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ESSENTIALS OF
PSYCHOLOGY
SEVENTH EDITION
Douglas A. Bernstein
University of South Florida
University of Southampton
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Essentials of Psychology, Seventh Edition © 2019, 2014 Cengage Learning, Inc.
Douglas Bernstein WCN: 02-300
Unless otherwise noted, all content is © Cengage.
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For Doris
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Brief Contents
Preface xix
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Contents
Preface xix
vii
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viii Contents
4 Consciousness 127
Mental Processing without Awareness 129
THINKING CRITICALLY ■
Can Subliminal Messages Change
Your Behavior? 131
FOCUS ON RESEARCH ■
Subliminal Messages in Popular
Music 133
Altered States of Consciousness 134
Sleeping and Dreaming 134
The Scope of Consciousness 128 Stages of Sleep 134
Consciousness States 128 Sleep Disorders 136
Levels of Consciousness 129 Why Do People Sleep? 138
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Contents ix
LINKAGES ■
Meditation, Health, and Stress 146 LINKAGES DIAGRAM 157
Summary 157
Psychoactive Drugs 146
Psychopharmacology 147
5 Learning 161
Classical Conditioning: Learning Signals
and Associations 162
Pavlov’s Discovery 163
Conditioned Responses over Time: Extinction
and Spontaneous Recovery 164
Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination 165
The Signaling of Significant Events 166
Some Applications of Classical Conditioning 168
Instrumental and Operant Conditioning: Learning the Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps 184
Consequences of Behavior 170 Insight and Learning 186
From the Puzzle Box to the Skinner Box 170 Observational Learning: Learning by Imitation 186
Basic Components of Operant Conditioning 171
THINKING CRITICALLY ■
Does Watching Video Violence Make
Forming and Strengthening Operant Behavior 173
Children More Violent? 188
Why Reinforcers Work 177
Punishment 177 Using Research on Learning to Help People Learn 191
Some Applications of Operant Conditioning 179 Active Learning 191
LINKAGES ■
Networks of Learning 181 Skill Learning 192
Classrooms across Cultures 193
Cognitive Processes in Learning 182
LINKAGES DIAGRAM 194
Learned Helplessness 183
Summary 194
FOCUS ON RESEARCH ■
An Experiment on Human
Helplessness 183
6 Memory 199
The Nature of Memory 200
Basic Memory Processes 200
Types of Memory 201
Models of Memory 202
Storing New Memories 206
Sensory Memory 206
Short-Term Memory and Working Memory 206
Long-Term Memory 208
Distinguishing between Short-Term Retrieval from Semantic Memory 212
and Long-Term Memory 210
Constructing Memories 214
Retrieving Memories 211
FOCUS ON RESEARCH ■
I Could Swear I Heard It! 215
Retrieval Cues and Encoding Specificity 211
Context and State Dependence 211 Constructive Memory and Neural Network Models 216
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x Contents
LINKAGES ■ Memory, Perception, and Eyewitness Testimony 217 The Biochemistry of Memory 226
Brain Structures and Memory 227
Forgetting 220
How Do We Forget? 220 Improving Your Memory 229
Why Do We Forget? 220 Mnemonic Strategies 229
Guidelines for More Effective Studying 230
THINKING CRITICALLY ■
Can Traumatic Memories Be
Repressed, Then Recovered? 222 LINKAGES DIAGRAM 233
Summary 234
Biological Bases of Memory 225
Language 261
Learning to Speak: Stages of Language
Development 261
How Is Language Acquired? 263
Basic Functions of Thought 238 Testing Intelligence 265
The Circle of Thought 239 A Brief History of Intelligence Tests 266
Mental Representations: Intelligence Tests Today 267
The Ingredients of Thought 240 Calculating IQ 268
Concepts 240 Evaluating Intelligence Tests 268
Propositions 241 Defining Statistical Reliability 269
Schemas, Scripts, and Mental Models 241 Defining Statistical Validity 269
Images and Cognitive Maps 243 The Statistical Reliability and Validity of Intelligence
Thinking Strategies 244 Tests 269
Formal Reasoning 244 IQ as a Measure of Inherited Ability 271
Informal Reasoning 245 Group Differences in IQ 273
Problem Solving 247 THINKING CRITICALLY ■
Are Intelligence Tests Unfairly Biased
Strategies for Problem Solving 248 against Certain Groups? 275
FOCUS ON RESEARCH ■
Problem-Solving Strategies in the Real Diversity in Intelligence 277
World 249 Practical and Creative Intelligence 277
Obstacles to Problem Solving 250 Multiple Intelligences 277
Problem Solving by Computer 254 Unusual Intelligence 279
Creative Thinking 255 LINKAGES DIAGRAM 281
Decision Making 257 Summary 282
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Contents xi
Hunger and Eating 295 Relations and Conflicts Among Motives 313
Biological Signals for Hunger and Satiation 295 Maslow’s Hierarchy 313
Hunger and the Brain 296 LINKAGES ■
Conflicting Motives and Stress 314
Flavor, Sociocultural Experience, and Food Selection 297
Unhealthy Eating 298 The Nature of Emotions 315
Defining Characteristics and Dimensions 315
Sexual Behavior 302
The Biology of Emotions 317
FOCUS ON RESEARCH ■
A Survey of Human Sexual
Behavior 302 Theories of Emotion 319
James’s Peripheral Theory 319
The Biology of Sex 304
Cannon’s Central Theory 321
Social and Cultural Factors in Sexuality 305
Cognitive Theories of Emotion 322
Sexual Orientation 306
Communicating Emotion 324
THINKING CRITICALLY ■
What Shapes Sexual Orientation? 306
Innate Expressions of Emotion 325
Achievement Motivation 309 Social and Cultural Influences on Emotional Expression 325
Need for Achievement 309 LINKAGES DIAGRAM 327
Achievement and Success in the Workplace 311
Summary 328
Achievement and Well-Being 312
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xii Contents
11 Personality 415
THINKING CRITICALLY ■
Are Personality Traits Inherited? 426
Evaluating the Trait Approach 428
The Social-Cognitive Approach 429
Prominent Social-Cognitive Theories 429
Evaluating the Social-Cognitive Approach 431
The Humanistic Psychology Approach 432
Prominent Humanistic Theories 432
Evaluating the Humanistic Approach 434
The Psychodynamic Approach 416
The Structure of Personality 417 LINKAGES ■ Personality, Culture, and Human Development 435
Stages of Personality Development 418 FOCUS ON RESEARCH ■
Personality Development Over
Variations on Freud’s Personality Theory 419 Time 437
Contemporary Psychodynamic Theories 420
Assessing Personality 438
Evaluating the Psychodynamic Approach 421
Projective Personality Measures 439
The Trait Approach 422 Nonprojective Personality Measures 440
Early Trait Theories 422
The Five-Factor Personality Model 423 LINKAGES DIAGRAM 442
Biological Trait Theories 424 Summary 443
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Contents xiii
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Airiselän
tukinajossa: Kuvaus Lapin rajoilta
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and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
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Language: Finnish
AIRISELÄN TUKINAJOSSA
Kuvaus Lapin rajoilta
Kirj.
VÄINÖ KATAJA
Helsingissä, Kustannusosakeyhtiö Otava, 1915.
1.
— Vai oli maininnut minunkin nimeni! No, se tiesi sitä, että hyvät
välit jäivät!
"Sepä nyt oli… Vai jo ehti mennä. En tiennyt, että liikkeellä oli",
päivitteli Antti.
"Perä siinä on", alkoi isäntä puhua, yskien kuivaa yskää. "Perä
siinä on. Kuuluu tulevan valta-ajo nyt Airiselän maille, ja nyt pitäisi
miesten aloittaa, vaan lumen vähyys on esteenä. Vänttinen tulee
ylijohtajaksi, puulaaki luottaa Vänttiseen, kuulemma, ja on antanut
hänelle kaiken vallan Airiselän mailla… On se semmoinen
turhantarkka mies, Vänttinen. Ei kuulu ottavan ajoonsa yhtään
viinaanmenevää miestä, raittiita hakee… Kuuluukin olevan taas se
Pirtu-Santeri viinoineen liikkeellä… eikä sille voi virkakuntakaan
mitään… Tulee, kuulemma, niin suuri ajo, ettei ole takatalvina niin
suurta ollutkaan… Ja kuuluvat olevan Airiselän puut järjestään
jättiläispuita… että kysyy miestä jos hevostakin…"
"Sanoi jääneensä hyvin pitämään, että oli rehti ajaja ja hoiti hyvin
hevosensa… Ja moneen kertaan muistutti, että toimittaa
Ahvenjärven Antille sana, jotta tulla niin pian kuin… vaikka heti, että
työhön pääsee… Vaikka kuuluu olevan kovin paljon pyrkijöitäkin…"
Antti ei hyvillään osannut mitään virkkaa. Itsekseen hän ajatteli,
että tulipahan kerran puulaakiin semmoinen työnjohtaja, joka näkee,
kuka hevostaan hoitaa ja muuten rehellisesti menettelee.
Isäntä ryiskeli.
"Lie mitä lie. Vaan rennosti minulle maksoi sen mitä puhe oli… eikä
minun enempää sopinut vaariakaan… Hyvä on mies ja
suoraluontoinen", kehui Antti.
Nyt vasta isäntä ilmoitti, että Vänttinen oli hänelle jättänyt rahaa
Antille matkaa varten annettavaksi.
"En minä kiellä kerran saatua", sanoi Antti, tullen sanomasta kovin
hyvilleen. "On se miesten mies se Vänttinen…"
Metsäherra suostui.
Antti hymähti.
Antti muisti, kuinka suurin toivein hän silloin oli Selman tänne
tuonut, kun kesä oli kirkkaimmillaan ja järvi kalaisena. Eivät olleet ne
silloiset toiveet toteutuneet. Ei ollut ehtinyt eikä jaksanut maata
viljellä niin kuin silloin oli aikonut ja luulotellut jaksavansa. Ei ollut
ehtinyt korpia perkaamaan eikä ojanvarsia niityksi raivaamaan,
niinkuin oli luullut kerkiävänsä ja jaksavansa. Ja kaksikymmentä
vuotta oli siitä jo kulunut, yhdeskolmatta alkanut…
— Vaan jos tänä talvena ansiot ovat hyvät — ja hyvät oli Vänttinen
vakuuttanut niiden olevan — niin koko ensi kevään, kesän ja
syksynkin saisi rauhassa olla maatyössä. Saisi tehdä ja kerätä heinää
enemmän, kuokkia peltoa ja raivata ojanvarsia, kun ei olisi ruoka
hakemisessa, jatkoi Antti mietteitään. — Nyt ei enää kulu ansioista
mitään vieraalle, kun oma poika on kumppanina, niin että kyllähän
tässä nyttemmin joutaa talontöitäkin tekemään.
Oli toki hyvä, että tuiskusi lunta, jotta pääsi matkaan. Niinkuin
taivas olisi tiennyt hänen tulisen kiireensä.
"Oli luvannut, vaan kun nyt näin pian rekikeliksi tuiskusi lunta, niin
ei sovi vitkastella. Lähteä täytyy. Luottaa siihen saapi Vänttiseen, se
on kerrassaan taattu. Mutta huolettaa minua nyt jättää sinut tänne
turvattomaksi lasten kanssa, kun tuo nuorin vielä on kipeä…"
"Älähän nyt meistä… kyllä me, kun ovat puut, heinät kotona ja
ruokaakin on pitkäksi aikaa. Ja eikö poikine Lainakin parin viikon
päästä… Mutta se minua huolettaa, kuinka te siellä tukkimetsässä…"
"Viime yönäkö?" kysyi Antti, aivan kuin epäilisi, ettei Selma ollut
unta nähnyt.
"En tiedä oliko yö vai aamu", jatkoi Selma. "Mutta tuntui, että olin
tulossa navetasta tänne pirttiin. Oli olevinaan pimeä ja taivas
paksussa pilvessä. Kun sitten katsahdin taivaalle… niin tähti lensi
toiselta taivaan rannalta toiselle ja tuli yhtäkkiä niinkuin kesäkirkas
päivä… Ja kun ehdin portaille, näkyi toiselta puolen järveä musta
kuorma tulossa, mutta ei yhtään ihmistä kuormalla eikä kuorman
perässä…"
"No, ne nyt ovat niitä sinun joutavia uniasi. Kesä oli olevinaan ja
reessä kuorma!" koetti Antti lyödä leikiksi.
Mutta Selman silmissä oli vakava ilme ja hän virkkoi:
"Ethän sinä tänä aamuna ole vielä ulkona käynytkään!" koetti Antti
yhä leikiksi lyödä.
Isän ja pojan välit olivat aina olleet erittäin hyvät. Antti rakasti
koko perhettään hellästi, ja monta murheen hetkeä hän oli viettänyt
sen vuoksi, ettei kyennyt lapsiraukoilleen lämpöisiä vaatteitakaan
laittamaan. Puolialastomina olivatkin nuorimmat, vähän riekaleita
ympärillään, ja nukkuivat rivissä lattialla, lähellä uunia.
Yrjö oli kuitenkin jo parina kesänä ollut tukkijoella ja viime kesän
kylässä kesämiehenä, niin että oli ansainnut hyvät vaatteet ylleen.
Olipa siskoillekin ostanut paitakankaat.
"Jopa tuo nyt riittää", arveli Yrjö ja alkoi pukeutua siinä mielessä,
että matkaan tulee lähtö.
"Puhui se. Sanoi, ettei hänen ole koskaan ennen ollut niin ikävä
jäädä kotia kuin nyt…"
2.
"Niin monta niitä on", sanoi Antti, ja hänen äänensä vähän vapisi.
"Kuinkahan monta niistä pitäisi olla poissa, että olisi kruunun ja
teidän mielestänne parhaiksi?" lisäsi hän sitten katkerasti.
Antti oli luonnostaan tyyni mies, mutta nyt oli sattunut solvaus niin
arkaan paikkaan, ettei hän enää voinut hillitä itseään.
"Tuli lisää tahi ei", sanoi hän nousten seisomaan, "se ei kuulu
teihin! Minulla ovat lapset tässä näkösällä kaikki… lienevätkö niin
forstmestarillakin… Ja minä tunnustan ja tiedän ne omikseni…"
Mutta metsäherralle tuli yhtäkkiä kiire pois, niin että hän istui
reessä, ennenkuin vallesmanni ehti uloskaan.
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