MODULE – 4

ENGINEERING MATERIALS &

JOINING PROCESSES

1. Define Engineering Material. Briefly explain the classifications of ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
Explain the different types of Ferrous materials and Nonferrous materials with applications.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS:
- Engineers and technologists uses different materials for design and manufacturing
- An engineer need materials to give shape for his concepts and design

METALS

FERROUS METALS NON - FERROUS METALS

Ferrous Metals:
- These are pure iron or alloys which contains iron as their primary element.
- It has magnetic properties
- High strength and hardness due to the iron content

Classification:
Ferrous Metals are classified as:
1. Pig Iron
2. Cast Iron
i) Gray Cast Iron ii) White Cast Iron iii) Malleable Cast Iron iv) Alloy Cast Iron
3. Wrought Iron
 4. Steels
i) Carbon Steel [Low Carbon Steel, Medium Carbon Steel, High Carbon Steel, Tool Carbon Steel]
ii) Alloy Steel [Stainless Steel, Magnetic Steel, Heat Resistant Steel, High Speed Steel]

Non-Ferrous Metals:
- Non-Ferrous metals include every metal and alloy which do not contain iron
- Low Strength, Low Melting Point, Higher Shrinkage Property

Classification:
Non-Ferrous Metals are classified as:
1. Metals
i) Aluminium ii) Copper iii) Tin iv) Zinc
2. Alloys
i) Bronze ii) Brass iii) Gun Metal iv) Bell Metal

FERROUS METALS

FERROUS METALS

PIG IRON CAST IRON WROUGHT IRON STEELS

1) GREY CAST IRON

CARBON STEEL ALLOY STEEL
2) WHITE CAST IRON

3) MALLEABLE CAST IRON 1) LOW CARBON STEEL 1) STAINLESS STEEL

4) ALLOY CAST IRON 2) MEDIUM CARBON STEEL 2) MAGNETIC STEEL

3) HIGH CARBON STEEL 3) HEAT RESISTANT STEEL

4) TOOL CARBON STEEL 4) HIGH SPEED STEEL

1) PIG IRON
- Intermediate product of smelting iron ore with high carbon fuel such as coke usually with limestone as flux
- Molten iron from blast furnace (large and cylindrical shaped) with iron ore, coke and limestone
- Charcoal and Anthracite also used as fuel
- High carbon content (3.5% - 4.5%)
- Brittle
- Not useful directly as a material except limited applications

2) CAST IRON
- Composition alloy of iron; 2-5% Carbon; 1-3% of Silicon and traces of Magnesium, Sulphur, Phosphorus, etc
- Made from Pig Iron
- Carbide impurities leads to crack which gives color

I) Gray Cast Iron:

- Cast iron that has graphite microstructure
 - Named after gray color due to graphite
- Most common and most widely used
II) White Cast Iron:
- White due to cementite
- Lower Silicon content
- Faster Cooling Rate
- 1.8-3.6% of Carbon; 0.5-2% of Silicon and Sulphur
III) Malleable Cast Iron:
- White iron casting is heat treated at 900˚C
- Graphite separates out slowly
- Tension has time to form into spheroidal particles
IV) Alloy Cast Iron:
- Casting alloys based on the Iron-Carbon-Silicon system that contain one or more alloying elements
intentionally added to enhance one or more useful properties

3) WROUGHT IRON
- Alloy with very low carbon (less than 0.08%)
- It has fibrous inclusions known as Slag (2% of wt.)
- It is semi-fused mass of iron with slag which gives it ‘grain’ resembling wood that is visible when it is etched or bent
to failure.
- Malleable
- Ductile
- Corrosion Resistant
- Easily welded

4) STEELS
- They are alloys of Iron and Carbon
- Widely used in Construction and other applications
- High tensile strength and low costs
- In typical steel alloys, Carbon is upto 2.1% of weight
- Varying the amount of proportion – property changes

A) Carbon Steel
- Kind of steel in which main alloying constituent is Carbon in range 0.12 – 2%
- This tiny amount of Carbon produces a material that exhibits great strength, hardness and other valuable
mechanical properties.
I) Low Carbon Steel : 0.05 – 3 % Carbon
II) Medium Carbon Steel: 0.3 – 0.6 % Carbon
III) High Carbon Steel : 0.6 – 1.5 % Carbon
IV) Tool Steel : 0.9 – 2.0 % Carbon

B) Alloy Steel
- These are steels to which other elements are added to improve the basic properties.
- Alloying elements: Nickel, Manganese, Silicon, Vanadium, etc
- Special Alloy Steels
I) Stainless Steel
II) Magnetic Steel
III) Heat Resistant Steel
IV) High Speed Steel
 NON-FERROUS METALS

NON-FERROUS METALS

METALS ALLOYS

1) ALUMINIUM 1) BRONZE
2) COPPER 2) BRASS
3) TIN 3) GUN METAL
4) ZINC 4) TIN METAL

NON-FERROUS METALS:
- These are metals without iron content in it.
- Low Strength, Low Melting Point, Higher Shrinkage Property
- In recent days, it is widely used due to
i) Good Corrosion Resistance
ii) Ease of Casting
iii) Ease of Cold Working
iv) Good electrical properties

METALS:
- It is substance in pure form which is extracted from natural ore. They are usually soft in nature with limited
applications.

1. ALUMINIUM [Al]
- Chemical element in Borom group
- Third most abundant element
- Silvery White
- Soft
- Non-Magnetic
- Ductile
- Good strength to weight ratio
- Good conductor of Heat and Electricity

2. COPPER [Cu]
- Ductile metal
- Resistant to corrosion
- High thermal and electrical conductivity
- Pure Cu is soft and malleable
- Fresh surface is reddish orange color

3. TIN
- Soft, Weak, Malleable, Ductile
- Resistant to Corrosion
 - Used for coating steel to form Tinplate
4. ZINC
- 24th most abundant element
- Weak metal
- Extremely resistant to Corrosion
- Used for coating steel to make galvanized items

ALLOYS:
- When two or more metals are mixed together in different proportions to get a homogenous mixture is called Alloy.
- It has better properties than metal.
- It can be used for wide applications.

1. BRONZE [ Cu + Tin ]
- Alloy of Cu and Tin
- Primarily Cu and other metals usually Tin
- Alloys are harder than Cu alone
- Fairly strong
- Malleable
- Ductile when soft

2. BRASS [ Cu + Zinc ]
- Alloy of Cu and Zinc
- Proportions vary – Wide range of brass
- Resistant to corrosion
- Good conductor of heat and electricity

3. GUN METAL
- 10% Tin; 88% Cu; 2% Zinc
- Very hard
- Resistant to corrosion by water and atmosphere

4. BELL METAL
- 20% Tin & rest Copper
- Very hard
- Resistant to surface wear

2. Describe the three types of carbon steels with applications.

Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon which is produced either by basic oxygen steelmaking process or by electric arc
furnace.

CARBON STEELS:
Carbon steels are types of steel containing primarily iron and carbon. Other elements present in small proportions
are Sulphur, phosphorous, manganese and magnesium. The following types of carbon steel are.

1) MILD STEEL OR LOW CARBON STEEL:

Composition : It has a carbon content of 0.05 to 0.3%. The balance is iron. The most
popularly used carbon steel is mild steel.
Properties and characteristics : Tough, ductile and malleable. Good tensile strength, poor resistance to
corrosion
Application : General-purpose engineering material like rivets, bolts, keys plain washer
boiler plate’s shaft, camshafts and gear.

2) MEDIUM CARBON STEEL:

Composition : It has a carbon content of 0.3 - 0.6% carbon. The remainder is iron content.
Properties and characteristics : Strong, hard and tough, with a high tensile strength, but less ductile than mild
steel.
Application : It finds application in transmission shafts, springs, spring washers, crane hooks
and hand tools etc.

3) HIGH CARBON STEEL:

Composition : It has a carbon content of 0.6 - 1.5%. it has an iron content of 96% to 97%
Properties and characteristics : Even harder than medium carbon steel, and more brittle. Can be heat treated
to make it harder and tougher
Application : Cutting tools, hammers, chisels, screw, punches, drills lathe tools, leaf springs
and milling cutter

3. Define the following terms:

i) Ceramic ii) Graphite
iii) Polymers iv) Shape Memory Alloys

CERAMICS
- Derived from Greek word ‘Keramikos’ which means pottery
- Inorganic, Non-metallic materials that are typically produced using clay and other minerals from earth or
chemically processed powders
- Crystalline in nature
- Compounds of metallic and non-metallic elements such as Alumina, Silicon Nitride and Silicon Carbide

GRAPHITE
- Crystalline form of element Carbon
- Consists of stacked layers of graphene
- It occurs naturally
- Most stable form of Carbon under standard conditions
- Synthetic and natural graphite are used in pencils, lubricants, electrodes, etc

POLYMERS
- It is a substance or material consisting of very large molecules called macro molecules, composed of many
repeating subunits.
- In Greek, Polymer means many parts
- It can be found all around us
Natural – Found in Animals/Plants & Synthetic – Human Made

SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS

- It is an alloy that remembers its original shape
- Even after being deformed, have the ability to remember and return to their original shape and size upon
appropriate heat treatment
- Deformation – Carried out at relatively low temperature
- Shape Memory Effect – Happened due to heating
- Eg: NITINOL (Nickel Titanium Alloys) & Copper based alloys (Cu-Zn-Al & Cu-Al-Ni)
4. Enumerate the Difference between Soldering, Brazing and Welding.

PARAMETER WELDING SOLDERING BRAZING

Base metals are heated They are heated below They are also heated
Heating Temperature above their melting their melting point. below their melting
point. point.
It is made up of same It is not as same as that It is not as same as that
Filler Material material as that of the of the base metals. of the base metals.
base metals.
It is formed by It is obtained by It is obtained by
Joint Formation solidification of both diffusion of filler metal diffusion of filler metal
molten filler metal and into the base metal. into the base metal.
base metal.
It is much stronger than It is weaker than that of It is stronger than
Strength of the Joint the base metal due to Brazing and Welding soldering but weaker
modification in grain than welding
structure.
Heat Affected Zone It is affected to large It is almost negligible It is affected but not to
extent the level of welding
It requires certain It doesn’t require and In some cases, finishing
Finishing Operations finishing operations like the joint can be used as operations are needed.
grinding, filing, etc it is.
In Fabrication and For joining thin sheet In arts, jewelries and
Applications Structural Applications metals, pipes, wires, also in industries
circuits, etc

5. Describe the construction & working of Arc welding process with neat sketch.

ARC WELDING
The arc welding operates under the principle that when two conductor of an electric circuit are touched together
momentarily and then instantaneously separated slightly, assuming that there is sufficient voltage in the circuit to
maintain the flow of current, an electric arc is formed. Concentrated heat is produced throughout the length of the
arc at a temperature of about 5000 to 6000°C. in arc welding, usually the parts to be welded are wired as one pole of
the circuit, and the electrode held by the operator forms the other pole. When the arc is produced, the intense heat
quickly melts the work piece metal which is directly under the arc, forming a small molten metal of the electrode.
The molten metal in the pool is agitated by the action of the arc, thoroughly mixing the base and the filler metal. A
solid joint will be formed when the molten metal cools and solidifies. The flux coating over the electrode produces an
inert gaseous shield surrounding the arc and protects the molten metal from oxidizing by coming in contact with
atmosphere.
ARC WELDING ELECTRODES
There are two types of electrodes that are used in arc welding
(A) Consumable electrodes
Consumable electrodes are the electrodes which also melts along with the work piece and fill the joint.
(B) Non- consumable electrodes
When these are used, an additional filler material is also required Advantage in using this electrode is that amount of
metal deposited can be controlled which is not possible in other type of electrode.

ARC WELDING SETUP:

1) Arc Welding Circuit : Consists of power supply to furnish electric power.
2) Electrode : To conduct electricity to arc; Two types: i) Consumable & ii) Non-
Consumable
3) Cables : To connect power supply to electrode and work piece to complete welding
circuit.
4) The arc itself provides heat for welding
5) Metallic Table/ Work Table : Workpiece to be weld is kept

WORKING:
• One pole - Parts to be welded are wired
Other pole - electrode held by operator
• Arc produces intense heat – quickly melts the workpiece metal which is under arc.
• Small molten metal of arc and molten metal pool of workpiece
• By action of arc, the base and filler material mixes
• Solid joint will be formed when molten metal cools and solidifies
• Flux coating over electrode produces inert gaseous – Acts as shield surrounding arc – Protects the
molten metal from oxidizing when in contact with atmosphere.
6. With neat sketch, explain the construction and working of Gas Welding.

GAS WELDING
It is a fusion welding, in which a strong gas flame is used to raise the temperature of the work piece to melt them. As
in the arc welding, a filler metal is used to fill the joint. The gases that can be used for heating are
(i) Oxygen and acetylene
(ii) Oxygen and hydrogen.
Oxy-acetylene gas mixture is most commonly used in gas welding

OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING
When Right proportions of oxygen and acetylene are mixed in the welding torch and then ignited. The flame
produced is called as the oxy-acetylene flame. The temperature attained n this welding is around 3200ºC hence has
an ability to melt all commercial metals.

WORKING
• The typical oxy-acetylene welding process is shown in fig.
• After the initial equipment preparation, the to-be welded component setup and safety checks are completed, the
pressure regulators fitted to the oxygen and oxyacetylene cylinders are adjusted to draw the oxygen and acetylene
gas in the required proportions from the cylinders respectively.
• The pressure regulator in each of the cylinders is fitted with two gauges.
• One gauge indicates the gas pressure inside the cylinder and the other gauge indicates the reduced pressure at
which the gas goes out.
• The respective gases from the cylinders are carried from the pressure regulator to the welding torch using the
rubber hose pipe.
• Upon reaching the welding torch, these gases are allowed to mix in a mixing chamber and then are led out of the
torch through the orifice of the blow pipe.
• The resultant flame at 3200oC is used to melt the work pieces. To fill up the gap between work pieces and to add
strength to the joint, filler rods are added to the molten metal pool.
• The molten metal pool that contains molten metal of the filler rod and the work pieces solidifies to form a welded
joint.

7. Name and Explain the different types of flames used in Gas welding.

TYPES OF OXY-ACETYLENE FLAMES

The types of flames depend on the gas ratio i.e. ratio of the parts of oxygen to the parts of the acetylene.
Depending on the gas ratio following flames are obtained
(i) Neutral flame
(ii) Oxidizing flame
(iii)Reducing flame (carburizing flame)

(i) Neutral flame

• A neutral flame is obtained by supplying equal volume of oxygen and acetylene
• It consists of a small whitish inner cone surrounded by sharply defined blue flame
• Most of the gas welding is done using the neutral flame

(ii) Oxidizing flame

• This is obtained when there is excess of oxygen, gas ratio
• It appears to be similar to that of neutral flame but the inner white cone flame is shorter than that of neutral flame.
• This flame is generally used in metal cutting rather than welding since weld metal gets oxidized.

(iii) Reducing flame

• This is obtained by supplying excess of acetylene in the gas ratio
• It has 3 cones, an inner white cone, surrounded by an intermediate whitish cone known as “intermediate flame
feather” and a bluish envelope flame
• This flame is used for welding alloy steels, cast iron, aluminum