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vi Contents

Tectonic Accretion 176

7 Vertical Mantle Plume Tectonics 176

Magma Behavior 176
Effects of Silica on Magma Behavior 177
Effects of Water on Magma Behavior 177
EARTHQUAKES AND THE EARTH’S Plutons 178
STRUCTURE 145 Volcanoes 180
Lava and Pyroclastic Rocks 180
Introduction 146 Fissure Eruptions and Lava Plateaus 182
Anatomy of an Earthquake 146 Volcano Types 183
Earthquake Waves 149 Volcanic Explosions:
Body Waves 150 Ash-Flow Tuffs and Calderas 187
Surface Waves 150 Pyroclastic Flows 187
Measurement of Seismic Waves 151 Calderas 188
Measurement of Earthquake Strength 151 DIGGING DEEPER The Destruction of Pompeii 189
Locating the Source of an Earthquake 154
Earthquakes and Tectonic Plate Boundaries 155 DIGGING DEEPER The Yellowstone Volcano 190
Earthquakes at a Transform Plate Boundary: The San Risk Assessment: Predicting Volcanic Eruptions 191
Andreas Fault Zone 155 Regional Prediction 191
Earthquakes at Convergent Plate Boundaries 157 Short-Term Prediction 191
Earthquakes at Divergent Plate Boundaries 157 Volcanic Eruptions and Global Climate 195
Earthquakes in Plate Interiors 157
Earthquake Damage and Hazard Mitigation 158
How Rock and Soil Influence Earthquake
Damage 158
Construction Design and Earthquake Damage 159
Tsunamis 159
9
Earthquake Prediction 161
Long-Term Prediction 161 MOUNTAINS 199
DIGGING DEEPER Earthquakes in Cascadia 162 Folds and Faults: Geologic Structures 200
Short-Term Prediction 164 How Rocks Respond to Tectonic Stress 200
Studying the Earth’s Interior 164 Geologic Structures 200
Discovery of the Crust–Mantle Boundary 164 Folds, Faults, and Plate Boundaries 208
The Structure of the Mantle 164 Mountains and Mountain Ranges 210
Discovery of the Core 165 Island Arcs: Subduction Where Two Oceanic Plates
Density Measurements 165 Converge 211
Earth’s Magnetism 166 The Andes: Subduction at a Continental Margin 212
The Himalayas: A Collision between Continents 215
Formation of an Andean-Type Margin 216

8
Continent–Continent Collision 218
The Himalayas Today 218
Mountains and Earth Systems 220

VOLCANOES AND PLUTONS 170

Magma 171
Processes That Form Magma 171
Environments of Magma Formation 171
10
Basalt and Granite 175
Granite and Granitic Magma 175 WEATHERING, SOIL, AND EROSION 223
Andesite and Intermediate Magma 175 Introduction 224
Partial Melting and the Origin of Continents 175 Weathering and Erosion 224
When Did Continents Form? 175 Mechanical Weathering 225
Partial Melting and the Origin of Granitic
Pressure-Release Fracturing 225
Continents 176

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 vii
Contents

Frost Wedging 225 Wetlands 271

Abrasion 226 Groundwater 273
Organic Activity 227 Porosity and Permeability 273
Thermal Expansion and Contraction 227 The Water Table and Aquifers 274
Chemical Weathering 228 Groundwater Movement 275
Dissolution 228 Hot Springs, Geysers, and Geothermal Energy 277
Hydrolysis 229
Oxidation 230
Chemical and Mechanical

Soil 232
Weathering Acting Together 230

Components of Soil 232

12
Soil Horizons 232
Soil Classification 233 WATER RESOURCES 281
Soil-Forming Factors 235
Introduction 282
Mass Wasting and Landslides 242
Water Supply and Demand 282
DIGGING DEEPER Soil Erosion and Human Domestic Water Use 282
Activities 242 Industrial Water Use 286
Types of Rapid Mass Wasting 243 Agricultural Water Use 286
Slide 246 Dams and Diversion 287
Fall 247 Surface Water Diversion 287
Predicting and Avoiding the Effects of Mass Groundwater Diversion 292
Wasting 247 Groundwater Depletion 293
Why Do Slides, Flows, and Falls Occur? 247 The Great American Desert 296
The Colorado River 297
Water and International Politics 297

11
DIGGING DEEPER The Los Angeles Water Project 298
Water Pollution 299
DIGGING DEEPER 
Love Canal 300

FRESHWATER 252 Types of Pollutants 300

How Sewage, Detergents, and Fertilizers Pollute
Introduction 253 Waterways 302
The Water Cycle 253 Toxic Pollutants, Risk Assessment, and Cost–Benefit
Streams 254 Analysis 302
Stream Flow and Velocity 254 Groundwater Pollution 303
Stream Erosion and Sediment Transport 256
Downcutting and Base Level 256 DIGGING DEEPER Yucca Mountain Controversy 304
Sinuosity of a Stream Channel 258 Treating a Contaminated Aquifer 306
Drainage Basins and Drainage Divides 261 Nuclear Waste Disposal 306
DIGGING DEEPER The Richest Hill on Earth and Location The Clean Water Act: A Modern Perspective 307
of the Idaho-Montana State Line 262
Stream Erosion and Mountains:

13
How Landscapes Evolve 263
Stream Deposition 263
Floods 265
Flood Control 266
Flood Control, the Mississippi River Delta, and
Hurricane Katrina 267
GLACIERS AND GLACIATIONS 309

Lakes 270 Introduction 310

The Life Cycle of a Lake 270 Formation of Glaciers 310
Nutrient Balance in Lakes 270 Alpine Glaciers 310
Temperature Layering and Turnover in Lakes 271 Continental Glaciers 311

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viii Contents

Mi
At

ss
ch

is
pp

afa

si
i
R. L. Ponchartrain

lay
a
New

R.
Orleans

Glacial Movement 311 Continental Shelf

The Mass Balance of a Glacier 313

Glacial Erosion 314 15 Mississippi
River
Delta

Erosional Landforms Created by Alpine Glaciers 315

Continental Shelf
Erosional Landforms Created by a Continental Mississippi

OCEAN BASINS
submarine
canyon
Glacier 318 351
Glacial Deposits 318 The Origin of Oceans 352
Landforms Composed of Till 318 The Earth’s Oceans 354
DIGGING DEEPER Glacial Erratics and Studying the Seafloor 355 Mississippi
submarine
Continental Slope
Canadian Diamonds 320 Sampling 355
fan

Landforms Consisting of Stratified Drift 323 Remote Sensing 355

The Pleistocene Glaciation 325 DIGGING DEEPER Invaluable sediment archives
Causes of the Pleistocene Glacial Cycles 325 recently recovered from the
Effects of Pleistocene Continental Glaciers 327 North deep ocean floor 356
Abyssal Plain
Sea Level Changes with Glaciation 327
Features of the Seafloor 360
Snowball Earth: The Greatest Glaciation in Earth’s
The Mid-Oceanic Ridge System 360
History 327
Global Sea-Level Changes and the Mid-Oceanic
The Earth’s Disappearing Glaciers 327 Ridge System 364
Oceanic Trenches and Island Arcs 365
Seamounts, Oceanic Islands, and Atolls 366

14
Sediment and Rocks of the Seafloor 369
Ocean-Floor Sediment 370
Continental Margins 372
Passive Continental Margins 372
DESERTS AND WIND 332
The Continental Shelf 372
Active Continental Margins 376
Introduction 333
Why Do Deserts Exist? 333
Latitude 333
Mountains: Rain-Shadow Deserts 334
Coastal and Interior Deserts 334 16
Water and Deserts 335
Desert Streams 335
Desert Lakes 335 OCEANS AND COASTLINES 379
Flash Floods 337 Introduction 380
Pediments and Bajadas 337 Geography of the Oceans 380
Two American Deserts 338 Seawater 381
The Colorado Plateau 338
Salts and Trace Elements 381
Death Valley and the Great Basin 340
Dissolved Gases 382
Wind 341 Temperature 383
Wind Erosion 341 Tides 384
Transport and Abrasion 341
Sea Waves 386
Dunes 341
Loess 344 Ocean Currents 386
Surface Currents 386
DIGGING DEEPER The North American “Dust Why Surface Currents Flow in the Oceans 389
Bowl” 346
Deep-Sea Currents 391
Desertification 348 Upwelling 392
The Seacoast 393
Weathering and Erosion on the Seacoast 393
Sediment Transport along Coastlines 393
Tidal Currents 396

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 ix
Contents

Emergent and Submergent Coastlines 396 The Radiation Balance 434

Factors That Cause Coastal Emergence and Energy Storage and Transfer: The Driving
Submergence 396 Mechanisms for Weather and Climate 437
Beaches 397 Heat and Temperature 437
Sandy Coastlines 398 Heat Transport by Conduction and Convection 438
Rocky Coastlines 400 Changes of State 439
Life in the Sea 403 Heat Storage 439
World Fisheries 403 Temperature Changes with
Reefs 405 Latitude and Season 440
Global Warming and Rising Sea Level 407 Temperature Changes with Latitude 440
DIGGING DEEPER Latitude and Longitude 440
The Seasons 441

17 Temperature Changes with Geography 443

Altitude 443
Ocean Effects 444
Wind Direction 445
THE ATMOSPHERE 410 Cloud Cover and Albedo 446

Introduction 411
Earth’s Early Atmospheres 411
The First Atmospheres: 4.6 to 4.0 Billion Years
Ago 411
When Life Began: 4.0 to 2.6 Billion Years Ago 412
19
Life, Iron, and the Evolution of the Modern
Atmosphere 413 MOISTURE, CLOUDS, AND WEATHER 449
Systems Interactions That Affected Oxygen Concen-
Moisture in Air 450
tration in Earth’s Early Atmosphere 414
Humidity 450
Evolution of the Modern Atmosphere 415
Supersaturation and Supercooling 451
The Modern Atmosphere 416
Cooling and Condensation 451
Atmospheric Pressure 417 Radiation Cooling 451
Atmospheric Temperature 418 Contact Cooling: Dew and Frost 451
Air Pollution 420 Cooling of Rising Air 451
Gases Released When Fossil Fuels Are Burned 421 Rising Air and Precipitation 453
Acid Rain 422 Orographic Lifting 453
Consequences of Acid Rain 422 Frontal Wedging 453
Smog and Ozone in the Troposphere 422 Convection–Convergence 453
Toxic Volatiles 424 Convective Processes and Clouds 453
Particulates and Aerosols 425 Types of Clouds 455
Depletion of the Ozone Layer 425 Fog 457
Pressure and Wind 458
Pressure Gradient 458

18
Coriolis Effect 458
Friction 459
Cyclones and Anticyclones 460
Pressure Changes and Weather 460

ENERGY BALANCE IN THE Fronts and Frontal Weather 461

Warm Fronts and Cold Fronts 462
ATMOSPHERE 430 Occluded Front 463
Stationary Front 465
Introduction 431
The Life Cycle of a Midlatitude Cyclone 465
Incoming Solar Radiation 431
How the Earth’s Surface Features Affect
Absorption and Emission 432
Weather 466
Reflection 433
Mountain Ranges and Rain-Shadow Deserts 466
Scattering 434
Forests and Weather 466

Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
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x Contents

Sea and Land Breezes 467 Carbon in the Hydrosphere 499

Monsoons 467 Carbon in the Crust and Upper Mantle 499
Thunderstorms 467 Tectonics and Climate Change 501
Lightning 468 Positions of the Continents 501
Tornadoes and Tropical Cyclones 469 Mountains and Climate 501
Tornadoes 469 Volcanoes and Climate 501
Tropical Cyclones 469 How Tectonics, Sea Level, Volcanoes, and Weathering
Hurricane Katrina 472 Interact to Regulate Climate 502
Scope of the Disaster 472 Greenhouse Effect: The Carbon Cycle and Global
Brief History of Gulf Hurricanes 472 Warming 503
El Niño 473 Consequences of Greenhouse Warming 505
Feedback and Threshold Mechanisms in Climate
Change 511
Albedo Effects 511

20 Imbalances in Rates of Plant Respiration and

Photosynthesis 511
Changes in Ocean Currents 511
Permafrost and Deep-Sea Methane Deposits 512
CLIMATE 477
Introduction 478
Global Winds and Climate 478
Climate Zones of Earth 480
Humid Tropical Climates: No Winter 481
22
Dry Climates: Evaporation Greater Than
Precipitation 484 MOTIONS IN THE HEAVENS 515
Humid Midlatitude Climates with Mild Winters 484
The Motions of the Heavenly Bodies 516
Humid Midlatitude Climate with Severe Winters 487
Polar Climate 487
Aristotle and the Earth-Centered
Universe 516
Urban Climates 488
The Renaissance and the Heliocentric Solar
System 518
Copernicus 519

21 Brahe and Kepler 519

Galileo 519
Isaac Newton and the Glue of the Universe 520
The Motions of the Earth and the Moon 521
CLIMATE CHANGE 492 Motion of the Moon 521
Eclipses of the Sun and the Moon 523
Introduction 493
Modern Astronomy 525
Climate Change in Earth’s History 493 Optical Telescopes 525
Measuring Climate Change 495 Telescopes Using Other Wavelengths 526
Historical Records 495 Emission and Absorption Spectra 526
Tree Rings 496 Doppler Measurements 527
Plant Pollen 496
Oxygen Isotope Ratios in Glacial Ice 496
Glacial Evidence 496
Plankton and Isotopes in Ocean Sediment 496
The Rock and Fossil Record 497
Astronomical Causes of Climate Change 497
23
Changes in Solar Radiation 497
Bolide Impacts 497 PLANETS AND THEIR MOONS 530
Water and Climate 498 The Solar System: A Brief Overview 531
The Natural Carbon Cycle and Climate 498 The Terrestrial Planets 534
Carbon in the Atmosphere 498
Carbon in the Biosphere 499

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 xi
Contents

Atmospheres and Climates of the Terrestrial Stars: The Main Sequence 565
Planets 535 The Life and Death of a Star 566
Geology and Tectonics of the Terrestrial Planets 538 Stars about the Same Mass as Our Sun 566
The Moon: Our Nearest Neighbor 541 Stars with a Large Mass 568
Formation of the Moon 542 First- and Second-Generation Stars 569
History of the Moon 542 Neutron Stars, Pulsars, and Black Holes 570
The Jovian Planets: Size, Compositions, and Neutron Stars and Pulsars 570
Atmospheres 544 Black Holes 572
Jupiter 544 Gamma Ray Bursts 573
Saturn 546 Galaxies 573
Uranus and Neptune 547 Galactic Motion 574
Moons of the Jovian Planets 547 The Milky Way 575
The Moons of Jupiter 547 The Nucleus of the Milky Way 575
Saturn’s Moons 549 Galactic Nebulae 575
The Moons of Uranus and Neptune 549
Quasars 576
Planetary Rings 550 Looking Backward into Time 577
Pluto and Other Dwarf Planets 551 Dark Matter 578
Asteroids, Comets, and Meteoroids 551 The End of the Universe 578
Asteroids 551
Why Are We So Lucky? 578
Comets 552
Meteoroids 554

APPENDICES

24 A: English-Metric Conversion Chart

B: Earth Science Mineral Identification
582
583

Glossary 585
STARS, SPACE, AND GALAXIES 557
Index 608
Introduction 558
In the Beginning: The Big Bang 558
The Nonhomogeneous Universe 560
The Birth of a Star 561
The Sun 563
The Sun’s Inner Structure 563
The Photosphere 564
The Sun’s Outer Layers 564

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PREFACE

From our very beginnings, humans have depended on the by tropical rainforests. Replacing the rain forests with palm
Earth for survival. The food we eat, air we breathe, and oil ­plantations requires leveling and plowing of the region.
water we drink all exist here and now, because Earth has Doing so causes a huge and rapid release of carbon dioxide as
undergone roughly 4.5 billion years’ worth of evolution. In the organic-rich rain forest floor is churned up and quickly
other words, Earth and the current environment is a product decays. Ironically, the increased use of palm oil as a fuel has
of continuous change that resulted—at this point in geologic accelerated the release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere
time—in a planet capable of supporting humans. and not decreased it, as intended.
If the entire history of Earth were compressed into a This book is intended to provide a foundational under-
single 24-hour period, all of human civilization would have standing of Earth and the physical, chemical, and biological
occurred within the very last second, as would have the processes that have shaped it and that continue to shape it
appearance of Earth’s earliest preserved human remains today. The entire 4.5-billion-year history of Earth and the
(Homo sapiens). From the standpoint of Earth history, big changes in the solid Earth, oceans, atmosphere, and biota
humans are very recent newcomers. The evolution of over geologic time are examined. Like all modern texts on
humans was made possible because Earth itself had evolved Earth Science, this book addresses processes that take place
to a point in which its temperature, atmospheric composi- over geologic time, including plate tectonics, planetary dif-
tion, surface water chemistry, and food sources were com- ferentiation, and the evolution of species. In addition, how-
patible with human survival needs. The continued survival ever, this text also examines the current and ongoing changes
of humans on Earth will depend on whether future changes in Earth’s systems taking place over historic time frames,
to the solid Earth, its water, atmosphere, and biology remain including ocean acidification, global climate change, and
within the range of human tolerance. the ongoing mass extinction of species. Thus, this book
Today, not only is the Earth and its water, air, and ecol- is intended to provide a reference frame for the rapid and
ogy changing rapidly but the changes that are taking place unpredictable environmental changes taking place today.
are moving our planet in a direction that is less likely to favor This book is the third edition of Earth (2011 and 2014).
the survival of humans as a species. Changes to our atmo- The first edition was written by Graham R. Thompson and
sphere, oceans, soils, and ecology are causing the most severe Jon Turk. Both the second edition and this book were sub-
rate of species extinction in 4.5 billion years of Earth’s his- stantially revised by Marc S. Hendrix.
tory, and we as humans are living in the midst of this global This book presents the planet Earth as an integrated system
species extinction event. Either we as humans will adapt to involving the solid Earth, water, the atmosphere, and living
these changing conditions by implementing sustainable uses organisms and their co-evolution over geologic time at a level
of Earth’s resources or Earth no longer will be able to support suitable for science or nonscience undergraduate students
human civilization as it exists currently. or advanced high-school students. Along with descriptions
Today, more rock and soil on Earth’s continents is moved of Earth’s internal and surficial geologic processes, this
annually by humans than is moved by natural erosion. This book examines Earth’s oceans, atmosphere, and life forms
fact alone has enormous downstream consequences for and the evolution of each through geologic time. The first
Earth’s future, because the landscapes and underlying sub- chapter introduces the four Earth Systems, and Chapters
surface geology originated over geologic time and the rate 2 and 3 focus on the materials of solid Earth—rocks and
of their human-caused change today far surpasses the time minerals. Geologic time, the evolution of life, and the processes
needed for them to redevelop. Moreover, as we will explore of fossilization are covered in Chapters 4 and 5. Following are
in this book, planet Earth consists of many interdependent, four chapters describing geological processes associated with
constantly changing natural systems. The dynamics of each Earth’s interior. These chapters expand on plate tectonics,
system directly or indirectly affects the others, and pertur- earthquakes, magmatic processes, and mountain building.
bation of one system often has unforeseen consequences Chapters 10, 13, and 14 describe surficial processes and how
for another. For example, the shift to biofuels and their these have shaped Earth’s natural landscapes.
increased consumption, particularly in the United States, Along with the focus on geologic time and Earth’s inter-
has supported the widespread development of palm oil nal and surficial processes, Earth Science: An Introduction
plantations in southeastern Asia, a region naturally covered focuses on Earth’s fresh water (Chapter 11) and oceans

xii

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 Acknowledgments xiii

(Chapters 15 and 16). Following are three chapters dedi- insights, and discussions helped to shape the contents
cated to understanding Earth’s atmosphere (Chapters 17 and of this book (knowingly or not) are Steve Graham, Don
19). Chapters 20 and 21 address Earth’s climate and climate Winston, James Sears, James Staub, Bill Woessner, Steve
change. The last three (Chapters 22–24) examine the moon, Sheriff, George Stanley, Andrew Wilcox, and Rebecca
planet, and solar system. Bendick. Special thanks must go to product manager Lauren
Each major topic in this book is viewed through the lens Bakker at Cengage Learning, who initiated this third edition,
of human impact, both in terms of how Earth’s evolution has and to our learning designer Lauren Oliveira and content
benefited human society and in terms of how human activ- manager Nicole Evans, who not only kept us on task but also
ity is altering Earth and its solid, liquid, gaseous, and living superbly edited and managed the content for this edition as
components. To these ends, one entire chapter is dedicated well as provided a fresh perspective on this edition. Thanks
to Earth’s mineral and energy resources (Chapter 5), and to senior designer Helen Bruno for the fresh design. I would
another is dedicated to Earth’s water resources (Chapter 12). also like to recognize marketing manager Andrew Stock and
Both chapters are presented against the complicated global market development manager Roxanne Wang.
sociopolitical backdrop surrounding the extraction, trans- I am deeply grateful for the support of my parents, Carol
port, and use of mineral, energy, and water resources. A and Sherman S. Hendrix, and my wife Brigette, without
whom the writing of this book would not have been possible.
I dedicate this book to our sons Gabriel and Michael
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Hendrix, whose natural curiosity and frequent requests for
explanations as to the book’s detailed contents both opened
This book results from over a decade of scientific work my eyes and kept me on my toes.
and writing by the three contributing authors, and it is not
possible to recognize all of the people, both scientists and Marc S. Hendrix
nonscientists, who have helped to make its publication
possible. Included among those whose scientific interactions, Missoula, Montana

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Visit https://testbankfan.com
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 1
jejim/ShutterStock.com

EARTH SYSTEMS
Central California coastline
showing elements of
the geosphere (sea
cliffs), atmosphere (sky),
hydrosphere (ocean), and
biosphere (vegetation).

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2 CHAPTER 1 Earth Systems

LEARNING basis, the geosphere is also moving and dynamic. Vast

masses of solid rock flow very slowly within the planet’s
OBJECTIVES interior. Continents move, while intervening ocean basins
slowly open, then collapse. Mountains rise and then erode
LO1 Describe Earth’s four spheres.
into sediment. Throughout this book, we will study many of
LO2 Explain the processes that heated up the early Earth.
these phenomena to learn which energy forces set matter in
LO3 Compare the layers of the Earth in terms of physical
motion and how these motions affect the planet on which
characteristics.
we live. ●FIGURE 1.1 shows schematically all the possible
LO4 Discuss the distribution of water in the
interactions among the spheres.
hydrosphere.
●FIGURE 1.2 shows that the geosphere is by far the largest
LO5 Explain how the Earth can be viewed as a system
of the four spheres. The Earth’s radius is about 6,400 kilo-
and a group of systems.
meters, roughly the same distance as Miami to Anchorage.
LO6 Compare geologic time to the timeframe of human
Despite this great size, nearly all of our direct contact with
history.
Earth occurs at or very near its surface. The deepest well pen-
LO7 Summarize James Hutton’s perspectives on geologic
etrates little more than 12 kilometers, less than two-tenths of
time.
1 percent of the distance to Earth’s center. The oceans make
LO8 Contrast William Whewell’s and James Hutton’s
up most of the hydrosphere, and although it can extend as
viewpoints of Earth history.
deep as 11 kilometers, the ocean floor averages only about 4
LO9 Give an example of a threshold effect and feedback
kilometers in depth. Most of Earth’s atmosphere lies within
mechanism.
30 kilometers of the surface, and the biosphere is a thin shell
LO10 
Discuss the effect humankind has had on the
about 15 kilometers thick.
biosphere.

The Geosphere
Our Solar System coalesced from a frigid cloud of dust
INTRODUCTION and gas rotating slowly in space. The Sun formed as grav-
ity pulled material toward the swirling center. At the same
Earth is sometimes called the water planet or the blue planet time, rotational forces spun material in the outer cloud into
because azure seas cover more than two-thirds of its sur- a thin disk. Eventually, small grains of matter within the
face. Earth is the only planet or moon in the Solar System in disk stuck together to form fist-sized masses. These plan-
which water falls from clouds as rain, runs across the land etary “seeds” then accreted to form rocky clumps, which
surface, and collects in extensive oceans. It is also the only grew to form larger bodies, called planetesimals, 100 to
body we know of that supports life. 1,000 kilometers in diameter. Finally, the planetesimals con-
solidated to form the planets. This process was completed
about 4.6 billion years ago.
THE EARTH’S FOUR SPHERES As the Earth coalesced, gravity caused the rocky chunks
and planetesimals to accelerate so that they slammed
Imagine walking along a sandy beach as a storm blows in together at high speeds. Particles heat up when they col-
from the sea. Wind whips the ocean into whitecaps, while lide, so the early Earth warmed as it formed. Later, aster-
large waves crash onto shore. Blowing sand stings your eyes as oids, ­c omets, and more planetesimals crashed into the
gulls overhead frantically beat their wings en route to finding surface, generating additional heat. At the same time, radio-
shelter. In minutes, blowing spray has soaked your clothes. A active decay heated the Earth’s interior. These three pro-
hard rain begins as you hurry back to your vehicle. During cesses caused the early Earth to become so hot that much of
this adventure, you have experienced the four major spheres the planet melted as it formed.
of Earth. The beach sand underfoot is the surface of the geo- Within the molten Earth, the denser materials sunk
sphere, or the solid Earth. The rain and sea are parts of the toward the center, while the less dense materials floated
hydrosphere, the watery part of our planet. The blowing wind toward the top, creating a layered structure. Today, the
belongs to the atmosphere. Finally, you, the gulls, the beach ­geosphere consists of three major layers: a dense metal-
grasses, and all other forms of life in the sea, on land, and in lic core, a less dense rocky mantle, and an even less dense
the air are parts of the biosphere, the realm of organisms. ­surface crust (Figure 1.2).
You can readily observe that the atmosphere is in The temperature of modern Earth increases with depth.
motion, because clouds drift across the sky and wind blows At its center, Earth is 6,000°C—as hot as the Sun’s surface.
against your face. In the biosphere, animals—and to a lesser The core is composed mainly of iron and nickel. The outer
extent plants—also move. Flowing streams, crashing waves, core is molten metal. However, the inner core, although
and falling rain are all familiar examples of motion in the ­hotter yet, is solid because the great pressure compresses the
hydrosphere. Although it is less apparent on a day-to-day metal to a solid state.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 The Earth’s Four Spheres 3

Atmosphere

Copyright and Photograph

by Dr. Parvinder S. Sethi
Evaporation, condensation, and Plant, animal, and human
precipitation transfer water between activity affect composition
atmosphere and hydrosphere, of atmospheric gases.
influencing weather and climate
and distribution of water. Atmospheric temperature and
precipitation help to determine
Water helps determine Atmospheric gases and distribution of Earth’s biota.
abundance, diversity, and precipitation contribute
distribution of organisms. to weathering of rocks.
Hydrosphere Biosphere
Copyright and Photograph
by Dr. Parvinder S. Sethi

Copyright and Photograph

by Dr. Parvinder S. Sethi

Copyright and Photographs by Dr. Parvinder S. Sethi; Hydrosphere: Reniw-Imagery/Istockphoto.com Blue Background: © Bill Noll/Istockphoto.com
• Heat reflected from land • Plants absorb and
surface affects temperature transpire water.
of atmosphere. • Water is used by people
• Distribution of mountains for domestic, agricultural,
Plate movement affects size, affects weather patterns. and industrial uses. Organisms break
shape, and distribution of down rock into soil.
ocean basins.
• Humans alter the landscape.
Running water and glaciers Lithosphere • Plate movement affects

Copyright and Photograph

by Dr. Parvinder S. Sethi
erode rock and sculpt (plates) evolution and distribution of
landscapes. Earth’s biota.

Convection cells within Lithosphere is

mantle contribute to recycled into
movement of plates. the mantle.
Plate

Mantle

Supplies heat
for convection
in mantle

Core

●●FIGURE 1.1 All of Earth’s cycles and spheres are interconnected.

geosphere The solid Earth, consisting of the entire planet from core The dense, metallic, innermost region of Earth’s
the center of the core to the outer crust. geosphere, consisting mainly of iron and nickel. The outer core
hydrosphere All of Earth’s water, which circulates among is molten, but the inner core is solid.
oceans, continents, glaciers, and atmosphere. mantle The rocky, mostly solid layer of Earth’s geosphere lying
atmosphere The gaseous layer above the Earth’s surface, beneath the crust and above the core. The mantle extends from
mostly nitrogen and oxygen, with smaller amounts of argon, the base of the crust to a depth of about 2,900 kilometers.
carbon dioxide, and other gases. The atmosphere is held to crust The outermost layer of Earth’s geosphere, ranging from
Earth by gravity and thins rapidly with altitude. 4 to 75 kilometers thick and composed of relative low-density
biosphere The zone of Earth comprising all forms of life in the silicate rocks.
sea, on land, and in the air.

Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
4 CHAPTER 1 Earth Systems

BIOSPHERE
All life is concentrated
at or within a few
kilometers of the surface.

30 km ATMOSPHERE
99% of atmosphere
lies within 30 km
of surface. Water
vapor and droplets
reside in the
atmosphere.
Atmosphere
Crust

Mantle

BIOSPHERE

Hydrosphere

HYDROSPHERE
Outer 6,370 km The ocean extends
core to more than
11 km 11 km in depth.
All freshwater
GEOSPHERE and some ice
The geosphere is by far exist on land.
Inner
core the largest of the four
spheres, extending 6,370 km
from the surface to the center GEOSPHERE
of the Earth. It is divided into
three major layers: the crust,
mantle, and core.

●●FIGURE 1.2 The geosphere is the largest component of Earth. It is surrounded by the hydrosphere, the biosphere, and
the atmosphere.

The mantle surrounds the core and lies beneath the The crust is the outermost layer of rock extending from
crust. The physical characteristics of the mantle vary with the ground surface or bottom of the ocean to the top of the
depth. From its upper surface to a depth of about 100 mantle. The crust ranges from as little as 4 kilometers thick
­kilometers, the outermost mantle is relatively cool, strong, beneath the oceans to as much as 75 kilometers thick beneath
and hard. However, below a depth of 100 kilometers, rock the continents. Even a casual observer sees that the crust
making up the mantle is so hot that it is weak, soft, plastic includes many different rock types: some are soft, others hard,
(a solid that will deform permanently), and flows slowly— and they come in many colors, as you can see in ●FIGURE 1.3.
like cold honey. Even deeper in the mantle, pressure over- The relatively cool, hard, and strong rock of the
whelms temperature, and the rock becomes strong again. ­uppermost mantle is similar to that of the crust. Together

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 The Earth’s Four Spheres 5

(A)

Copyright and Photograph by Dr. Parvinder S. Sethi

●●FIGURE 1.3 Earth’s crust is made up of different kinds
Courtesy of Graham R. Thompson/Jonathan Turk

of rock (A) A grand view of the sandstones, siltstones,

limestones, and mudstones of the Grand Canyon, as seen
from the South Rim. Horizontal layers of sediment were
deposited, then buried and hardened to form sedimentary
rock. Hundreds of millions of years later, the layers of
sedimentary rock were uplifted while the Colorado River
eroded downward through them, exposing the view we see
today. Note people for scale. (B) The granite of Baffin Island
(B) in the Canadian Arctic is gray, hard, and strong.

these layers make up the lithosphere, which averages about ranges, as well as many other processes and events that have
100 ­kilometers thick. created our modern Earth and its environment.
According to the theory of plate tectonics, developed in Scientific awareness, much less scientific understanding,
the 1960s, the lithosphere is divided into seven major and of plate tectonics did not occur until after World War II and it
eight smaller segments called tectonic plates. These tectonic was not widely accepted among scientists until the late 1960s.
plates float on the relatively hot, weak, plastic mantle rock Since then, advances in modern technology have accelerated,
beneath and move horizontally with respect to each other and so have the tools available for scientists to probe Earth’s
(●FIGURE 1.4). For example, North and South America are interior and study its dynamics. Similarly, a­ ccelerating com-
currently moving west relative to Eurasia and Africa about as putational capacity and new tools are constantly being devel-
fast as your fingernails grow. These continental movements oped and deployed to explore Earth’s oceans and atmosphere.
are causing the Atlantic Ocean to grow larger and the Pacific In aggregate, these new tools have generated immense vol-
Ocean to shrink. In a few hundred million years—almost ume of new data available for scientific exploration of Earth’s
incomprehensibly long on a human time scale but brief systems. Electronic accessibility to peer-reviewed scientific
when compared with planetary history—Asia and North publications describing the results and analysis of that scien-
America may collide, completely collapsing the Pacific tific exploration broadens the global community of scientists
Ocean and crumpling the leading edges of the continents and educated nonscientists alike. All in all, it is a marvelous
together into a giant mountain range. In later chapters, we time to study Earth S­ ciences. Earth is dynamic, and we are
will learn how the theory of plate tectonics explains earth- just beginning to appreciate how much so that is.
quakes, volcanic eruptions, and the formation of mountain
The Hydrosphere
lithosphere The cool, rigid, outer part of Earth, which includes
The hydrosphere includes all of Earth’s water, which
the crust and the uppermost mantle, is about 100 kilometers ­circulates among oceans, continents, glaciers, and the atmo-
thick and makes up Earth’s tectonic plates. sphere. ●FIGURE 1.5 shows the proportion of water in each
tectonic plates The segments of Earth’s outermost, cool, rigid of these areas. Oceans cover 71 percent of Earth and con-
shell, comprising the lithosphere. Tectonic plates float on the tain 97.5 percent of its water. Ocean currents transport heat
weak, plastic rock of the asthenosphere beneath. across vast distances, altering global climate.

Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Random documents with unrelated
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"Stop! Enough!" yelled the King, hurling the crown with all his might
at Pinny Penny. "When will you stop this infernal lecturing and
scolding?"

"When your Majesty stops talking nonsense," sighed Pinny, catching

the crown with one hand and pulling a long bell cord with the other.
"Come now, let us have our tea and forget about Oz," he proposed
calmly. "Lemon or cream, your Highness?"
"Lemon!" growled the King sourly, and slapping open the book of
history on his knees, he stared long and enviously at a picture of the
Emerald City of Oz.
 CHAPTER 2
The King and the Merchant

Two days had passed since Skamperoo had come into possession of
the emerald necklace. He had never taken it off for a moment. He
even wore it to bed, and spent most of the daytime admiring himself
and it in the palace mirrors. Now, as the afternoon of the second
day drew to a close, he kept bouncing over to the windows that
commanded a view of the Highway.
"If that rascal does not turn up soon, I'll—I'll—"
"Explode, probably," predicted Pinny Penny, who was playing
solitaire with the only pack of cards the castle afforded. "Calm
yourself, Skamper, what good are these emeralds when you come
right down to it?"
"Good? Good? They are worth more than this whole miserable
castle," answered the King indignantly. "I can sell them and buy—no,
no, I'll never part with them," he corrected himself hastily. "They
give me a feeling of importance and power. Our star has risen, Pinny
Penny. Great days are ahead. Hark! Listen! Is that a footstep in the
courtyard?" Darting back to the window, the portly monarch
flattened his nose against the pane. "It's Twoby! It's Twobyfour!" he
shouted hopping up and down like a school boy. "And there's a tall
bearded stranger with him."
"If your Majesty will quietly seat yourself, I'll endeavor to announce
them," reproved Pinny Penny, gathering up his cards. "Remember
you are a King and not a jumping jack."
"Oh—all right." Skamperoo flung himself heavily down among his
cushions and presently the tramp of feet along the corridor
proclaimed the arrival of the long awaited Supervisor. Pinny Penny
advanced stiffly to meet him and after a whispered conversation he
called out in a bored voice:
"Twobyfour, Governor of our Second Province, and Matiah, the
Merchant, your Majesty!"
"Yes! Yes? But where are the emeralds?" panted Skamperoo, leaning
forward eagerly as the two travelers advanced respectfully to the
throne.
Drawing a small bag from his leather jerkin, Twobyfour held it
sullenly out to the King.
"Here, your Majesty, and here also is the merchant who goes with
the necklace." Twobyfour haughtily indicated the turbaned
Skampavian beside him.
"Yes! Yes, the merchant." The King, intent upon the jewels, did not
even look up. "He goes with the necklaces, you say? Well, ha! ha!
now he may go without them. That is all I require of you, my good
fellow, your presence here is not necessary or desirable. You may
go. GO, do you understand?"
"Go?" Matiah drew himself up to his fullest height, which was pretty
high, I can tell you. "Perhaps your Majesty will suggest where? For
these three necklaces I traded my house, my shops, and all my
other possessions. You say that is all, and it is indeed. Since you
have taken all I own and possess, your Majesty must take me also.
You owe me a living and I am here to say so."
"Say no more," put in Pinny Penny soothingly.
"Matiah is right, Skamperoo, and well within his rights as well. We
must make a place for him in the palace. What can you do?" he
inquired practically.
"Do?" The merchant opened his eyes very wide. "Do? I am a
merchant accustomed to dealing in jewels, china, cloth, and basket
wear."
"Then you'll be the very one to help out in the kitchen and laundry,"
proposed Pinny Penny brightly. "There are no jewels, but we have
onions and potatoes a-plenty, and with the dirty dishes and hampers
of soiled linens you will be right at home."
"What?" screamed Matiah, as Twobyfour snickered behind his hand.
"You require this mean-ial toil of me—Matiah, son of Metorah, son of
Metanic—merchants for these thousands of years? This is
preposterous! An outrage! I will go! I will go indeed. I will start a
war, an uprising—a revolution! Help! help! help!" yelled the merchant
shrilly. "The King has stolen my emeralds."
"Stop! Stop! Not so loud," begged Skamperoo, leaping agilely off his
throne and pattering anxiously after Matiah. "You may leave us,
Pinny Penny, I think I can find something better than kitchen work
for this honest citizen."
"Humph!" snorted Pinny Penny, and motioning for Twobyfour to
follow him he marched disapprovingly from the royal presence.
"You mustn't mind old Pinny," puffed the King, dropping a bit
breathlessly on his throne. "There, there, now, sit down and make
yourself comfortable. As I was saying, Pinny Penny has very odd
notions at times."
"Very odd," agreed Matiah, and seating himself on a chair opposite
the King, he fastened his eyes greedily on the sparkling chains now
clasped firmly about the monarch's fat throat.
"Now, then, we must find something easy and pleasant for you,"
went on the King, scratching one ear reflectively. "You might, er—
you might spend your time entertaining me. I'll wager you are just
full of good stories, songs, and amusing tricks?"
"Tricks?" exclaimed the merchant, elevating his nose disdainfully.
Then a sudden gleam came into his small black eyes. "Tricks!" he
repeated more pleasantly. "Ah, your Majesty is right. How well you
have guessed my secret." Leaning forward, he held his hand up to
his mouth and looking furtively over his shoulder, whispered
hoarsely. "I am a magician, King, and well versed in the arts of
sorcery."
"Sorcery!" cried Skamperoo, clasping himself delightedly about his
middle. "How perfectly panormick! Magic is the very thing we need
around here. Tell me quickly, what can you do? How much magic do
you know?"
"Is there some place where we can be quite alone?" Matiah held up
his hand mysteriously. "No one must know I am a magician—it must
be a secret between us."

"Of course! Of course!" agreed the King, rolling off his throne with
more speed than dignity. "Come to my private walled garden. No
one can hear us there."
"No one?" asked Matiah sharply. "Are there then no guards upon the
wall?"
"No guards—no servants—no one at all is allowed in my garden,"
the King assured him proudly.
"And is there a door in the garden's wall?" Matiah stroking his long
beard stood regarding the King thoughtfully. "My first trick requires a
door."
"Of course there's a door, or how should I get out and in myself?
Come along, come along!" Waddling into the corridor, Skamperoo
started off at a quick trot for his private garden. Matiah, grinning
wickedly to himself, stepped softly after the King. Once in the
garden, he meant to have his necklaces, even if he had to take off
the King's head to get them.
"One sweep of my scimiter," murmured the merchant to himself.
"Ho, ho! This is too easy!" The King's garden when they reached it
was no more than a small sandy square with some cactus plants in
the center and a rickety bench against the wall. Seating himself
heavily on the bench, Skamperoo made room for the merchant
beside him.
"Now, then," he grunted hurriedly. "Begin. Show me what you can
do. Prove that you are a magician."
"First I must have the necklaces," stated Matiah calmly. "Without the
emeralds I cannot do a single trick."
"But—but—if the magic is in the emeralds, I can be my own
magician," answered Skamperoo, clutching the chains with both
hands.
"But your Majesty is not a magician," Matiah told him reasonably.
"You do not know the proper words or incantations. No, I myself
must wear these magic jewels. And what harm is there in that? As
soon as your wish is granted I will hand them straight back to you."
"What's that? Can you really grant wishes?" Skamperoo's eyes began
to snap and dance with greed and interest.
"Certainly," promised Matiah, blinking shrewdly across the square
and estimating with his eye the distance he should have to run to
reach the door in the garden wall. "All you have to do is to think of
something you want, close your eyes, count slowly to a hundred,
and I, wearing the three necklaces, will easily grant your wish. I
thought you trusted me and that we were going to be friends," he
finished reproachfully.
"We were—er—that is—HERE, take them!" Unclasping the heavy
chains, Skamperoo, who already had a wish in mind, thrust them
into the merchant's hands. Closing his eyes, he made his wish and
then began to count hysterically, "One—two—three—four—five—
six." At six, Matiah was half way across the garden, when horrors! A
great white horse with a golden tail and mane dropped like a
plummet from the sky. Pawing up the sand in Matiah's path, he
flashed his yellow eyes so wickedly, the merchant fell back into the
cactus bushes, where he lay screaming with shock, pain and
amazement. But Skamperoo, thinking all the noises he heard were
but magic incantations, went calmly on with his counting. He had
reached sixty before Matiah had recovered himself enough to crawl
out of the cactus and make his way cautiously back to the bench.
The immense white horse continued to stare at him threateningly,
but as it made no attempt to spring forward he began to regain a
little of his usual assurance and courage.
"Great Garoo! Then there was magic in the emeralds. This horse was
undoubtedly the King's wish come true, a beastly wish!" shuddered
the merchant as he stared in fascination at the pawing monster and
wondered what to do next. He was afraid to run past the white
horse and escape with the jewels, but HAH! he could make a wish
for himself, a wish that would carry him and the emeralds far from
Skampavia, the farther the better. Closing his eyes, he muttered a
hurried sentence and waited tensely to be transported to Ev, a
country he had once visited in his youth. But nothing at all
happened, and gritting his teeth with vexation, Matiah opened his
eyes just as Skamperoo finished counting a hundred.
"So!" beamed the delighted monarch, embracing him heartily. "You
have done it. You really are a magician. Behold my horse, a horse in
a thousand. A golden maned charger fit for a King, for a Conqueror
—"
"Of all the dumb things," fumed Matiah, wriggling fiercely away from
Skamperoo, "of all the dumb things to wish for, a horse is about the
dumbest of all!"
"Dumb?" whinnied the white steed with an indignant snort.

"I'm not a dumb beast, I can laugh, I can talk,

That's becoz I'm from Oz and my full name is Chalk."

"Cha—lk?" quavered Skamperoo, who had never heard an animal

speak a word in his life. "He—he says his name's Chalk." The King
looked appealingly at the merchant and seeing he would have to live
up to the role of magician, Matiah assumed an air of careless
superiority.
"Well, he doubtless knows his own name, your Majesty. If he says
his name is Chalk it probably is Chalk, and the reason he can talk is
because he comes from Oz, land of the magic necklaces, where all
animals speak as well as we do."
"Better," sniffed Chalk. Then, taking an experimental nibble at the
cactus, he gave a terrific squeal of pain and displeasure—flung up
his heels and began to race around the garden at such a furious
pace, Matiah and the King jumped behind the bench and cowered
miserably against the wall.
"Well, there you are!" panted the merchant angrily. "You have your
horse and what now? He's yours, you know, and you'll have to
control him." Matiah ducked behind the King as Chalk thundered
past, covering them both with dust and sand. "If you ask me, you
simply wasted a wish. Why, you might have wished yourself a ton of
emeralds—or a Kingdom ten times as large and prosperous as
Skampavia—or—"
"But there's plenty of time for that," sputtered Skamperoo, holding
desperately to the bench, "since you are a magician you can grant
all of my wishes."
"Oh, no, NO indeed!" Matiah spoke hastily, remembering the way the
emeralds had failed to grant his wish. "I can grant only one wish a
week," he explained breathlessly, "and I trust next time you will
think before you wish. Whoa, there, you Ozian brute! You silly
monster. Stop that! Whoa! Ho! Whoa, I tell you!"
"Are you my master?" Leaping lightly over the cactus, Chalk came to
a sudden halt before the bench.
"No, this King is your master," answered Matiah thankfully enough.
"Speak to him, Skamper," he urged in a lower voice as Chalk reared
curiously up on his hind legs to have a good look at the King.
"Be—behave yourself," commanded Skamperoo tearfully. "How do
you expect me to ride on your back if you act like this?"
"Ah—so you expect to ride me?" Chalk came down with a thud and
grinned broadly at his new master. If you have never seen a horse
grin, you have no idea how upsetting it can be. "Well, I suppose I
shall have to put up with you," he neighed finally. "Just call a groom
or a servant, old Rub-atub, and see that I'm served my evening oats,
three apples, and a measure of corn."

"Certainly, certainly," agreed the King, starting off on trembling legs.

"Well, I must say this is splendid, splendid!" protested Matiah,
hurrying nervously after the King. (He was afraid to stay in the
garden with Chalk.) "Where do you expect to get, taking orders from
a horse?"
"I suppose you'd prefer me to take them from you!" puffed
Skamperoo, beginning to grow a little angry himself. "Here, GIVE me
my necklaces." Snatching the emeralds from the merchant's neck, he
went charging into the palace hardly knowing whether to be glad or
sorry for the sudden change in his fortunes.
But by the time he reached his throne room, he had calmed down
considerably. Seating himself hurriedly on his throne, he pondered
how he could keep all these strange occurrences from Pinny Penny.
He felt sure Pinny Penny would never approve of magic necklaces or
a talking horse. Well now, he'd just tell his meddlesome Prime
Minister that the stamping, snorting steed in the garden belonged to
Matiah and must be fed and stabled. When he made another wish—
and he had a whole week to think about that—when he made
another wish he would be careful to wish for everything he needed.
As for this whiskery wizard—he would flatter him along until he
discovered the right magic to use with the emeralds. Then he would
wish him away like that. Like THAT! Snapping his fingers spitefully,
Skamperoo pulled the long bell cord that summoned Pinny Penny.
His Royal Charger should be fed. Not many monarchs had a talking
horse with a golden mane. Aho, but he was coming on! He'd show
Pinny Penny yet what a smart ruler he was!
Now Matiah, following the King slowly into the palace, had done
some reflecting, too. He resolved not to lose his temper again with
this provoking simpleton of a sovereign. He would simply humor him
along and before the week was out he would have another chance
to steal the necklaces and escape to some far country. There at his
leisure he would experiment until he discovered the right way to use
them. He could not understand why the King had got his wish and
his own wish had gone for nothing. What was the secret of the
magic emeralds? With his forehead still wrinkled in thought, Matiah
entered the throne room and quietly seated himself in a chair
opposite Skamperoo. Much to his relief, the King neither reproached
nor upbraided him.
"Ah, so there you are?" he cried in his best meant-to-be-cheerful
voice. "I have just sent Pinny Penny to feed your horse."
"My horse?" barked Matiah, starting up in dismay, then catching a
meaning wink from the King, he quickly winked back.
"It seemed wisest," murmured Skamperoo, "to say nothing of your
magic powers for the present. All this will be OUR secret," he
finished playfully.

"Oh, yes, yes—indubitably!" While Skamperoo was still wondering

what "indubitably" meant, Matiah hurried out of the room and took a
long drink of water from the old-fashioned fountain in the hall.
"OUR secret!" he repeated bitterly to himself. "Our secret, indeed!"
 CHAPTER 3
More About the Emeralds

Skamperoo had not slept a wink. He tossed from side to side of the
royal bed, his head simply buzzing with enchanting plans for the
future. With the magic emeralds he could have everything he
desired, and his desires and wishes were multiplying so rapidly he
scarcely knew where to begin or what to wish first. The necklaces
pressed uncomfortably against his throat, but he would not take
them off. He was so weary he ached in every bone, but still he could
not stop thinking, and just as the castle clock tolled seven the very
thing he should wish for first came suddenly to him.
Ah, that was it—too bad he had to wait a whole week, but a week
would pass and perhaps during that time he would discover for
himself the magic secret of his sparkling new treasures. Then he
could be his own magician and put that meddlesome merchant in his
place. As he was running over in his mind possible places to send
Matiah, the door of his room opened cautiously and Pinny Penny
stuck in his head.
"Well! Well? And did I ring?" grunted Skamperoo fretfully. "This is a
fine time to awaken an Emperor."
"Emperor?" exclaimed Pinny Penny, coming all the way into the room
and closing the door. "Since when has Skampavia's King become an
Emperor?"
"Oh, go away and don't bother me." Turning his back on Pinny
Penny, the King thumped his pillow and closed his eyes as tightly as
he could.
"It's all about the horse," whispered Pinny Penny, coming around to
the other side of the bed. "A strange and magnificent animal for a
mere merchant, if I may be permitted to say so. Not only that—it
TALKS. It's ordering the stable boys around in a shocking manner
and it even told ME to mind my own business."
"Well, why don't you?" suggested Skamperoo, rolling over on his
back. "Of course he talks, Pinny; he's an Oz horse, and all animals
from Oz talk. I thought you knew that."
"Well, if this merchant has a talking horse, he is not so poor as he
pretends," persisted Pinny Penny, shaking his finger under the King's
nose. "My advice is to set the fellow on his horse and send him
about his business as quickly as possible. I don't like his looks,
Skamper. He's mean and mischievous, and mark my words, no good
will come of him or his necklaces."
"I don't like his looks any better than you," agreed the King, clasping
his fat hands on his stomach. "But if I keep the emeralds I must
keep the merchant, and besides I've a notion I could ride that
talking horse myself."
"Oh, good goats and gravy! Then I'd best go and lay in a supply of
splints and liniment." Pushing his specs up on his forehead, Pinny
Penny cast a disgusted glance at his huge reclining master and
rushed hurriedly from the royal presence.
Now Matiah, as you can well imagine, had slept no better than the
King. In the small room to which Pinny Penny had taken him, he
paced restlessly up and down. After all, he knew only two facts
about the magic emeralds, the first that they really could, under
certain conditions, grant wishes; the second, that they must not be
worn by the person making the wish. This much the merchant had
reasoned out for himself. As the King had got his wish while he,
Matiah, was wearing the necklaces, and he himself had not got the
wish he made with the emeralds around his own throat, that much
seemed certain. Snapping his fingers joyfully and feeling sure the
King was now wearing the jeweled chains, Matiah made a second
wish, counting slowly to a hundred. But the hearty supper he had
ordered as a test failed to appear and flinging himself down on the
bed he began to rack his brains for some other solution of the
mystery. Perhaps the magic power rested in a single stone which he
had luckily touched as the King made his wish.
Holding his head with both hands, he tried to remember exactly
what he had done as Skamperoo began to count. But it was no use.
He could not recall a single thing after he had started to run across
the garden. And how, concluded the infuriated fellow, was he ever to
discover the way to use the emeralds without arousing the King's
suspicions or revealing the fact that he knew no more about them
than Skamperoo himself? Muttering with vexation, he kicked a foot
stool all the way across the room and sat staring morosely at the
worn carpet. The short, uneasy nap he finally got before morning
did him no good, and cross and jumpy as a cougar, he made his way
to the dingy dining hall of the palace.

The King had already breakfasted, and looking out of the window,
Matiah saw a terrified servant leading the Talking Horse around the
courtyard, Skamperoo following at a safe distance. The sight of the
stamping white charger made Matiah shudder anew. What a waste!
he reflected bitterly, and if the King grew fond of the saucy monster
it would make his own task even more difficult, for until he
succeeded in stealing the necklaces, Matiah did not intend to let
Skamperoo out of his sight. Gulping down the weak coffee and cold
eggs a shabby servant grudgingly placed before him, he hastened
outside.
"Good morning, your Majesty!" he called out heartily. "And may I
have a word with your Royal Highness?"
"What kind of a word?" snickered Chalk, rolling his yellow eyes
roguishly round at the merchant. "Give him a word, old Rub-atub, if
that's all he wants. The right word for him, I should say, would be
'GO!' or 'NO!' and then we all could be happy."
"It is about the necklaces," confided Matiah, ignoring the horse
utterly, and falling easily into step with the King. "They must be
cleaned every day to keep them in good wishing condition."
"But I was just going for a ride," objected Skamperoo with a little
frown, "won't this afternoon do?"
"No, NOW is the proper time," answered Matiah impressively,
thinking how clever he was to have invented this ruse to get hold of
the emeralds. "If your Majesty will just give them to me, I'll polish
them up while you are—er—exercising."
"No—no—er—that is, I'd better come and help you," Skamperoo
spoke quickly. "I can ride this afternoon."
"You think so?" With an exuberant prance, Chalk rose on his hind
legs and spun around like a pinwheel. "Well, see you later, old Sos!"
And with the terrified stable boy hanging to his bridle he went
galloping off to the stable.
"If you take my advice, you'll have that creature knocked on the
head," said Matiah savagely. "Surely you won't endanger our lives by
riding on his back?"

"OUR lives!" exclaimed Skamperoo, looking at Matiah in surprise.

"You do not have to ride him; in fact, he's really my horse," he
stated jealously.
"So long as your Majesty wears the magic necklaces I must go
wherever you go and do whatever you do!" explained the merchant
loftily.
"How—how very awkward!" In spite of himself, Skamperoo groaned
as he thought how tiresome it would be with Matiah trailing after
him from morning till night. "I should think a magician like yourself
could arrange things more sensibly."
"But consider what is at stake," Matiah reminded him earnestly.
"Together we can have and do anything we wish. Is that not worth a
little inconvenience?"
"Yes, yes, I suppose so. But if we are to do everything together, I
think I should know the magic wishing formula as well as you."
Skamperoo looked defiantly up at his newest advisor.
"That is impossible." Striding along stiffly, Matiah shook his head.
"The incantation once revealed becomes powerless. Only one versed
in magic is permitted to use the emeralds. Have you thought at all
about your next wish?" he asked, anxious to direct the King's mind
into more cheerful channels. "We should plan and consult about it
together, you know. But wait until we are in your Majesty's throne
room," He added quickly, as Skamperoo began to open and shut his
mouth like a fish without saying anything. "While I am cleaning the
necklaces we can talk it over, yes?" Matiah's fingers fairly itched for
the sparkling jewels, but restraining a mad impulse to snatch them
from the King's throat, he walked along quietly beside Skamperoo
talking so calmly and convincingly that he soon had the Skampavian
monarch not only willing but anxious to reveal the wish that had
kept him awake most of the night.
First assuring himself that they were alone and locking the door so
they would not be disturbed, the King seated himself at a small
table. Matiah drew up a chair opposite and held out his hand for the
necklaces. Reluctantly Skamperoo handed them over, keeping a
jealous eye on the jewels as the merchant began polishing them
with a small square of silk he had taken from his pocket.
As he rubbed the silk over the emeralds, Matiah carefully examined
each one for some mark or sign that would give him a clue to their
magic power. Intent as he was upon this task, a few low spoken
words of Skamperoo made him sit suddenly erect and regard the
King with new respect and attention. How in thunderation, thought
Matiah wonderingly, had this fat silly monarch ever managed to hit
upon such a magnificent and breath-taking wish, and as Skamperoo
explained and elaborated upon his plans and schemes for the future,
the merchant's interest grew apace. Quicker and cleverer than the
King, he saw not only the possibilities of this splendid wish, but all
the difficulties and problems that must be met and disposed of
before it could be reasonably granted.
Leaning forward, the emeralds for the moment forgotten, he put his
mouth close to Skamperoo's ear. "There are three things that must
be done before your wish can be realized." Matiah spoke tensely.
"First, ... second, ... third, ...." After each short whispered direction
Skamperoo nodded to show that he understood.
"Then it will take four wishes to do it," he sighed, resting his elbows
heavily on the table. "That will be four weeks, won't it?"

"No, perhaps if we are careful we can work it all into one," answered
Matiah thoughtfully, and taking up his bit of silk he began polishing
the emeralds with renewed vigor. The King, watching him, forgot his
former dislike and distrust. Matiah's enthusiastic approval of his
plans made him feel that perhaps he had misjudged this long-faced,
whiskered stranger. Perhaps he would not wish him away, after all.
He might prove very useful in the strange and magnificent future
that stretched ahead.
Matiah, on his part, had no such kindly intentions toward the King.
He merely meant to make Skamperoo's wish his own, and so grand
and daring was the prospect that he grew more impatient than ever
to discover the way to accomplish it. Holding all three necklaces up
to the light, he squinted at them anxiously. The chains seemed
identical in every respect, but no—what was this? One had a
diamond clasp, while the clasps on the other two were of flattened
emeralds. This, then, was the solution. The magic wishing power
undoubtedly rested in the diamond clasp. Revealing in no way his
satisfaction and elation over this important discovery, Matiah handed
the necklaces back to the King.
Somehow, decided the merchant, he must make Skamperoo touch
the diamond clasp while he silently repeated the King's wish, but
before that he needed a little time to prepare himself for the grand
and glorious years that were to be his. As Skamperoo, exhausted by
so much thinking early in the morning, waddled wearily over to his
throne, Matiah strode to the book shelves located in an adjoining
alcove.
"While your Majesty rests I will have a look at this interesting
library," he murmured ingratiatingly, "and at the same time store up
some useful information for the future." Skamperoo sleepily returned
the merchant's broad wink, then, sinking back among his cushions,
closed his eyes.
From his chair in the alcove, Matiah could keep the King in view, and
satisfied that Skamperoo was really asleep, he began hurriedly
turning over the pages of the large volume Pinny Penny had but that
morning returned to the shelves. Soon he became so absorbed he
forgot all about the King. And that was a pity, for had he taken the
trouble to look, he would have discovered that the King was no
longer there.
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