong torrent in a crystal stream.

Only tragedy, under the conditions, could result from their mutual
fervent love. The poet does not moralize but in a figure intimates the
sadness induced by the tale:

The hedges may obscure the sweetest bloom—

The orphan of the waste—the lowly flower;
While in the garden, faint for want of room,
The splendid failure pines within her bower.
There is a wide republic of perfume,
In which the nameless waifs of sun and shower,
That scatter wildly through the fields and woods,
Make the divineness of the solitudes.

After such a manner wrote those whom we may call bards of an elder
day.

6. Paul Laurence Dunbar

 He came, a dark youth, singing in the dawn
Of a new freedom, glowing o’er his lyre,
Refining, as with great Apollo’s fire,
His people’s gift of song. And, thereupon,
This Negro singer, come to Helicon,
Constrained the masters, listening, to admire,
And roused a race to wonder and aspire,
Gazing which way their honest voice was gone,
With ebon face uplit of glory’s crest.
Men marveled at the singer, strong and sweet,
Who brought the cabin’s mirth, the tuneful night,
But faced the morning, beautiful with light,
To die while shadows yet fell toward the west,
And leave his laurels at his people’s feet.
—James David Corrothers.

Less than a generation ago William Dean Howells hailed Paul Laurence
Dunbar as “the first instance of an American Negro who had evinced innate
distinction in literature,” “the only man of pure African blood and of
American civilization to feel Negro life æsthetically and express it
lyrically.” It is not my purpose to give Dunbar space and consideration in
this book commensurate with his importance. Its scope does not, strictly
speaking, include him and his predecessors. They are introduced here, but
to provide an historical background. The object of this book is to exhibit the
achievement of the Negro in verse since Dunbar. Even though it were true,
which I think it is not, that no American Negro previous to Dunbar had
evinced innate distinction in literature, this anthology, I believe, will reveal
that many American Negroes in this new day are evincing, if not innate
distinction, yet cultured talent, in literature.
The sonnet to Dunbar which stands at the head of this section was
composed by a Negro who was by three years Dunbar’s senior. His
opportunities in early life were far inferior to Dunbar’s. At nineteen years of
age, with almost inconsiderable schooling, he was a boot-black in a
Chicago barber shop. I give his sonnet here—other poems of his I give in
another chapter—in evidence of that distinction in literature, innate or
otherwise, which is rather widespread among American Negroes of the
present time. Dunbar himself might have been proud to put his name to this
sonnet.
 When this marvel, a Negro poet, so vouched
for, appeared in the West, like a new star in the
heavens, a few white people, a very few, knew,
vaguely, that back in Colonial times there was a
slave woman in Boston who had written verses,
who was therefore a prodigy. The space between
Phillis Wheatley and this new singer was desert.
But Nature, as people think, produces freaks, or
sports; therefore a Negro poet was not
absolutely beyond belief, since poets are rather
freakish, abnormal creatures anyway.
Incredulity therefore yielded to an attitude
scarcely worthier, namely, that dishonoring,
irreverent interpretation of a supreme human
Paul Laurence Dunbar phenomenon which consists in denominating it
a freak of nature. But Dunbar is a fact, as Burns,
as Whittier, as Riley, are facts—a fact of great moment to a people and for a
people. For one thing, he revealed to the Negro youth of America the latent
literary powers and the unexploited literary materials of their race. He was
the fecundating genius of their talents. Upon all his people he was a
tremendously quickening power, not less so than his great contemporary at
Tuskegee. Doubtless it will be recognized, in a broad view, that the Negro
people of America needed, equally, both men, the counterparts of each
other.
It needs to be remarked for white people, that there were two Dunbars,
and that they know but one. There is the Dunbar of “the jingle in a broken
tongue,” whom Howells with gracious but imperfect sympathy and
understanding brought to the knowledge of the world, and whom the public
readers, white and black alike, have found it delightful to present, to the
entire eclipse of the other Dunbar. That other Dunbar was the poet of the
flaming “Ode to Ethiopia,” the pathetic lyric, “We Wear the Mask,” the
apparently offhand jingle but real masterpiece entitled “Life,” the
incomparable ode “Ere sleep comes down to soothe the weary eyes,” and a
score of other pieces in which, using their speech, he matches himself with
the poets who shine as stars in the firmament of our admiration. This
Dunbar Howells failed to appreciate, and ignorance of him has been
fostered, as I have intimated, by professional readers and writers. The first
Dunbar, the generally accepted one, was, as Howells pointed out, the artistic
interpreter of the old-fashioned, vanishing generation of black folk—the
generation that was maimed and scarred by slavery, that presented so many
ludicrous and pathetic, abject and lovable aspects in strange mixture. The
second Dunbar was the prophet robed in a mantle of austerity, shod with
fire, bowed with sorrow, as every true prophet has been, in whatever time,
among whatever people. He was the prophet, I say, of a new generation, a
coming generation, as he was the poet of a vanishing generation. The
generation of which he was the prophet-herald has arrived. Its most
authentic representatives are the poets that I put forward in this volume as
worthy of attention.
Dunbar’s real significance to his race has been admirably expressed not
only by Corrothers but in the following lines by his biographer, Lida Keck
Wiggins:

Life’s lowly were laureled with verses

And sceptered were honor and worth,
While cabins became, through the poet,
Fair homes of the lords of the earth.

So it was. But “honor and worth” yet remain, to be “sceptered.” Such

poems as these few here given from the choragus of the present generation
of Negro singers will suggest the kind of honor and the degree of worth to
which our tribute is due.[2]
ERE SLEEP COMES DOWN TO SOOTHE THE WEARY EYES
Ere sleep comes down to soothe the weary eyes,
Which all the day with ceaseless care have sought
The magic gold which from the seeker flies;
Ere dreams put on the gown and cap of thought,
And make the waking world a world of lies,—
Of lies most palpable, uncouth, forlorn,
That say life’s full of aches and tears and sighs,—
Oh, how with more than dreams the soul is torn,
Ere sleep comes down to soothe the weary eyes.

Ere sleep comes down to soothe the weary eyes,

How all the griefs and heartaches we have known
Come up like pois’nous vapors that arise
From some base witch’s caldron, when the crone,
To work some potent spell, her magic plies.
The past which held its share of bitter pain,
Whose ghost we prayed that Time might exorcise,
Comes up, is lived and suffered o’er again,
Ere sleep comes down to soothe the weary eyes.

Ere sleep comes down to soothe the weary eyes,

What phantoms fill the dimly lighted room;
What ghostly shades in awe-creating guise
Are bodied forth within the teeming gloom.
What echoes faint of sad and soul-sick cries,
And pangs of vague inexplicable pain
That pay the spirit’s ceaseless enterprise,
Come thronging through the chambers of the brain,
Ere sleep comes down to soothe the weary eyes.

Ere sleep comes down to soothe the weary eyes,

Where ranges forth the spirit far and free?
Through what strange realms and unfamiliar skies
Tends her far course to lands of mystery?
To lands unspeakable—beyond surmise,
Where shapes unknowable to being spring,
Till, faint of wing, the Fancy fails and dies
Much wearied with the spirit’s journeying,
Ere sleep comes down to soothe the weary eyes.

Ere sleep comes down to soothe the weary eyes,

How questioneth the soul that other soul,—
The inner sense which neither cheats nor lies,
 But self exposes unto self, a scroll
Full writ with all life’s acts unwise or wise,
In characters indelible and known;
So, trembling with the shock of sad surprise,
The soul doth view its awful self alone,
Ere sleep comes down to soothe the weary eyes.

Ere sleep comes down to seal the weary eyes,

The last dear sleep whose soft embrace is balm,
And whom sad sorrow teaches us to prize
For kissing all our passions into calm,
Ah, then, no more we heed the sad world’s cries,
Or seek to probe th’ eternal mystery,
Or fret our souls at long-withheld replies,
At glooms through which our visions cannot see,
Ere sleep comes down to seal the weary eyes.

LIFE

A crust of bread and a corner to sleep in,

A minute to smile and an hour to weep in,
A pint of joy to a peck of trouble,
And never a laugh but the moans come double;
And that is life!

A crust and a corner that love makes precious,

With the smile to warm and the tears to refresh us;
And joy seems sweeter when cares come after,
And a moan is the finest of foils for laughter:
And that is life!

****
O Mother Race! to thee I bring
This pledge of faith unwavering,
This tribute to thy glory.
I know the pangs which thou didst feel,
When Slavery crushed thee with its heel,
With thy dear blood all gory.

Sad days were those—ah, sad indeed!

But through the land the fruitful seed
Of better times was growing.
The plant of freedom upward sprung,
And spread its leaves so fresh and young—
Its blossoms now are blowing.

On every hand in this fair land,

Proud Ethiope’s swarthy children stand
Beside their fairer neighbor;
The forests flee before their stroke,
Their hammers ring, their forges smoke,—
They stir in honest labor.

They tread the fields where honor calls;

Their voices sound through senate halls
In majesty and power.
To right they cling; the hymns they sing
Up to the skies in beauty ring,
And bolder grow each hour.

Be proud, my Race, in mind and soul

Thy name is writ on Glory’s scroll
In characters of fire.
High ’mid the clouds of Fame’s bright sky
Thy banner’s blazoned folds now fly,
And truth shall lift them higher.
Ethiopia—Awakening
By Meta Warrick Fuller
Thou hast the right to noble pride,
Whose spotless robes were purified
By blood’s severe baptism,
Upon thy brow the cross was laid,
And labor’s painful sweat-beads made
A consecrating chrism.

No other race, or white or black,

When bound as thou wert, to the rack,
So seldom stooped to grieving;
No other race, when free again,
Forgot the past and proved them men
So noble in forgiving.

Go on and up! Our souls and eyes

Shall follow thy continuous rise;
Our ears shall list thy story
From bards who from thy root shall spring,
And proudly tune their lyres to sing
Of Ethiopia’s glory.

WITH THE LARK

Night is for sorrow and dawn is for joy,
Chasing the troubles that fret and annoy;
Darkness for sighing and daylight for song,—
Cheery and chaste the strain, heartfelt and strong,
All the night through, though I moan in the dark,
I wake in the morning to sing with the lark.

Deep in the midnight the rain whips the leaves,

Softly and sadly the wood-spirit grieves.
But when the first hue of dawn tints the sky,
I shall shake out my wings like the birds and be dry;
And though, like the rain-drops, I grieved through the dark,
I shall wake in the morning to sing with the lark.

On the high hills of heaven, some morning to be,

Where the rain shall not grieve thro’ the leaves of the tree,
There my heart will be glad for the pain I have known,
For my hand will be clasped in the hand of mine own;
And though life has been hard and death’s pathway been dark,
I shall wake in the morning to sing with the lark.

WE WEAR THE MASK

We wear the mask that grins and lies,

It hides our cheeks and shades our eyes,—
This debt we pay to human guile;
With torn and bleeding hearts we smile,
And mouth with myriad subtleties.

Why should the world be over-wise,

In counting all our tears and sighs?
Nay, let them only see us, while
We wear the mask.

We smile, but, O great Christ, our cries

To thee from tortured souls arise.
We sing, but oh, the clay is vile
Beneath our feet, and long the mile;
But let the world dream otherwise,
We wear the mask!
 7. J. Mord Allen
In the year of Dunbar’s death (1906), J. Mord Allen published his
Rhymes, Tales, and Rhymed Tales. The contents are mainly in dialect,
dialect that possesses, as it seems to me, every merit of that medium. There
is great felicity of characterization, surprising turns of wit, quaint
philosophy. In a later chapter I will give a specimen of Mr. Allen’s dialect
verse, here two standard English poems. In both mediums his credentials
are authentic, no whit less so than even Dunbar’s. Only the question arises
why his muse became silent after this one utterance—for he was at the time
but thirty-one years old. Perhaps poetry did not go with boiler-making, his
occupation. Because of the date of his one book I place him here with
Dunbar, and there are yet other reasons.
Mr. Allen affords but two standard English poems, the first and the last
of his book. Such a fact marks him as of the elder day, though that day be
less than a score of years agone. The concluding poem of his book has a
sweet sadness that must appeal to every heart whose childhood is getting to
be far away:
COUNTING OUT
 “Eeny meeny miny mo.”
Ah, how the sad-sweet Long Ago
Enyouths us, as by magic spell,
With that old rhyme. You know it well;
For time was, once, when e’en your eyes
Saw Heaven plainly, in the skies.
Past twilight, when a brave moon glowed
Just o’er the treetops, and the road
Was full of romping children—say,
What was the game we used to play?
Yes! Hide-and-seek. And at the base,
Who first must go and hide his face?
Remember—standing in a row—
“Eeny meeny miny mo”?

“Eeny meeny miny mo.”

How fare we children here below?
Our moon is far from treetops now,
And Heaven isn’t up, somehow.
No more for sport play we “I spy”;
Our “laying low” and “peeping high”.
Are now with consequences fraught;
There’s black disgrace in being caught.
But what’s to pay the pains we take?
Let’s play the game for its own sake,
And, ere ’tis time to homeward flit,
Let’s get some pleasure out of it.
For death will soon count down the row,
“Eeny meeny miny mo.”

Though of the elder day yet Allen is, like Dunbar, a herald of the
generation that is now articulate. In this rôle of herald to a more self-
assertive generation, a more aspiring and race-conscious one, he speaks
with immense significance to us in this first poem of his book, which, as
being prophetic of much we now see in the colored folk of America I permit
to close this summary review of earlier Negro poetry:
THE PSALM OF THE UPLIFT
Still comes the Perfect Thing to man
As came the olden gods, in dreams;
And then the man—made artist—knows
How real is the thing which seems.
Then, tongue or brush or magic pen
May win the world to loud acclaim,
But he who wrought knows in his soul
That, like as tinsel is to gold,
His work is, to his aim.

It’s there ahead to him—and you

And me. I swear it isn’t far;
Else, black Despair would cut us down
In the land of hateful Things Which Are.
But, just beyond our finger-tips,
Things As They Should Be shame the weak,
And hold the aching muscles tense
Through th’ next moment of suspense
Which triumph is to break.

And shall we strive? The years to come,

Till sunset of eternity,
Are given to the fairest god,
The God of Things As They Should Be.
The ending? Nay, ’tis ours to do
And dare and bear and not to flinch;
To enter where is no retreat;
To win one stride from sheer defeat;
To die—but gain an inch.
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