Mineral Resources: A Cambridge O

Level Perspective
This document provides a comprehensive overview of mineral resources, tailored to the Cambridge O Level
syllabus (2059/2). It explores the formation of minerals, mining processes, types of minerals, the mining
industry in Pakistan, its economic impact, environmental effects, sustainable development approaches, and the
challenges faced by coal miners in Pakistan.

by Ghaniya Akhtar
Formation of Minerals
Minerals are naturally occurring, inorganic solids with a definite chemical composition and a crystalline
structure. Their formation is a geological process that can occur in various ways:

Magmatic Crystallisation: As magma cools, different minerals crystallise at different temperatures. This
process leads to the formation of igneous rocks with varying mineral compositions.
Hydrothermal Activity: Hot, aqueous solutions circulate through rocks, dissolving and transporting
minerals. When these solutions cool or react with other rocks, minerals precipitate out, forming veins and
deposits.
Sedimentary Processes: Weathering and erosion break down existing rocks into sediments. These sediments
are transported and deposited, and over time, they become compacted and cemented together, forming
sedimentary rocks. Minerals can precipitate directly from seawater or lake water, such as halite (rock
salt) and gypsum.
Metamorphism: Existing rocks are subjected to high temperatures and pressures, causing them to undergo
changes in mineral composition and texture. This process can create new minerals that are stable under the
new conditions.
Mining Processes
The mining process involves extracting valuable minerals from the Earth. Different methods are used depending
on the type and location of the mineral deposit:

Surface Mining: This method is used when the mineral deposit is close to the surface. It involves removing
the overlying soil and rock (overburden) to expose the ore. Common surface mining techniques include:
Open-pit mining: Creating large, terraced pits to extract ore.
Strip mining: Removing overburden in strips to expose the ore.
Quarrying: Extracting building materials like limestone and granite.
Underground Mining: This method is used when the mineral deposit is deep underground. It involves digging
tunnels and shafts to access the ore. Underground mining techniques include:
Shaft mining: Using vertical shafts to access ore bodies.
Drift mining: Using horizontal tunnels to access ore bodies.
Slope mining: Using inclined tunnels to access ore bodies.
In-Situ Mining: This process involves the dissolving of minerals and pumping them to the surface without
removing any rock.
Metallic and Non-Metallic Minerals
Minerals are broadly classified into metallic and non-metallic minerals based on their chemical composition
and properties:

Metallic Minerals: These minerals contain one or more metallic elements. They are typically hard,
lustrous, and good conductors of heat and electricity. Examples include:
Iron ore (haematite, magnetite)
Copper ore (chalcopyrite, bornite)
Lead ore (galena)
Zinc ore (sphalerite)
Gold
Silver
Non-Metallic Minerals: These minerals do not contain metallic elements. They are typically insulators of
heat and electricity and have a wide range of properties. Examples include:
Limestone (calcite)
Gypsum
Salt (halite)
Clay minerals (kaolinite, montmorillonite)
Sand

Gravel
Pakistan's Mining Industry
Pakistan possesses a diverse range of mineral resources, contributing to its economy. Key minerals extracted
include:

Coal: Used for power generation and industrial processes. Major coalfields are located in Sindh and
Balochistan.
Chromite: Used in the production of stainless steel. Found in Balochistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.
Limestone: Used in cement manufacturing and construction. Abundant throughout the country.
Salt: Extracted from salt mines in the Potwar Plateau and used for industrial and domestic purposes.
Copper and Gold: The Saindak and Reko Diq projects in Balochistan hold significant reserves of copper and
gold, though their development has faced challenges.
Marble: Used for decorative purposes. Found in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Balochistan.

The mining sector faces challenges such as outdated technology, inadequate infrastructure, and environmental
concerns.
Mining and Economic Development
Mining can significantly contribute to economic development through:

Job Creation: Mining activities generate employment opportunities for skilled and unskilled workers.
Revenue Generation: Mineral exports and domestic sales contribute to government revenue through taxes and
royalties.
Infrastructure Development: Mining projects often require the construction of roads, railways, and power
plants, which can benefit surrounding communities.
Foreign Investment: Large-scale mining projects attract foreign investment, boosting economic growth.
Industrial Development: Mining provides raw materials for various industries, stimulating industrial
growth.

However, it's crucial to manage mining activities responsibly to ensure that the benefits are equitably
distributed and that environmental and social impacts are minimised.
Effects of Mining on the Environment
Mining can have significant negative impacts on the environment:

Deforestation: Mining operations often require clearing forests, leading to habitat loss and soil erosion.
Water Pollution: Mining can contaminate surface and groundwater with heavy metals, chemicals, and
sediment.
Air Pollution: Dust and emissions from mining activities can pollute the air, affecting human health and
vegetation.
Soil Degradation: Mining can disrupt soil structure and fertility, making it difficult for vegetation to
grow.
Land Degradation: Open-pit mines and tailings dams can leave behind large areas of degraded land.
Noise Pollution: Mining activities can generate high levels of noise, disturbing wildlife and human
communities.

It is essential to implement environmental management plans to minimise these impacts.

Environmental Impact Assessments: Conducting thorough assessments before starting mining projects to
identify and mitigate potential environmental impacts.
Rehabilitation and Reclamation: Restoring mined areas to their original state or to a productive
alternative use.
Waste Management: Implementing effective waste management practices to minimise pollution.
Community Engagement: Involving local communities in decision-making processes and ensuring that they
benefit from mining activities.
Responsible Sourcing: Promoting the responsible sourcing of minerals to ensure that they are produced in
an environmentally and socially responsible manner.

Technological Innovation: Adopting cleaner and more efficient mining technologies to reduce environmental
impacts.