KENYATTA UNIVERSITY

EBE 406: GENERAL ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND HUSBANDRY

Prerequisites: EBE 303: Principles of Crop Production

Main Objective
The course is intended to equip the trainee with knowledge, skills that will enable
him/her to understand the management and production of livestock.

Specific Objectives
At the end of the course the learner will be able to:
1. Understand some of the land management practices to improve the chemical and
physical environment for animal production and husbandry
2. Classify, list and characterize the major breeds of livestock in Kenya.
Enumerate common diseases of livestock, symptoms and their control
3. Explain factors influencing quality of livestock products
4. Enumerate utilization and aesthetic values of non-conventional livestock.

Course Description
Land Management for Animal Production and husbandry, Major farm animals. Major
livestock breeds in Kenya. Feeding: feed utilization and digestibility, feeding standards
for maintenance and reproduction and feeding practices. Management: body growth,
diseases and their control. Factors influencing production and quality of livestock
products. Trends in cattle, pigs, sheep and poultry numbers, production and
consumption. Management of livestock wastes for improved agricultural sustainability.
Introduction to Non-conventional livestock: mammals, reptiles, birds, insects.
Aesthetics and ethical issues.

Teaching Organization
2 hour lecturers, 1 hour tutorial

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organized alternately.
Mode of Assessment
Ordinary Examination at end of Semester: 70%; Continuous Assessment: 30%
Continuous Assessment Tests.

Textbooks and References:

1) Battaglia R., “Handbook of Livestock Management (2006)”. 4th Edition. ISBN:

0131189336
2) Damron W. S., “Introduction to Animal Science (2008)”. International Edition,
Global, Biological, Social and Industry Perspectives, ISBN: 0136064442
3) Field T. and Taylor R., “Beef Production Management and Decisions (2006)”. Fifth
Edition, ISBN: 0131198386
4. FAO (1996). Agro-ecological Zoning Guidelines. FAO Soils Bulletin 73.
Rom. www.fao.org
5. Sombroek W.G., Braun H.M.H. and van der Pouw B.J.A. (1982). Exploratory Soil Map
and Agro-Climatic Zone Map of Kenya, 1980. Scale: 1:1'000'000. Exploratory Soil Survey
Report No. E1. Kenya Soil Survey Ministry of Agriculture - National Agricultural
Laboratories, Nairobi, Kenya.

Attendance:
In accordance with policies of Kenyatta University, regular class attendance is expected
of all students. It is the responsibility of each student to sign the attendance sheet for
each lecture. Students who are late to class by more than 10 minutes will be
considered absent.

Dr. Mwaura Mburu, Ph.D.

Tel. 0714142225/ 0733 52 84 16; email: [email protected]
School of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences,
Department of Animal Sciences
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Kitui Campus

Lesson 1: INTRODUCTION TO GENERAL ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND HUSBANDRY

Definitions
Agriculture:
Narrow definition: Agriculture includes cultivation of crops and animal husbandry as
well as forestry, fisheries, and the development of land and water resources.
Broader definition: Agriculture includes in addition agro-industries, manufacturing of
agricultural inputs and machinery, regional and river development, and rural
development.
Farmer: The principal decision-maker involved in the management of a farm who is
usually but not always the head of the household.
Farm holding / enterprise: describes both an area of land, typically a working farm and
the possession of an area of farm land. The term does not include any implication of
the legal rights by which the land is held and it includes therefore both tenants and
owners of land.
Livestock: Farm animals (domesticated animals) such as cattle, sheep, goats, camels,
poultry, pigs, guinea pigs etc. kept by humans for a useful commercial purpose.
“Animal” in animal husbandry, mean only those domesticated animals which are reared
mostly for economic or for recreation purposes, such as cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat,
camel, pig, horse, etc. It also includes poultry farming and fisheries.
Fisheries include rearing, catching, selling, etc. of fish, molluscs (shell fish) and
crustaceans (fresh water prawn, crabs, etc.). Since times immemorial, animals like bees
and silkworm, have been used by humans. Livestock has been used by humans for
products like milk, eggs, meat, wool, silk, honey etc.
Animal husbandry: refers to the practice of selectively breeding and raising livestock to
promote desirable traits in animals for utility, sport, pleasure, or research etc. It deals
with management and care of farm animals by humans, in which genetic qualities and

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behavior, considered to be advantageous to humans are developed.
Animal husbandry is a branch of agriculture concerned with the care and management
of livestock. Animal husbandry deals with the feeding, breeding, housing and health
care of livestock for getting maximum benefits.
Husbandry is usually defined in the context of farming as livestock or animal husbandry,
however, in practice this a little restrictive. Husbandry’s definition in a farming context
may also include other forms of husbandry including of the field and pastures, besides
animals.

Concept of Animal Production

Animal production is an aspect of agricultural production. Agriculture is simply defined
as the art and science of crop, animal and fibre production for human consumption. As
a branch of agriculture, animal production deals with production of domesticated
animals other than pets and game animals i.e. forms a central theme in the provision of
essential human needs,

Animal production as a subject matter has roots in the natural sciences (the application
of basic principles of science but also in theoretical foundations). Thus, animal
production relates in certain aspects to zoology, pathology, genetics, microbiology,
botany, biochemistry, chemistry, physics, statistics, mathematical and pharmaceutical
sciences.

Evolution of animal production practices over time has benefited from skills and
knowledge acquired through cultural and scientific techniques i.e. both traditional and
scientific skills have served useful purposes in the development and advancement of
animal production.

The traditional technique often evolves slowly over several decades; conservative;
limited to a locality or group of people and possibly extended by ancestral linkage while
the scientific techniques has proven to be more versatile, and considered as a better

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alternative approach.

Scientific technique is more dependable in conveying knowledge and skills from an

individual or from one place to another. Science-based skills much more than cultural
skills are indeed more sustainable and profitable for individual farmers and nations
applying them in their production activities or systems. Far beyond meeting social,
economic, nutritional and profitability targets application of scientific principles in
animal production has sustained productivity to barely satisfy the present level of world
demands for animal products.

Under the traditional practice and knowledge system, taboos, custom and beliefs are
associated with production, processing and consumption of livestock and livestock
products. The Hindus religious sect of India, for example, forbids the slaughter of cattle
and consumption of beef. Similarly in Kenya, the most pastoralists’ cattle owners e.g.
masaai derive social dignity in terms of number or heads of cattle owned by an
individual rather than the productivity of the herd.

Some herders are traditionally bound to a specific coat colour or breed of animals
inherited from their ancestors and may not permit introduction of a different coat colour
or breed even if the latter offers superior desirable traits. Acceptance of certain
beneficial technologies for adoption has suffered from rigid adherence to certain
traditional beliefs or practices notwithstanding the potential advantages they hold. The
use of artificial insemination as a cheaper means of crossbreeding exotic (foreign) bulls
with the local breeds of cows for instance was resisted and rejected by local herdsmen
because they considered it un-natural to inseminate animals by artificial method and
processes.

In some instances, the traditional skills have been of tremendous to support to the
production and healthcare of animals especially in areas remote from access to
orthodox drugs and healthcare services. The use of Indigenous Technical Knowledge

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(ITK) e.g. herbs and bark of trees for disease treatment or to lessen reproductive
difficulties has been shown to be effective. ITK has in recent time become an
interesting subject of research study. However, limitations of extending the practice for
wider adoption, ascertaining the quantity of active ingredient, determining the
application rate or preserving such materials have constituted a major constraint,
besides the slow rate of their discoveries.

The application of scientific principles and skills on the other hand has surpassed these
limitations, and has greatly improved production and productivity of livestock with the
aid of scientific principles; careful study of anatomy and physiology of the body
systems of various livestock species; formulation of different feed and nutrient
requirements for varying production purposes or targets have been determined, and are
in use. On these principles diets are formulated and applied in accordance with body
requirements of the class and specie of the animal.
In animal breeding, genetic studies have made provisions for crossing two or more
breeds of animal with near predictable characteristics of the offspring, obtain higher
hybrid vigour or determine how much of the character is heritable. Closely related to this
is the artificial insemination technology which evolved from the accumulation of
scientific knowledge on reproductive physiology and anatomy of animals. It is possible
to collect and extend genetic material from a productive and proven male animal to
artificially inseminate several other female animals far away from the environment of
the bull or its generation.

New advances in biotechnology application in animal production suggest production of

several offspring’s from artificial initiation of stem cell division into many units, each of
which is capable to grow into individual animal. Several applications of scientific
principles have evolved into skills and technologies with tremendous impact on
improving animal production system, productivity and profitability. One advantage of the
application of science is the ease with which it can be extended over a wide
geographical area, its potency to solve the problem being targeted and the assurance to

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bring results if the procedures are carefully followed as well as the fast rate of
generating new discoveries.

Brief History of Animal Production

 Animal production perhaps began about 10,000 years ago, when man started
domesticating animals from the wild for his immediate and continual needs.
 Man’s efforts in this regard deviated from killing and destruction of animals
especially for their products.
 In man’s renewed attitude, captured animals were tendered through proper feeding,
breeding and application of other management practices, which have led to favourable
adaptation and multiplication within the confine of human environment.
 As man further realized the potentials of farm animals as sources of food, fibre, and
income, greater attention and efforts began to evolve to improve production and
productivity.
 Outstanding performance of measurable and quality characteristics started to
manifest for identification and consideration for possible multiplication through
selection, breeding and upgrading.
 Since then new advances began to unfold especially in the Western countries.
 The advances brought alongside; provision of proper housing, feeding selection and
breeding methods resulting in the automation of various aspects of animal production
and processing at the present time.
 The improvement in livestock production in the Western nations far outstrip the level
of development in the sub-Saharan Africa, where over 90% of ruminant animals are still
in the hands of peasants who use traditional production methods.

BACKGROUND OF AGRICULTURE INDUSTRY

 Agriculture is the oldest and largest primary industry in the world. It plays a vital role
in the economic life of all nations regardless of their state of development.
 In developing countries, more than two-thirds of the people live on farms.
 Agriculture is the major dominant sector of the Kenyan economy and its performance

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is the major determinants of overall gross domestic product (GDP) growth rate.
 Agriculture is the mainstay of Kenya’s economy and provides the basis for
development of other sectors2
 The sector accounts for 53% of the GDP directly and indirectly.
 One of the main strategies of achieving the role of agriculture in the economic
development of the country is to increase productivity in the production of both crops
and livestock.
 Over the next 40 years world food production will need to increase by at least 70%
but less than 10% of this will come from bringing new land into production.
 Thus, need for efficiency in production systems and technologies cannot be
overemphasized.
 Livestock and livestock products are estimated to make up over half of the total
value of agricultural gross output in the industrialized countries and about a third of the
total in the developing countries.
 The global importance of livestock and their products is increasing as consumer
demand in the developing countries expands with population growth and rising incomes

Economic Contribution of Livestock Sector in Kenya Vision 2030

The sector is poised to contribute to the realization of Kenya Vision 2030 through:
 Improvement of productivity of livestock-based enterprises
 Promotion of value addition through local processing of animal products
 Facilitating access to local and international markets for animals and animal
products
 Wealth and employment creation through livestock based enterprise.

Importance of Livestock Industry in Kenya

 The agriculture sector contributes 26% of GDP directly and another 25% of GDP
indirectly.
 The livestock sub-sector makes important contributions to the economy of the
country as well as providing livelihoods, including the following:

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o Contributes >12% of the GDP IGAD (2011).
o 40% to the total agricultural GDP. Meat production leads other products in
agricultural GDP.
 Accounts for about 30% of the total marketed agricultural products
 The sector employs about 50% of agricultural labour force
 Over 80% of the country is ASALs where over 60% of livestock is found, supporting
over 10 million people as the only source of livelihood.

Therefore, livestock production is a major:

 Economic activity in the high rainfall areas –dairy poultry, pig production
 Economic and social activity for the communities that live in the arid and semi-arid
areas (ASALS) for meat production (beef, camel, sheep and goat).
 The demand for livestock products is high, arising particularly due to:
 Rising population
 Increasing income
 Rapid urbanization
 Globalization

Drawbacks to economic contributions

 The contribution of livestock sector to human welfare and overall national economy
is generally obscured by a combinations of several factors, which tend to underestimate
their true value.
 Firstly, the estimates of livestock populations are usually inaccurate due to lack of
regular census.
 Secondly, some of the products seldom enter formal marketing system, thus their
contribution to the subsistence and national economy tend to be grossly
underestimated.
Livestock Population
o Cattle (beef and dairy cattle) - 20.5 Million
o Sheep: (wool and meat sheep) – 19 Million

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o Goats: (Dairy, hair and meat goats) - 27 Million
o Poultry: Indigenous - 37 Million
- Commercial (broilers and layers) - 6 Million
o Camel – 3.2 Million
o Beehives (KTBH, Langstroth, log hives and others) – 2 Million
o Pigs: - 504,395
o Donkeys: – 2 Million
o Rabbit: – 824,555
Source: Animal Populations (2009 census)

Priority Programmes of the Livestock Sector in Kenya

 Establishment of disease free zones
 Establishment of livestock enterprise development fund
 Inclusion of meat and milk reserves in the strategic food reserves
 Support to emergency livestock offtake
 Improve quality and quantity of animal feeds and other inputs
 To improve performance of KMC
 Enhancement of the dairy sub-sector

Policies and Bills

In order to create an enabling environment for all the players in the livestock sector
ministry embarked on reviewing existing policies and developing new ones where they
do not exist. Some of these policies include:-
 The National Livestock Policy – Review has been completed and the implementation
is ongoing
 Draft veterinary policy
 The Dairy Industry Policy and Bill – review ongoing
 The Animal Feeds Policy and Bill – The review is ongoing
 The draft Livestock Breeding Policy and bill – Final policy is complete and sessional
paper is soon being presented to the cabinet for approval

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 The Apiculture Policy – The final draft has been completed and approved by the
cabinet and only for debate in parliament
 The National Poultry Policy – The final draft policy has been completed and approved
by the cabinet and only for debate in the parliament

Rationale for accelerating animal production in the world

The rationale for accelerating the contribution from animals is associated with several
factors
 Several millions of rural poor in developing countries are livestock keepers.
 1.2 billion people live on less than US$1 per day,
 1 billion persons go to bed hungry every day.
 In the developing countries, there are 150 million children who are underweight,
 175 million children has stunted growth, and 44 million who are wasting.
 There are between 100 and140 million children with vitamin A deficiency;
 An estimated 55% of about 12 million deaths each year among children under 5 years
of age in the developing world are associated with malnutrition. Malnourished children
also have lifetime disabilities and weakened immune systems and,
 There are 2 million women who are iron deficient, many of whom are pregnant.

Animal products such as meats, eggs and milk are important sources of concentrated
and digestible sources of high quality proteins and energy, and their consumption
contributes to good health. These sources supply micro nutrients such as calcium, iron,
zinc and vitamins A, B6 and B12, which are often deficient in cereal based diets.

Role of animal agriculture

Food security (e.g. milk, meat, eggs, etc.): Foods of animal origin provide high quality
protein, vitamins, minerals and other dietary essentials. Animal protein provides a
correct balance of amino acids in the human diets and helps to fight malnutrition, which
is precipitated by eating wholly plant foods.
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Cash income: Through sale (locally or internationally) of live animals and animal
products (milk, meat, eggs, hides, skins, fur, wool, fish, honey, wax, etc.).
Raw materials for agro-industries: Wool for textile industries hides and skins for leather
industries, Fisheries, Dairies, etc.
Employment generations: At farm levels e.g. livestock herders, farm workers etc. At
processing plants/firms e.g. Dairies. Slaughterhouses, marketing firms etc.
Power/Work: Ploughing farms, Transportation of goods (e.g. camels), Water
lifting/carrying etc.
Manure: Used as fertilizer to improve soil structure, Used for fuel e.g. Biogas production,
Used as building material, Used as livestock feed (best is poultry manure).
Recreation: Animals used for mental health and personal satisfaction, Companionship
e.g. Dogs, Cats, Sports e.g. bull fighting, horse racing, etc.
Research: Animals are used as subjects in experiments for medical and other scientific
research.

Problems Confronting Livestock Production in Kenya

1) Nutrition and Feed Supplies: The provision of feed that is adequate both in quality
and quantity and accessible to animals all year round is the most outstanding problem
of livestock production in the tropics including Kenya. The natural range resources that
form the primary source of nutrients have been observed to rapidly increase in nutritive
value at the onset of rains and decline shortly thereafter. The state of poor nutritive feed
quality often last longer during the year than the period of forage abundance and high
nutritive quality. Supplementation with crop residues from cropped farmlands scarcely
meets the requirements for animal growth.
2) Inadequate Breeding Programme: Adoption of haphazard breeding programmes in
which indigenous cows are crossbred with bulls by natural or artificial insemination
coupled with privatization of the AI programmes. The crossbred animals’ exhibit dual or
triple-purpose traits, with productivity far below the average expected. The reproductive
performance of the animals is characterised by long calving intervals which is rooted in
poor management and inadequate feeding.

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3) Disease and Pest Infestation: Kenya is still plagued by a number of important
epizootic diseases of livestock. In cattle, for example; Rinderpest, Contagious Bovine
PleuroPneumonia (CBPP), Foot and Mouth disease, Anaplasmosis and
Trypanosomiasis. These diseases are so virulent that they limit production, increase
morbidity and cause widespread death of cattle. Some diseases of less epizootic
nature are also assuming increasing significance e.g. mastitis, brucellosis etc. Together
these reduce productivity of the national herd even if they are less virulent. Although
much progress has been made in the diagnosis and control of some of these diseases,
the increasing populations of vector-pests that transmit the diseases constitute a major
hazard and threat to farm animal production. Other pests of significant economic
importance are endoparasites such as flukes, roundworm and hookworms as well as
ectoparasites like ticks, mange, mites and lice.
4) Land Ownership and Usage: Land tenure remains a major obstacle to livestock
development, for herders have no secured individual accesses or rights to land.
Therefore, little or no opportunity is available for pastoralists to invest and develop the
land for a full return of benefits and expansion.
5) Low Investment Potential: Livestock projects are scarcely attractive to financial
institutions unlike services and trades that have tendency to return borrowed funds and
interest more quickly due to longer period of growth required and the high uncertainty it
is associated. Collaterals and guarantee of substantial value are not easily available for
livestock producers to secure sufficient loans to improve production.

LESSON 2: LAND MANAGEMENT FOR ANIMAL PRODUCTION

Agro-ecological Zoning (AEZ) refers to the division of an area of land into smaller units,
which have similar characteristics related to land suitability, potential production and
environmental impact.
An AEZ is a land resource mapping unit, defined in terms of climate, landform and soils,
and/or land cover, and having a specific range of potentials and constraints for land use
(FAO 1996). The essential elements in defining an agro-ecological zone are the growing
period, temperature regime and soil mapping unit.

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There are several systems for describing Agro-ecological zones in the Tropics. In Kenya
two are used:
 The FAO classification for tropics generally, and
 an older Kenya version which is only applicable in Kenya

Classification of Kenya Agro-Ecological Zones

Simple agro-ecological zones were established by FAO in 1981. They are suited to make
decisions in international and long term agricultural policy. In order to give advice to
farmers in the districts a more differentiated system showing yield probabilities and
risks as well had to be developed:

1. The zone groups are temperature belts defined according to the maximum
temperature limits within the main crops in Kenya can flourish; cashew and coconuts
for the lowlands, sugar cane and cotton for the lower midlands, Arabica coffee for the
upper midlands (usually known as "Highlands" - the term "midlands" is used here to
denote their central importance), tea for the lower highlands, pyrethrum for the upper
highlands. The highest zone is high altitude rough grazing i.e. tropical alpine (or afro-
alpine) vegetation. The threshold values of annual mean temperatures have been
established along similar lines but supplemented by limiting factors for many crops e.g.
mean minimum temperatures, frost, etc.

2. The main zones are based on their probability of meeting the temperature and water
requirements of the main leading crops. The name of the main zones refers to
potentially leading crops though many of them can be grown in other zones too:
 Wheat in zones: UH 2-3; LH 2-4
 Maize zones: LH 1-3; UM 1-4; LM 1-4 (+5); L 2-4 (+5)
 Hybrid maize in zones: LH 1-3; UM 1-3; LM 1-3
 Unirrigated rice in zones: L 1-3; LM 1-2
 Irrigated rice in zones: L 1-6; (7); LM 1-6, (7)

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 Sorghum in zones: UM (1-3), 4-5; LM (1-3), 4-5; L (1-3), 4-5
 Finger millet in zones: LH (1-3); UM (1-3), 4; LM (1-3), 4, (5); L (1-3), 4, (5)
 Groundnuts in zones: LM (1-2), 3-4; L (2-3), 4
 Cotton in zones: LM (2), 3-4; L (2), 3-4
( ) means that in these zones the crop is normally not competitive to related crops (f.i.
dwarf millets to maize)

Kenya has a wide diversity of agro-climatic conditions reflecting variations in altitude,

temperature, soil conditions and level and reliability of rainfall. The contrasts between
the highland areas with ample rainfall and rich volcanic soils and the semi-arid areas
with low and erratic rainfall and poor soils are particularly marked. The various agro-
climatic zones (ACZ) as described (Jaetzold and Schmidt, 1983) are presented in Table
2. ACZ 1-4 are associated with arable farming while the systems in ACZ 5-7 are mostly
pastoralist. According to the classification of world production systems as described by
Seré et al. (1996), production systems in ACZ 1-4 corresponds to mixed farming, rain
fed, highlands/ temperate (MRT), while those systems in ACZ 5-7 correspond to
grassland-based, humid/ sub-humid (LGA).

Table 2: Classification of agro-climatic zones in Kenya

ACZ Climatic Description Moisture index Annual rainfall (mm) % area
(%)
1 humid >80 1,100-2,700 -
2 sub-humid 65-80 1,000-1,600 12
3 semi-humid 50-64 800-1,400 -
4 semi-humid to semi- 40-49 600-1,000 5
arid
5 semi-arid 25-39 450-900 15
6 arid 15-24 350-550 22
7 very arid <15 150-250 46
Modified from: Sombroek et al. (1982).

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The agro-ecological climate of Kenya

Intensification and land ownership

 Intensification of production is related to land ownership in several ways.
 Intensive agriculture or livestock husbandry use labour, capital and/or knowledge

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more intensively per unit of land area and achieve higher rates of production per hectare.
 Intensification of agricultural production is related to pressure on the land or to
lucrative field of activity.
 Scarcity of land leads to shortening of rotation periods, i.e. the frequency of
cultivation increases per unit of time or space.

Where production is limited to a relatively small area, it is compensated, if possible, by

raised production per unit of surface area. This results from the introduction of:
 more productive varieties which respond better to inputs
 species of higher calorific value such as tubers in place of cereals
 Higher value added cultivation; fruit-culture or market gardening.

LIVESTOCK AND ENVIRONMENT

The aim of this topic is to equip the learners with principles, knowledge and skills for:
a. Assessing structural requirements of production systems
b. Assessing advantages of controlled environments
c. Tips for construction of livestock structures:
d. Design structures that meet functional and structural requirements based on the five
freedoms of animal welfare

Definition of Environment
There are a lot of definitions for the word ‘environment’ in the literal and scientific
contexts, but the most acceptable definitions are:
Environment can be defined as:
 The natural surroundings of that organism which directly or indirectly influences the
growth and development of the organism.
 The surroundings in which an organization operates including air, water, land and
natural resources, flora, fauna, humans and their inter relations”
 The sum total of all surroundings of a living organism, including natural forces and
other living things, which provide conditions for development and growth as well as

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danger and damage
 All of the biotic and abiotic factors that act on an organism, population, or ecological
community and influence its survival and development.
 The sum total of all living and non-living factors that compose the surroundings of
man.
 With environment being such a generalized term, its classification and an
understanding of its composition becomes a necessity.
Classification of Environment

Atmosphere
PHYSICAL
ENVIRONMENT Hydrosphere

Lithosphere

Flora
ENVIRONMENT BIOLOGICAL
ENVIRONMENT Fauna

Microbial

Society
CULTURAL
ENVIRONMENT Economy

Politics

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 Climatic Factors
PHYSICAL
Ventilation
ENVIRONMENT

Husbandry Designs

Nutrition
ENVIRONMENT CHEMICAL
ENIRONMENT Toxic Chemicals

Poisonous Plant

Disease Organisms
BIOLOGICAL
ENVIRONMENT Social Environment
Reproductive Environ

HIGHLIGHT AREAS OF CONCERN TO A BIOSYSTEMS ENGINNER.

Thus, the interaction of the animal with the environment may be examined under the
followings headings;
A. The physical environment includes:
Temperature, light, humidity and ventilation;
Husbandry designs, which include walls, feeders, types of flooring, position and type of
drinker, mating pens.
B. The chemical environment includes:
The nutritional environment and additives, such as antibiotics, probiotics, growth
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promotants, vitamins and flavourants;
Toxic chemicals that may be used in sprays, dips, etc., and their effects;
Poisonous plants.
C. The biological environment includes:
Disease organisms: Pathogenic microorganisms and parasites may affect any of the
systems mentioned and this, in turn, influences the behaviour and welfare of the animal.
Social environment: This can be considered as:
 The effect of man on his animals, which includes transport and movement of animals,
husbandry procedures, and design of facilities for animals.
 The effect of different species, for example, predators.
 The effect of other animals of the same species, including crowding and over-
crowding. Crowding has a physical dimension (i.e. density/m2) and a social element.
Reproductive environment: This includes:
 The mating environment and the actual animal to be mated. Some males prefer
certain females and females may refuse to mate with a certain male. The mating
environment must be acceptable, and in groups of animals, a dominant male can affect
the whole reproductive behaviour.
 Sight, sound and smell form an important part of the reproductive environment.

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
The natural environment: encompasses all living and non-living things occurring
naturally on earth or some region thereof. It is an environment that encompasses the
interaction of all living species. The concept of the natural environment can be
distinguished by components:

Main aspects/Components of Natural environment

 Complete ecological units that function as natural systems without massive human
intervention, including all vegetation, microorganisms, soil, rocks, atmosphere and
natural phenomena that occur within their boundaries.
 Universal natural resources and physical phenomena that lack clear-cut boundaries,
such as air, water, and climate, as well as energy, radiation, electric charge, and
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magnetism, not originating from human activity.
 The natural environment is contrasted with the built environment, which comprises
the areas and components that are strongly influenced by humans. Thus,
Environmental Engineering:
 Environmental engineering in animal production denotes human interventions to
manipulate the natural environment of the animal for higher production.
 Environmental engineering involves the construction of physical structures for
different purposes depending on the particular production system.
 Intensive production systems such as pigs, poultry, zero grazing dairy units and
feedlot beef cattle production require a high number of different physical structures.
 On the other hand, extensive production systems have minimal structural
requirements.

Therefore, livestock environmental engineering involves any structure

affecting/controlling relation of livestock to their environment.

Purpose of structures
 Control of the environment
 Control of animals
 Enhance animal performance: levels and efficiency.
 Optimize profitability: economics of production.

Can animal production enterprise afford to have structures?

Yes, it can afford to have structures because:
 More paying through:
 Milk in urban and peri-urban areas: - Dairy cattle
 Pig meat processed products (urban areas): Pigs
 Eggs and broilers (urban areas): Poultry
 Land is expensive: must be used intensively (yield more) hence expensive
structures.

21
No, it can’t afford to have structures because:
 Less paying:
 Milk in rural and especially ASAL areas:- Other cattle, Camels
 Eggs and Chickens: Free range poultry
 Meat products and by-products: Pastoral Cattle sheep and goat production
 Ranches: may have more structures because of value attached to animals
 Land value is less or communally owned: minimal structures.

HOW ANIMALS RELATE WITH THEIR ENVIRONMENTS

The common senses
Taste: governs feed acceptability
Smell: governs feed acceptability and provides interface with the environment
Sight: governs feed acceptability and provides interface with the environment
Hearing: governs access to feed and provides interface with the environment
Touch: governs access to feed and provides interface with the environment

Air Quality Perceptions

Oxygen partial pressures
Presence of offensive materials in the air

22
 Inputs: Solar radiation (direct and reflected)

Other thermal radiation

Heat generation
Feed

Sources
Radiation of heat exchange Milk
Faeces

Ventilation: Purifying air and regulating temperature

 To carry away foul air and heat
 To remove moisture from microclimate
 Avoid drafts (cold winds)
Factors affecting comfort ability
 Dry body temperature
 Relative humidity
 Air movement

23
 Radiation on a cold day
Examples of natural ventilation windows
One window Two same level windows

High windows low window Wide window narrow window

Windows test scenarios with visible chalk dust

One window in two windows out Slat-gap-window one window

24
Building arrangements
In rows In broken rows

FUNCTIONS OF FARM STRUCTURES

Protective functions:

25
Climate: Undesirable elements from the external environment (climatic stress) such as
Temperature: either too high in tropical conditions or too low in temperate conditions.
This can be altered by structures that provide shade, insulation or ventilation
Humidity: If high, it causes aggravation of high temperature stress. May be reduced by
ventilation where possible
Wind speed: Stressful if high. Housing of animals and provision of wind breaks for
grazing animals is advisable

Protective functions from animal waste

Urine and faeces: Important only in intensive production systems such zero grazing or
poultry farming. The structures should ensure:
Separation of the animals from the waste e.g. Battery cage system
Construction of a sleeping area free from dung in zero grazing units
Adequate drainage
Adequate ventilation
Adequate handling of waste products
Adequate lighting. This keeps microbial activities to a minimum
Protective functions against predators and each other
 During grazing or at night. E.g. fencing, housing
 Facilitation of animal handling — crush, holding .yards (PROTECTION OF HANDLERS)
 Disease control: structures such as e.g. dips, foot baths and spray races Feeding and
watering facilities e.g. troughs

Productive functions
Structure designed to control feeding and production processes. (E.g. feed troughs and
controlled grazing through fencing))

Principle elements/parameters to be considered are

 Production systems
 Labour effects or needs
 Productive Activities: Product collection, processing and animal operations
26
 Productive environment
 Animal behaviour
 Materials available

Economics of structures
Animal operations
Assistance in handling and processing of animal products and feeds. These include
 Egg collection facility which could be automated or manual
 Poultry slaughtering facilities
 Dark areas for laying eggs if chicken are reared in groups
 Milking parlours with or without milking machines depending on the
 Dairy for on farm processing and packaging, milk stores and cooling facilities
 Storage of feed, farm equipment and farm records e.g. hay barns, silos, farm office
and general store.

Constructive functions.
 Internal Physical stresses: roof weight, wall strength
 External physical stresses: wind, rain, soil movement, drying and wetting of soils,
earthquakes.
 Atmospheric stresses: moisture heat, gases
 Biological stresses: micro and macro, fungi and ants and termites.
 Domestic animal stress: Physical and chemical

Fences
Purposes:
 Maintain boundaries
 Facilitate operations
 Reduce animal and crop losses
 Increase land value
 Promote good neighbourliness
 Reduce accidents
27
 Add attractiveness

Materials:
Stone walls, timber, thorn bushes and live hedges
Night enclosures may be made with wire netting or thorn bushes
Constructed from hurdles. These are posts and rail unit made from timber.
Straw bales may be used as temporary fences for small stock. They also protect from
the wind

Houses:
Offer total protection from weather and predators.
Types: Human and animal houses
Location
Orientation
Wind direction
Efficiency: walking, movement organization, supervision
Yard organization
Fire protection
Appearance: attractiveness, manure and waste disposal – Gates and lanes
Should facilitate maximum air flow but not drafts. Tall buildings and narrow buildings
painted black inside and white outside; without obstructions in high temperature areas.
Short well insulated buildings in low temp areas
Ventilation important in regulating humidity: Natural or Forced.
Orientation should depend on heating cooling requirements.
Roof may not be essential for large animals.

TYPES OF PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

What is a production system? A production system is a collection of links and
interacting factors between components of an entity with a common aim.

Components of Integrated Livestock Production Systems

28
Plants: Forms an important feed resource base for livestock production system e.g.
pasture grasses, cereal grains, tree legumes, shrubs etc.
Animals: Domestic animals: cattle, sheep, goats etc. and wildlife: include a wide range
of animals e.g. antelopes, elephants, lions etc.

LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

Introduction
 Farm animals are produced and exploited with the practical purpose of producing a
definite output with a stated financial return i.e. (the economic/commercial objective).
 It is therefore important to consider the favourable circumstances or environment in
which this return can be maximized and consequently take into account the economic
parameters within which the animal are being raised.
 A farm animal can be considered as a system from which, starting with known inputs
under given conditions, the production value can be expressed in physical quantities
(e.g. meat, milk, egg, wool – kg live weight per steer, litres per cow per day, eggs per hen
per year/clutch) or in financial terms (value in Ksh or US$)
 The animal or its larger organization the herd/flock, not only produces but also
reproduces, a function that enables expansion of the herd/flock.
 In animal production, it’s important to consider the following:
 Objective of production
 The choice (e.g. species/class)
 Means (production system) of production and the constraints imposed by the chosen
system of production

When discussing livestock production systems the following FOUR overarching themes
need to be addressed: These are;
a) The 4 essential considerations of any livestock production system
b) The 4 components of a livestock production system
c) The 4 factors influencing livestock productivity in a production system
d) The FIVE Freedoms of Animal Welfare

29
a). Essential considerations
1. Subsistence or commercial system
 Livestock production systems are always linked to a consumer or a market. The
simplest food production is the subsistence system when you're raising food to meet
the basic needs of your family.
 The commercial system on the other hand produces food for profit/ the market (local,
regional or international).
 The type of market determines the type of system that will be set up and has to take
into consideration the diets preference and the import and export legislation of the
market.
 In addition a commercial system needs to have set goals is the venture short-term or
long-term.
 A long-term commercial system need to be sustainable by being flexible enough to
conform to the changing market demands of the future.

2. Availability of Resources
 The main resources that impact on the livestock production systems are land, labour
and capital others include feed and water availability.
 For instance, if the land available to you is in a mountainous and marginal (arid) area.
It is going to be hard to raise exotic European dairy cows and you will be restricted to
sheep and goats that are adapted to this environment.
 The amount of land available will also determine if you can have an extensive or
small scale production system.
 Labour expertise will also determine the success of your production system as
animals have the genetic potential to produce but management factors especially
nutritional management will impacts on how the genetic potential of the animal will be
expressed.
 Access to capital determines the level of technology investment that will ease labour
and allow efficiency. Capital will also determine the size of the production system.

3. The production cycle of the animal

30
 The production cycle runs from the birth to the time that animal starts production
and is eventually removed from the herd.
 Different breeds of animals that are specialized in their ability to contribute to one
part of the food chain. For example, we have poultry lines specific for meat or egg
production.
 The advancement of genetic (DNA) technology has also allowed the selection of
animals with certain beneficial traits such as parasite resistance.
 Understanding how to manage the different phases of the production cycle is critical
to ensure its profitability and sustainability. Figure 2 depicts the production cycle of a
dairy cow.

Figure 2: Typical lifecycle of a cow

4. The final product

The final product of the production system has to ensure it considers the following
31
emerging issues
(i) Animal welfare - There is a growing ethical awareness amongst producers and
consumers in ensuring products produced are from animals that have been reared and
handled in a humane manner. Research has shown optimizing welfare of animals
directly correlates to optimum production.
(ii) Public health safety- Product should be safe from diseases and other harmful
products such as antibiotic residues. Producers use antibiotics to treat infections and
prevent infections so as to maximise on growth and production of livestock. Antibiotic
residues in animal products means that humans have repeated exposure to low doses
of antimicrobials this has been associated with increased incidence of antibiotic
resistance in man.
(iii) Sustainably produced - When designing livestock production systems one has to
take into consideration how the system is impacting on the environment. We need to
know how to manage animal waste material, such as manure and be aware how the
mechanical, electrical and other energy demands are impacting on the ecosystem
(carbon footprint of the production system).

b) Components of production system

The 4 components of a livestock production system.
A system is defined as a set of interacting or interdependent components that form a
complex/intricate whole and working with a common aim.
A livestock production system includes resources (inputs), production processes
(throughputs), products (outputs) and feedback mechanisms.
1. Inputs can be divided into two groups-Physical inputs are naturally occurring things
such as water, raw materials and the land. Human or Cultural Inputs are things like
money, technology, labour, and skills.
2. Processes or Throughputs are the actions within the farm that allow the inputs to
turn into outputs. Processes could include things such as shearing, milking, harvesting,
feed formulation and breeding strategy.
3. Outputs can be negative or positive, although they are usually the positive. Negative
outputs include waste products and soil erosion. The positive outputs are the finished
32
products, such as meat, milk and eggs, and the money gained from the sale of those
products.
4. Feedback is what is put back into the system. The main two examples of this are

money, from the sale of the outputs and knowledge gained from the whole
manufacturing process. This knowledge could then be used to make the product better
or improve the efficiency of the processes.

c) Important factors in production system

The important factors in the production system which influence productivity includes;
The animal itself – Its genotypes as an engine of production and interaction with
environment (phenotype)
The production environment – conducive environment for maximum gain
The stockman - whose decisions determine the nature of animal/ herd exploitation
Management – The different types and techniques of animal husbandry (Care and
management of livestock)

d) Animal Welfare in Farm Animals

Animal welfare refers to physical, physiological and psychological (mental) state of an
animal as regards its attempt to cope with the environment (depends on what the
animal is feeling). The welfare of a sentient animal is determined by its capacity to
33
 avoid suffering and sustain fitness. This satisfaction enhances expression of normal
behavioural patterns by the animal. To a large degree, how animals behave determines
their usefulness as agricultural animals. All animals whether wild or domesticated, act
in certain ways. By studying how animals act in their environment, scientists can better
understand how to keep the animals contented and safe. Also, this knowledge helps in
designing production systems that can make best use of the animal’s nature. Producers
are better equipped in providing for and producing animals through an understanding of
animal behavior.

The practical criteria for assessment of welfare of livestock production are often based
on the concept of the Five Freedoms laid down in the Report of the Technical
Committee to Enquire into the Welfare of Animals kept under Intensive Livestock
Husbandry Systems, the “Brambell Report” (1965). The interpretation by the FAWC
(1992) is generally used:
The FIVE Freedoms of Animal Welfare are:
i. Freedom from hunger and thirst: ready access to a diet to maintain good health and
vigour and water,
ii. Freedom from pain, injury and disease: preventing disease occurrence and provision
of treatment in diseased individuals,
iii. Freedom from fear and distress: avoiding exposing the animal to conditions that
cause mental suffering,
iv. Freedom to have normal behaviour patterns: provision of sufficient space and
appropriate physical structures and,
v. Freedom from thermal or physical discomfort: achieved through provision of a
comfortable environment.

For optimum performance, animals need to be provided with ample comfort related to
these five freedoms. They should be kept in housing or environments that will minimize
adverse climatic variations or exposures to extremes of cold or heat, rain, strong
continuous winds and direct solar exposures. Appropriate conditions minimizing
trauma, development of lesions and disease outbreaks are essential. Continuous
34
availability of water and provision of adequate wholesome feeds, which consist of
balanced constituent rations supplying specific nutritional needs to the body, is required.
Animals should be provided with housing conditions and environments that allow them
to display natural behaviour such as unhindered movement, free expression of oestrus
or heat symptoms necessary for mating or insemination in order to have continued
sustainable reproduction, social relationships that include animal-to-animal and animal-
to-human cordial interactions; and finally minimizing or preventing any causes of
suffering as much as possible.

Livestock Production Systems Classifications

The 4 main classification of production systems are;
1. Extensive Livestock Production systems

Characteristics, Advantages and Disadvantages: Classroom assignment

Examples: Free range/scavenging system in poultry, Scavenging or backyard systems
in pigs, Free range grazing in sheep, goats, cattle and camel, Various form of
pastoralism, Nomadic herding is an extreme example of extensive farming where
herders move their animals to maximize on pastures from occasional rainfall, Extensive
fish farming mainly in lakes, rivers, dams and other water reservoirs.

2. Intensive Livestock Production Systems

Characteristics, Advantages and Disadvantages: Classroom assignment
Examples: Battery cage and deep litter system in poultry, Zero grazing in dairy cattle
and goat, Commercial ranching and feedlot in beef cattle, Managed intensive rotational

35
grazing for cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, poultry among other animals, Intensive
aquaculture largely used for trout production.

3. Semi-Intensive Livestock Production Systems

Characteristics, Advantages and Disadvantages: Classroom assignment
Examples:
4. Integrated Livestock Production Systems
Characteristics, Advantages and Disadvantages: Classroom assignment
Examples:

Livestock Production Systems in Sub-Saharan Africa

Husbandry in broad terms includes the general productive process in an economic
endeavor. In farming, animal husbandry can be looked at in three broad categories
which take into account a combination of four different characteristics:
a) the way of life
b) the characteristics of the natural resources (water, pasture), whether permanent or
seasonal, and according to the levels of production
c) the relations with other agricultural activities
d) the types of movement made

On the basis of these can be distinguished nomadic, transhumant and sedentary

husbandry.
Nomadic husbandry: is a form of husbandry where the husbandry with the way of life of
the groups that practice it are fundamentally intermixed. Nomadic husbandry does not
have any complementarity or association with working on the land. It is the principal
activity of a group or tribe, organized in part on the basis of access to water resources.
There is also a “pure” system of nomadic husbandry based on movements after the
water holes dry up in the dry season.
36
Transhumant husbandry: The term derives from the Latin, humus (soil). It is generally a
periodic, seasonal movement of livestock to use seasonal pastures. It applies equally to
the system of husbandry based on the intermittent movement of stock which may be
necessary because of the seasonal scarcity of resources i.e. involves the movement of
livestock to use seasonal grazing and water supplies. Transhumance often involves
long distance movements of livestock, in some cases over as much as hundreds of
kilometres. Increasing strains are put on relations between transhumant and sedentary
farmers with severe droughts, increased herd sizes resulting from improved animal
health and increased agricultural areas. It concerns the management and exploitation
of livestock during their greater or lesser movements from the base area. Once they
have reached these grazing, the livestock can move to specific lands attached. This
form of husbandry is characterized by strong specialization in the village population
between the shepherds and herders and the cultivators. In Europe, transhumance is
practiced between areas of low altitude, where animals are stabled during the winter,
and areas of high alpine pastures. Transhumance of cattle has been known for a very
long time in the Mediterranean basin. In sub-Saharan Africa, where the mobility of
animals is an essential characteristic of husbandry and in many regions is a condition
of their survival, transhumance remains very strong.

Sedentary husbandry is found in areas of abundant natural resources all year round.
This form of husbandry includes the management and use of livestock, where the
movements take place within the same area of farmland. It is practiced in association
with or is complimentary to working on the land. There can also be a system of agro-
pastoralism surrounding the villages.

PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL NUTRITION

The concepts most commonly used relate either to the animal (as the user of feed) or
the feed (as the source of nutrients).
Concepts related to animal productivity
Productivity: The term 'productivity' refers to the ability of an animal to grow, reproduce
37
and produce outputs such as milk, wool, draught power, transport etc. To perform these
functions on a sustained basis, essential nutrients in the form of energy, proteins,
minerals, vitamins and water (above those necessary for the maintenance of normal
body functions), must be provided. For a given animal species, the level of production
achieved will, in turn, depend on the quantity and nutritive value of feed available, breed,
genetic potential, sex, age and management.

Maintenance: When an animal is not reproducing or producing any other output, and
when body weight and condition are stable (i.e. the ratio between fat and muscle), it is
said to be in maintenance condition with its energy requirements in 'balance' or
'equilibrium.

Metabolism: Metabolism is the sum of all the physical and chemical processes taking
place in living organisms. Some of these processes involve the degradation or
decomposition of complex compounds to simpler materials (catabolism) and others
involve the synthesis of simpler materials into complex compounds (anabolism). The
excretion of waste products from the body is part of the metabolic process.
Fasting metabolism: The amount of energy used for the maintenance of an animal is
known as fasting metabolism.
Fasting metabolism (kcal of NE/day) = 70 W0.75 where:
NE = net energy
W = the animal's live-weight in kilograms, and
W0.75 = the so-called 'metabolic weight' of the animal.

Compensatory growth: refers to the ability of an animal to recuperate or recover growth

after periods of underfeeding. As a general rule, the earlier in life nutritional stress
occurs and the longer the period of feed deprivation, the less the compensatory growth
will be. In the African rangelands, periods of nutritional stress are common because of
long dry seasons and frequent droughts (Figure 1).

38
Figure 1: Patterns of growth [Source: Davies (1982, p. 14)].

Condition: The condition of an animal is reflected in the proportion of body fat and
muscle on its carcass. It is a more reliable indicator of an animal's nutritional status
than body weight since variations in the latter may merely result from changes in gut fill,
body water, parturition etc.

Intake: Intake is the amount of feed voluntarily consumed by an animal and determined
by
 the availability, palatability and digestibility of feed
 The nutrient content of the feed e.g. feed intake is depressed when a diet contains
inadequate amounts of minerals, vitamins and various sources of nitrogen, or when it is
poorly digestible.
 bite size and frequency which, in turn, is influenced by plant structure and feed
availability
 the physiological status of an animal e.g. pregnant animal have different intake
requirements according to litter size and stage of gestation
 Environmental conditions i.e. the availability of water will affect the amount of feed an
39
animal consumes, as will temperature and humidity.
 Infectious, parasitic and metabolic diseases, which may depress intake.

Feed selection and palatability: Animals show distinct preferences for particular types
of feed. The animals' feed preferences are influenced by feed availability, plant structure,
nutrient deficiencies (e.g. salt) and appetite. In addition, different species of animals
prefer different types of feed.
a. Palatability is a subjective concept and refers to the assumed reason behind an
animal's choice of one source of feed over another (e.g. the choice between different
parts of a plant or the choice between different plants).
b. Selection is an objective term, referring to the actual choice that is made. The ability
of an animal to select feed of an adequate quantity and nutritive value affects its
productivity.

Grazing time: This is the amount of time a ruminant spends consuming feed. If applied
to actual grazing on pasture, the definition can be widened to include time spent
browsing, consuming stover etc. Grazing time is determined by the availability and
nutritive value of feed and by the management system used. There is often an inverse
relationship between grazing time per day and the quantity and quality of feed available.

Feed-related concepts
Nutrition: is the study of processes in which an animal consumes, digests, absorbs, and
metabolizes the components of a feedstuff to promote maintenance, reproductive and
productive functions.

Digestibility: The digestibility of a feed determines the amount that is actually absorbed
by an animal and therefore the availability of nutrients for growth, reproduction etc.
a. Apparent digestibility is estimated by subtracting nutrients contained in the faeces
from nutrients contained in the dietary intake. Therefore, it does not account for
nutrients lost as methane gas or as metabolic waste products excreted in the faeces.
b. True digestibility is estimated by correcting for the endogenous and microbial
40
amount of a nutrient actually lost in the faeces.

The measurement of apparent digestibility is less complex than measuring true

digestibility and, therefore, more suited to the requirements of diagnostic livestock
systems research.
Nutrients: are components of food which are capable of been utilized by animals. There
are 6 essential nutrients: Water; Carbohydrates (crude fibre + Nitrogen free extract);
Fats/Lipids; Proteins; Vitamins and Minerals. The entire discussion on the principles of
animal nutrition is aimed at understanding of these 6 nutrients. What they are, and how
are they used by animals.
Nutrients support cellular needs for water, fuels, structural constituent (Skin, muscles,
bones, nerves, fat) and metabolites regulation. Nutrients required in the diet because
they cannot be synthesized by the body in sufficient amount to satisfy metabolic needs
are termed “Essential” nutrients.

Carbohydrates and fats: a source of energy and required to maintain the body and
produce (milk, meat, work). The carbohydrates and fats not needed for production are
converted to fat and stored in the body.

Crude protein: Protein is the basic structural material from which all body tissues (e.g.
muscles, nerves and blood cells) are formed i.e. essential for production and
maintenance and cannot be replaced by other nutrients in the feed.

Ruminants are able to synthesize protein from non-protein nitrogen (NPN) sources (e.g.
urea) by microbial action in the rumen. The nitrogen content of a feed is, therefore, often
used to estimate the amount of protein available to the ruminant, which is expressed as
the crude protein (CP) content of a feed and calculated as: % CP = % nitrogen content x
6.25 where the figure 6.25 is based on the assumption that feed protein contains, on
average, 16% nitrogen.

Fibre: refers to the cell-wall content of feeds and consists of carbohydrates

41
(hemicellulose and cellulose) and lignin. Carbohydrates are partially available for
digestion by rumen micro-organisms and represent a major source of energy for
ruminants. The lignin component of the fibre fraction limits the digestibility of cell-wall
carbohydrates.
VFAs: CAT question
Crude fibre (which is used in the Wende system of feed analysis) is a poor estimate of
cell-wall content because it does not recover lignin and hemicellulose. Instead, the
detergent system of analysis should be used where feasible, although there are other
methods for estimating total fibre.
Minerals: Minerals are required for tissue growth and the regulation of body functions.
They are normally categorized as macro-minerals (when required in the order of g/day)
or as micro-minerals (when required in mg/day or less). So far, 22 mineral elements
have been shown to be essential to animal nutrition (Table 1).
Table 1. Essential mineral nutrients.
Macro-minerals: Ca P Na K Mg S Cl
Micro-minerals: Cu Zn Ma Mo Se I Fe Co
F V Sn Ni Cr Si As
In tropical feeds, deficiencies of phosphorus (P), sodium (Na) and copper (Cu) are those
most likely to occur, while deficiencies of potassium (K) and chorine (CL) and of the
micro-minerals listed in the bottom row of the table are most unlikely in the field.

Vitamins: Vitamins are organic substances required by animals in very small amounts
for the regulation of various body processes which ensure normal health and production.
Under most conditions, the ruminant is able to synthesize most of its vitamin
requirements. Ruminants do not synthesize vitamin A which can be deficient in tropical
pastures and crop residues. The synthesis of vitamin B12 requires Co which may also
be deficient in these feeds.

Energy: The amount of energy in (or the energy content of) feed potentially utilizable by
animals can be expressed in the form of Gross Energy (GE), Digestible Energy (DE),
Metabolisable Energy (ME) or Net Energy (NE) for maintenance and production. The
42
relationships between them are as follows:
DE = GE - energy lost in faeces (for pigs)
ME = DE - energy lost in urine and gases (for poultry)
NE = ME - heat loss (heat increment) (for dairy)
Gross energy: is the total heat of combustion of a feed substance measured in calories
or Joules per unit weight of dry matter (DM) or organic matter (OM). Because it takes
no account of energy losses, gross energy provides no real indication of the energy
value of a feed.
Net Energy: is the energy actually available for maintenance and production (after all
losses have been accounted for). It is the most precise estimate of a feed's energy
value, but, because of the complexities involved, net energy is rarely measured.
Digestible Energy: is commonly taken as an indicator of a feed's energy value because
faecal losses are relatively easy to measure.
Metabolisable energy can be approximated by multiplying digestible energy by a factor
of 0.82.

Total digestible nutrients (TDN) is another method of expressing the energy content of
feeds or the energy requirements of cattle. TDN is comparable to digestible energy. It
43
has been in use longer than the net energy system and more values are available for
feedstuffs.

TDN = Digestible Nitrogen-Free Extract (NFC) or carbohydrate

+ digestible crude fiber
+ digestible protein
+ (digestible ether extract x 2.25)
Nitrogen-Free Extract (NFC %) = 100 - [%N\CF + %CP + %EE + %ash])

Note: Energy is not a nutrient but a property of energy yielding nutrient is when they are
oxidized during metabolism. It is required in the diet of all animals and can be provided
by fat, carbohydrate and by the carbon skeleton of amino acid after removal of nitrogen.

Dry-matter (DM) weight is determined by drying the feed in the oven at 105°C for 12-15
hours and weighing. Dry organic matter (DOM) is determined by weighing the dry
matter, then burning its organic matter in a furnace at 550°C for eight hours. The
difference between the dry-matter weight and the weight of the ash remaining is the
DOM weight of the feed. In dry tropical pastures, DOM usually lies in the range of 90-
92% (by weight) of its parent dry-matter material.

Schematic view of the expected outcome of climate change as a consequence of

global warming on farm animal productivity and food security

44
45
Schematic representation of the effects of poor nutrition caused by seasonal weight
loss (SWL) on farm animal productivity and food security

46
Major factors influencing livestock productivity and their interconnection.
Preponderant factors (nutrition, climate, diseases, and parasites are shown with a
larger font size).

Factors influencing the nutritive value of herbage.

Stage of growth
 As plants grow there is a greater need for fibrous tissues to maintain their structure,
and therefore the main structural carbohydrates (cellulose and hemicelluloses) and
lignin increase, and the concentration of protein decreases; there is therefore an inverse
relationship between the protein and fibre contents in a given species.
 A further factor of nutritional importance is that the anatomy of the leaves of tropical
grasses differs from that of temperate grasses. In tropical grasses there are more
vascular bundles and thick-walled bundle sheaths, and hence more lignin, and in the
central tissue of the leaf the mesophyll cells are more densely packed than those in

47
temperate grasses.
Soils, fertilizers and weather
 Plants normally react to a mineral deficiency in the soil either by limiting their growth
or by reducing the concentration of the element in their tissues, or more usually by both.
 The acidity of the soil is an important factor that can influence, in particular, the
uptake of many trace elements by plants.
Grazing system
 If the rate of growth exceeds the rate of harvesting, herbage accumulates and
matures, thus reducing the nutritive value of the material on offer.
 However, an increase in the amount of herbage on offer allows the animals to graze
selectively, and they are able to compensate to some extent for the general fall in
nutritive value by selecting plants, or parts of plants, that are higher in nutritive value
than the rest.
Nutrient balance
 High fibre levels reduce digestibility and energy value.
 High contents of water-soluble carbohydrates are rapidly fermented in the rumen and
may depress the pH and so reduce fibre digestion.
 Conversely, low contents of these carbohydrates reduce microbial protein synthesis in
the rumen, leading to an increased uptake of ammonia, with consequent energy costs
of urea synthesis.
Physical aspects limiting the quality and utilization of feeds
1. Stage of growth: The nutritive quality of forages varies as they grow towards maturity.
After attainment of maturity, the forages generally depreciate in nutritive value. This is
mostly due to increase fibrous material, particularly lignin. For many types of forage, the
leaves die off systemically after attainment of maturity, and this reduces photosynthetic
activities.
2. Texture: The physical/textural changes which occur as forages grow can impact on
palatability, intake and animal digestive physiology. The palatability can be
compromised as the forages age because of increase in toughness and crude fibre.
This can further complicate issues if some species and classes of livestock e.g. young

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ones are unable to consume fibrous old and tough forages or parts of.
3. Ratio of stem: foliage: It is important to have knowledge of the nutritive attributes of
the various morphological components of the individual forages. In fodder crops, the
leaf is in most cases the most nutritive component, hence the need to consider the
utilization of a forage when the biomass yield and leaf: stem ratio are optimal.
4. Processing: Where the cattle are stall fed with chopped roughage, the particle size
may play an important role in selection, intake and digestibility. Also, where different
feed resources are to be mixed, the particle size must be considered to enable
homogeneity in mixing. Generally, cattle do not prefer powdery or finely processed
feeds. Also, feed resources like molasses (semi-liquid) need to be mixed appropriately
with a carrier feed. Some feed additives or supplements are better provided in pellet or
lick block forms.
5. Appearance and Colour: Generally, feeds have their own typical appearance, which
the farmers are or should be familiar with. The appearance can be an important
attraction to both farmers and animals. Deviation from the typical appearance should be
taken seriously as this may have implication on quality. The colour of specific feed
resources can be good indicators for the quality of the feed.
6. Freshness: Freshness of the feeds can be indicated by e.g. colour, smell and/or
presence of mould and temperature. Generally, the cattle intake will be negatively
affected as the feed deteriorates in freshness. Consumption of stale feed can harm the
cattle due to toxicity.
7. Mould infested maize stovers as a result of poor conservation practice: Presence of
visible undesirable objects is also a good pointer to poor quality. The foreign bodies
may include soil, pieces of glass, polythene, nails and metals and wood particles or
rodent faeces.
8. Acceptability: Most animals have natural instinct of preference. It is therefore
possible that a good feed may be rejected because animals are not familiar with it and
have to get accustomed. On the other hand, rejection of certain feeds can be a good
indicator of hidden factors which should be identified and eliminated to improve the
intake.

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Factors affecting food digestibility in animals.
Food composition
 The digestibility of a food is closely related to its chemical composition, and a food
such as barley, which varies little in composition from one sample to another, will show
little variation in digestibility.
 Other foods, particularly fresh or conserved herbages, are much less constant in
composition and therefore vary more in digestibility.
 The fibre fraction of a food has the greatest influence on its digestibility, and both the
quantity and quality of the fibre are important.
 The digestibility of foods may be reduced by nutrient deficiencies or excesses,
particularly in ruminants.
 In foods for non-ruminants, anti-nutritional constituents that bind to proteins and
amino acids, such as tannins and saponins, may reduce their digestibility.
Ration composition
 The digestibility of a food is influenced not only by its own composition but also by the
composition of other foods consumed with it. These associative effects may be
positive or negative, although negative associative effects are perhaps the most
common.
 A positive associative effect occurs when the digestibility of one ration component is
enhanced by feeding it in combination with another.
 A negative associative effect occurs when the digestibility of one ration component is
reduced by feeding it in combination with another.

Food processing
 Foods are often processed before feeding in order to increase and optimize their
digestibility.
 The commonest treatments applied are normally chopping, chaffing, crushing and
grinding.
 Typically, cereal grains should be crushed for cattle and ground for pigs, otherwise
they may pass through the digestive tract intact.

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 Forages are subjected to several processes. The mildest process, chaffing, has little
direct effect on their digestibility but may reduce it indirectly by preventing selection of
the more digestible components by animals.
 The wafering of forages, a process involving their compression into round or square
section blocks, also has little effect on their digestibility.
 The most severe process, fine grinding (often followed by pelleting), has a marked
effect on the manner in which forages are digested and hence on their digestibility.
Because of their reduced particle size, ground forages pass through the rumen faster
than long or chopped material. Consequently, the fibrous components may be less
completely fermented
Enzyme supplementation of foods
 In non-ruminants, the digestive system is ill-equipped to deal with some foods
because the animals lack appropriate enzyme systems.
 Enzyme preparations (usually of fungal origin) may be added to foods to increase
nutrient availability.
 The most consistently successful enzyme additive has been the use of ß-glucanase in
poultry diets containing barley. ß-Glucans, which constitute a large part of the
endosperm cell wall of cereals, are largely indigestible.
Animal factors
 Digestibility is more a property of the food rather than of the animal consuming it.
 The most important animal factor affecting digestibility is animal species.
 Foods that are low in fibre are equally well digested by both ruminants and non-
ruminants, but foods high in fibre are better digested by ruminants.
Level of feeding
 An increase in the quantity of food consumed by an animal generally causes an
increase in the rate of passage of digesta. The food is then exposed to the action of
digestive enzymes for a shorter period of time and digestibility is reduced.
 In animals, level of feeding is often expressed in multiples of the quantity of food
required for maintenance.
 In ruminant feeding systems, the level of feeding for growing and fattening animals

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can be 2.0–3.0 times their maintenance requirement and for lactating animals 3.0–5.0
times their maintenance requirement.
 For high-fibre diets such as hay, silage and grazed grass, increasing the level of
feeding by 1 unit (e.g. from maintenance to twice maintenance) reduces the digestibility
of the diet by only a small proportion (0.01–0.02).
MAJOR FARM ANIMALS
Scientific Names of Domestic Animals
With a few exceptions, which are noted below, all breeds will be the same species. For
example all domestic chickens will be Gallus domesticus regardless of breed.
Animal Scientific Name
Poultry
Duck - Domestic Anas platyrhyncha
Duck - Muscovy Cairina moschata
Guinea Numida meleagris
Peafowl Phasianidae
Indian Blue Pavo cristatus
Java Green Pavo muticus
Congo Afropavo congensis
Pigeon Columbia livia
Jungle Hen Gallus gallus
Domestic Chicken Gallus domesticus
Turkeys Melleagris gallopavo
Japanese Quail Coturnix coturnix japonica
Equine
Horse Equus caballus
Ass or Donkey Equus asinus
Cattle
European Breeds Bos taurus
Tropical Breeds Bos indicus

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There are a number of cattle breeds which exist that are hybrids of Bos taurus and Bos
indicus. Examples of them would include the Sanga type cattle from Africa which
developed naturally hundreds of years ago and the synthetic breeds developed in the
1900's by crossing.
Other Domestic Livestock
Domestic Sheep Ovis aries
Domestic Goat Capra hircus
Domestic Swine Sus scrofa
Domestic Rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus
Other Species
Domestic buffalo Bubalus bubalis
American Bison Bison bison
Musk ox Ovibos moschatus
Reindeer Rangifer tarandus
Honey bee Apis mellifera
Dog Canis familiaris
Cat Felis catus

BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE

General characteristics of dairy animals
1. They should be long and thin i.e. should not carry much flesh
2. They should be wedge shaped
3. They should have large and well developed udder, which should be well attached to
the body and have good clearance from the ground
4. They should have large abdomen for higher feed intake
5. They should have wide hindquarters to provide room for attachment of the udder
and for easy calving

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6. They should be docile
MAJOR LIVESTOCK BREEDS IN KENYA

Ayrshire

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Coloring: red and white
Average Weight: 550 kg
Average output: 7,711kg of milk per 305 day-cycle/year
Butter Fat: 3.9%
Protein: 3.3%
Originated From: Scotland
Original Environment: harsh winters & rocky terrain
Known for: good udders, small fat molecules in the milk (easier to digest, makes
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creamy cheese)

Brown Swiss

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Coloring: light brown or gray/silver with a white muzzle and a dark nose
Average Weight: 1,300-1,400 lbs
Average output is 9,525kg of milk per 305 day-cycle/year.
Butter Fat: 4.0%
Protein: 3.5%
Originated From: Switzerland
Original Environment: harsh climate, slopes of the Alps in Switzerland
Known for: large quantity of milk, long lifespan, sturdiness & strength, ability to stay in
lactation longer than other breeds, best milk for cheese market (due to high protein and
large quantity), quiet temperament
Notes: large calves, may have difficulty calving first time
Guernsey

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Coloring: white and brown, orangish-red
Average output: 6,350kg milk per 305 day-cycle/year.
Butter Fat: 4.5%
Protein: 3.5%
Originated From: British Isle of Guernsey
Known for: good disposition, yellow milk because of extra Carotene/Vitamin A, few
problems with calving, quick breeders, early maturation

Holstein-Friesian

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59
Coloring: black and white or red and white
Average output: 12,700kg of milk per 305 day-cycle/year.
Butter Fat: 2.5-3.6%
Protein: 3.1%
Originated From: Germany
Original Environment: grass pastures
Known for: large quantity of milk, used in almost all commercial operations

Jersey

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Coloring: light brown, gray, brown, cream or black
Average output: 7,260kg per cycle
Butter Fat: 4.9%
Protein: 3.7%
Originated From: Britain’s Isle of Jersey
Known for: best disposition of all dairy cows, easy calving, early maturation, high fertility,
rich and creamy milk, hardy, not great beef but ok
Milking Shorthorn

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Coloring: red, or red and white
Average output: 6,990kg of milk per cycle.
Butter Fat: 3.8%
Protein: 3.3%
Originated From: Britain
Known for: easy calving, long lives, multi-purpose (beef, milk and pulling power)

Red Poll

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Coloring: red or red and white
Average Weight: 540 -570 kg
Butter Fat: 4-4.75%
Protein: 3.5%
Originated From: England
Environment: lush grass, sandy beaches and marshland
Known for: good for beef and milk, early to mature, long life, hardiness, docile
temperament, ability to gain weight from grass, good fertility, and healthy calves,
endangered.

DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL

Routine husbandry procedures
Practices or procedures performed in relation to the care and management of animals
with the primary purpose of maintaining their health and wellbeing and include, but
limited to, the following:
 vaccinations
 mulesing and tail docking lambs
 branding cattle
 castrating lambs and calves
 beak trimming of poultry
 Ear tattooing of pigs.

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