SKELETAL SYSTEM

 Skeletal system functions as the basic framework of a body and the entire body are built around the hard
framework of Skeleton.
 It is the combination of all the bones and tissues associated with cartilages and joints.
 Joints helps in permitting the different types of movements at different locations.
 If the skeleton were without joints, then there would be no sign of the movements in the human body.

Functions of Skeletal System

The skeletal system performs several basic functions:

1. Support: The skeleton acts as the structural framework for the body by supporting soft tissues as well
as giving connection points for the tendons of the majority of skeletal muscles.
2. Protection: The skeleton guards the majority of vital interior organs against injury.
3. Assistance in Movement: Mainly skeletal muscles connect to bones; as soon as they contract, they
produce movement by pulling on the bones.
4. Mineral Homeostasis (storage and release): Bone tissue stores numerous minerals, particularly calcium
and phosphorus, which add to the strength of bone. Bone tissue stocks around 99% of the body’s
calcium.
5. Blood Cell Production: Inside specific bones, a connective tissue known as red bone marrow creates
red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets, in a process named hemopoiesis..
Structure
1. The human skeleton can be distributed into the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton.
2. The axial skeleton is created by the vertebral column, the rib cage, the skull and other associated
bones.
3. The appendicular skeleton, which is connected with the axial skeleton, is created by the shoulder
girdle, the pelvic girdle as well as the bones of the upper and lower limbs.
Components
Fibrous and mineralized connective tissues create the skeleton, which gives it firmness and flexibility. It consists of:
1. Bone
Bones are made up of collagen and calcium phosphate, a mineral crystal, and is a type of mineralized connective
tissue. Bones get their hardness from Calcium phosphate. Bone creates the most of the skeleton and is a calcified,
living, connective tissue. It contains an intercellular calcified matrix, which also consists of collagen fibres, as well
as numerous varieties of cells within the substance.
Functions of Bone
1. Supportive structures for the body
2. Protectors of vital organs
3. Reservoirs of calcium and phosphorus
4. Levers on which muscles act to produce movement
5. Containers for blood-producing cells.
Points to Remember
1. The osteocyte is defined as a cell that lies within the substance of fully formed bone.
2. It occupies a small chamber called a lacuna, which is present in the calcified matrix of bone.
3. Osteocytes are derived from osteoblasts, or bone-forming cells, and are essentially osteoblasts surrounded
by the products they secreted.
2. Cartilage
It is a type of fibrous connective tissue. The cartilage gives flexible support for certain structures in adult humans
including the nose, trachea, and ears. Cartilage is a type of connective tissue.
Functions of Cartilage
1. Support soft tissues.
2. Provide a smooth, sliding surface for bone articulations at joints.
3. Enable the development and growth of long bones.
3. Tendon
A fibrous band of connective tissue that joins bones and other connective tissues together at joints. Ligaments join
bones to other bones to form joints; however, tendons join bone to muscle. Certain ligaments restrict the movement
of articulations or prevent certain activities completely.
Functions of Tendon
1. Join Bone to Muscle
2. Supports joint
4. Ligament
It is bonded to bone and connects bone to bone and is a fibrous band of connective tissue. A tendon usually links
muscle to bone and is able to endure strain, and is a tough strap of fibrous connective tissue. Tendons and ligaments
both are created by collagen. Ligaments join one bone to another bone, while tendons connect muscle to bone.
There are four types of Ligaments:
1. Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL)- connects the thigh bone (femur) to your shin bone (tibia), runs
diagonally in the middle of the knee.
2. Posterior cruciate ligament (PCL)- strongest and largest intra-articular ligament in the human knee, the
primary posterior stabilizer of the knee.
3. Medial cruciate ligament (MCL)- connects your thigh bone to the bone of your lower leg
4. Lateral collateral ligament (LCL)- ligament located in the knee joint
Functions of Ligament
1. Responsible for movement.
2. Responsible for stability.
3. Hold the skeleton together and support the movement.
5. Joint
A location where two or more bones or other skeletal components are joined together.
Functions of Joint
1. Support soft tissues.
2. Provide a smooth, sliding surface for bone articulations at joints.
3. Enable the development and growth of long bones.
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Bones in the Human body
Bone Location

Frontal It is a bowl-shaped bone in the frontal (forehead) region of the skull located superior to the
Bone nasal bones and maxillae and anterior to the parietal bones.

Temporal The temporal bones are situated at the sides and base of the skull, and lateral to
Bone the temporal lobes of the cerebral cortex.

Nasal Bone Each human has two nasal bones located in the upper-middle area of the face, between the
maxillary (upper jaw) bones’ frontal processes.

Occipital The occipital bone is the trapezoidal-shaped bone found at the lower-back area of the cranium.
Bone

Sternum It protects the organs of your torso from injury and also serves as a connection point for other
bones and muscles and is present in the middle of the chest cavity.

Pelvic The pelvic girdle is a ring-like bony structure, located in the lower part of the trunk. It connects
Girdle the axial skeleton to the lower limbs.

Tarsus Bone It is a cluster of seven articulating bones in each foot situated between the lower end of
the tibia and the fibula of the lower leg and the metatarsus.

Femur Bone The femur is the only bone located within the human thigh.

Patella The patella is a small bone located in front of the knee joint where the thigh bone (femur) and
shinbone (tibia) meet

Ulna The ulna is one of two bones that make up the forearm, the other being the radius.

Radius The radius is a long bone in the forearm. It lies laterally and parallels the ulna, the second of
the forearm bones.

Carpal Bone The most commonly injured carpal bone is the scaphoid bone, located near the base of your
thumb.

Tibia The tibia is the bone that forms the shin and is the larger of the two lower-leg bones. The top of
the tibia connects to the knee joint and the bottom of the tibia connects to the ankle joint.

Fibula The fibula forms the calf bone. It is the smaller bone of the two lower-leg bones and runs parallel
to the tibia.

Clavicle The clavicle, or collarbone, is a long bone that serves as a strut between the shoulder blade and
the sternum (breastbone).

Scapula The scapula is a flat, triangular-shaped bone (colloquially as the “shoulder blade“). It is located
in the upper thoracic region on the dorsal surface of the rib cage

Humerus The humerus is a long bone of the upper limb, which extends from the shoulder to the elbow.

Mandibles It is the largest bone in the human skull. It holds the lower teeth in place and helps in the
emasculation of food on the lower jawline.
Human Joint System
Joints are the place of articulation between two or more bones, or between a bone and cartilage
Types of Joints
On the basis of movement and locomotion, the joint is divided into three categories:
Perfect Joint
The perfect joint is a very flexible, and freely movable joint. The bones can be moved in different directions
simultaneously.
At the end of the bones on a perfect joint, a thin layer of cartilage can be found. Ligaments are present at the joint of
the bones. Perfect Joint is further divided into five subcategories:
1. Ball and Socket Joint
1. The ball and socket joint is the most flexible, wherein the bone can move in any direction. Two bones make
this joint, one ball-shaped, and the other like a bowl forming the socket.
2. In this, the femur and humerus bone can move or turn in any direction.
3. Example: Joint of the femur and pelvic girdle, pectoral girdle and humerus bone.

2. Hinge Joint
1. The bones of this type of joint move in a bending motion in only one direction.
2. For example:- Joints of Elbow and Knee; Joints of Fingers and Toes.
3. Pivot Joint

1. In such a type of joint a sharp-pointed bulge is present in one bone, and a narrow gap in the other. The
pointed bulge is accommodated into the gap. It moves like an axle.
2. For Example:- Joints in Neck and Forearm and Joints in Secondary Vertebral Bone.

4. Gliding Joint
1. A gliding joint is a synovial joint formed between bones that meet at flat or nearly flat articular surfaces.
2. It is also known as a plane joint or planar joint.
3. Gliding joints allow the bones to glide past one another up and down, left and right, and diagonally in any
direction along the plane of the joint.

5. Saddle Joint
1. In this joint, the bulge of one bone is completely accommodated or adjustable in the gap of another bone.
But, it does not move or rotate easily and smoothly.
2. For Example:- The Joint of Carpals and Metacarpals of the Thumb.
Imperfect Joint
1. In the imperfect joint, there is an absence of the synovial cavity and the ligaments in the bones. These joints
are not as movable as perfect joints.
2. Example: Sacroiliac and Symphysis Pubis Joints in Pelvis.
Fixed Joint
1. The main function of a fixed joint is stability, which is why joints in this category do not allow any
movement or allow very minimal movement. This is why it is called a fixed joint.
2. Example: Suture joints in skull bones and Gomphosis joint in jawbones
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Appendicular Skeleton
What is the Appendicular Skeleton
The appendicular skeleton is one of the two major groups of bones in the human skeleton. It consists of the bones of
the limbs (or appendages), and the bones that attach the limbs to the rest of the body.
It includes a total of 126 bones, including those in the arms, legs, and shoulder and pelvic girdle bones.
Basic Function of the Bones in the Appendicular Skeleton
The primary function of the appendicular skeleton is to provide shape and structure to the limbs, allowing them to
work properly.
Parts of the Appendicular Skeleton With Names of Bones

Append
icular Skeleton
Shoulder (Pectoral) Girdle
1. Clavicle (2): The thin bones positioned horizontally in the shoulder region articulate with the scapula on
one side and the sternum (axial skeleton) on the other.
2. Scapula (2): The flat, triangular bones that can easily be felt on both sides of our back. The wide bones
support several muscles in the shoulder joint. The scapula articulates with the clavicle and
the humerus — the upper arm bone.
Arm Bones (Upper Limb Bones)
There are 30 bones on each arm.
1. Humerus (2): The longest and only bone in the upper arm, between the shoulder and elbow. The humerus
articulates with the scapula on its proximal end, and the lower arm bones, radius, and ulna, on its distal
end, connecting the shoulder to the elbow.
2. Radius (2): Relatively thicker of the two lower arm bones, the radius is the one located on the thumb’s
side, between the elbow and wrist.
3. Ulna (2): Longer than the radius, it is located on the side of the little finger. The radius and ulna connect
the elbow to the wrist, allowing us to rotate the forearm and wrist.
4. Carpals (16): The 8 irregular bones lying on the wrist in each hand. These bones articulate with each other,
as well as to the radius, ulna, and metacarpals.
5. Metacarpals (10): The 5 long bones in each hand forming the distal part of the palm. These articulate with
the lowermost (proximal) row of phalanges.
6. Phalanges (28): The 14 bones that form the fingers; each finger has 3 phalanges, except the thumb, which
has 2.
Pelvic Girdle
1. Hip Bone: It is one large bone formed of three irregular bones that fuse during puberty and early
adulthood.
1. Ilium
2. Ischium
3. Pubis
The pelvic girdle is responsible for bearing the body’s weight, allowing us to stand/sit straight and walk. So, it has
some strong ligaments that attach it to the axial skeleton. The hip bone articulates with the femur, as well as
the sacrum (through ilium), which is an axial skeleton bone. So, it connects the legs to the axial skeleton.
Leg Bones (Lower Limb Bones)
1. Femur (2): The heaviest, longest, and strongest bone in the human body, the femur is the only bone in the
upper leg or thigh region. On its proximal end, it articulates with the hip bone, while its distal end
articulates with the tibia and patella to form the knee joint.
2. Tibia (2): The bigger, and only weight-bearing bone in the lower leg, it articulates with the femur on one
end and the tarsal bones on the other, thus connecting the foot to the upper leg.
3. Fibula (2): The smaller of the two lower leg bones, it is an attachment point for multiple leg muscles. The
fibula articulates with the tibia at both its proximal and distal ends.
4. Patella (2): Also known as the kneecap, it is the biggest sesamoid bone in the body, forming the knee.
There is no corresponding bone for the patella in the arm. It stays embedded in the quadriceps femoris
muscle’s tendons.
5. Tarsals (14): Similar to the carpals, the tarsals are the small irregular bones forming the heels and part of
the arch. Unlike carpals, there are only 7 tarsal bones in each foot.
6. Metatarsals (10): These are the bones corresponding to the metacarpals in hand, and like them, these
articulate with the toe bones, forming the distal part of the foot’s arch.
7. Phalanges (28): Often referred to as the phalanges of the foot, these are the bones forming the toes. Each
toe has 3 phalanges, except the big toe, which has 2.
An easy way to memorize the appendicular skeleton bones is that these are located in body regions we have in
pairs of left and right — the shoulder, arms, pelvic girdle, and legs. These are the bones of the appendages. Whereas
the axial skeleton includes body regions like the skull and spine, which are located centrally.
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Axial Skeleton
What is the Axial Skeleton
The human skeleton is divided into two parts, with the axial skeleton being one of the two. The other one is
the appendicular skeleton. There are 80 bones in the axial skeleton. As the name suggests, it includes the bones from
the body’s vertical axis.
Basic Functions of the Bones in the Axial Skeleton
Their functions contain protecting and supporting vital organs and systems like the brain, spinal cord, heart, and
lungs. The bones also provide a point of attachment for all the muscles and ligaments that allow us to move our neck
and back.
The axial skeleton also stabilizes and helps with the functioning of the appendicular skeleton bones.
Parts of the Axial Skeleton With Names of Bones

Axi
al Skeleton Labeled
The axial skeleton bones are located one after the other to form the long axis of the body, and given below are their
names in order from head to lower back
Skull Bones
There are 22 bones in the skull, divided into two groups:
Cranial Bones
These bones together form the braincase where the brain is located. There are 8 cranial bones:
1. Frontal bone (1)
2. Occipital bone (1)
3. Parietal bones (2)
4. Sphenoid bone (1)
5. Ethmoid bone (1)
6. Temporal bones (2)
Facial Bones
As the name suggests, these are the bones of the face:
1. Maxillae/upper jaw bones (2)
2. Lacrimal bone (2)
3. Zygomatic bone/cheekbones (2)
4. Palatine bone (2)
5. Nasal bones (2)
6. Inferior nasal concha (2)
7. Vomer (1)
8. Mandible (1)
The horseshoe-shaped bone at the front of the neck is called the hyoid bone. It is counted in the skull bones, but is
not included in the cranial or facial bones. It is essential to speech and more because it supports the tongue.
Auditory Ossicles
These are three tiny bones in the middle ear region that help carry sound vibrations from the outer ear through the
middle ear into the inner ear so they can be carried to the brain as electrical impulses, allowing us to hear.
These are the smallest bones in the body, named:
1. Malleus (2)
2. Incus (2)
3. Stapes (2)
Vertebral Column
The human vertebral or spinal column comprises 24 irregular bones called vertebrae stacked on top of each other, as
well as the fused bones sacrum and coccyx. The primary function of the vertebral column is to protect the spinal
cord and allow it passage down the body from the skull.
The first 24 bones are divided into 3 sections, followed by the fuse bones:
1. Cervical vertebrae (7)
2. Thoracic vertebrae (12)
3. Lumbar vertebrae (5)
4. Sacrum (5 fused)
5. Coccyx/tailbone (4 fused)
Thoracic (Rib) Cage
The rib cage is an essential bony formation that create a protective casing for organs like the lungs and heart. It is
also where the muscles of respiration attach, helping the rib cage perform the respiratory movements. It consists of
the following bones:
 Sternum/breastbone (1)
 Ribs (24)