ETHICS

LESSON 1: WHY DO YOU NEED TO STUDY ETHICS AND (Adapted)

THE IMPORTANCE OF RULES The Commission on Higher Education states ethics deals
with principles of ethical behavior in modern society at the
A moral experience is any encounter wherein a person level of the person, society, and in interaction with the
understands that the values he or she believes to be environment and other shared resources." (CMO 20 series
important are either realized or thwarted (Hunt and 2013) Going back to our story above, assuming you
Carnevale,2011). This concept of moral experience, decided on a course of action to resolve your dilemma,
however, asserts that the encounter is not limited to what was your reason for choosing such action? Why did
situations fraught with ethical questions, but that moral you do it?
experience happens even in mundane everyday settings Understanding your moral compass in order to develop
wherein you take action based on your moral standards. better judgment is the aim for studying Ethics. Upon
For instance, when you decide to give a poor person some entering college, students are not blank sheets, devoid of
money because you feel that it is the right thing to do, is a pre-existing beliefs and values. College students already
moral experience. have developed a set of moral standards by which they
You are a junior executive for a firm. As was your habit, use to understand the world and a moral compass to
you are still in the office working while most of your navigate in it (Billett, 2006; Campbell, 2009). This reality
officemates have gone home. Soon, you find yourself in makes it important for students to study, explore,
need of a file for your presentation; so you texted Michael, understand, and critically reflect on their personal value
your fellow junior executive, to ask if he has a copy. systems. The end goal for studying Ethics is for the student
Several minutes have passed, but Michael did not reply. to become a person who makes sound judgments,
You called his mobile phone, but you only got the sensitive to the common good.
automated voice saying the number can't be reached. Relevance of Studying Ethics in your Chosen Profession
Then you remembered that a few days ago, you Ethics ensure a generally agreed standard of work-related
unintentionally saw Michael's password when he logged behavior that empowers professionals to foster moral
into his office computer. Since you absolutely need the file values through their work. Ethics gives a sense of
now (or else your project presentation will fail), you justification in ones judgment, and helps ensure that
decided to log into Michael's computer without asking decisions at work are not made based on purely subjective
permission. As soon as you gained access, you see that he factors. Without the study of ethics, the practice of one's
left his email open. Something in the email caught your profession will fall prey to vastly conflicting individual
eye, so you read it. You see, based on what you have read interpretations.
that Michael is making anomalous transactions in the Importance of Rules to Social Beings
company's name. Humans, in general, do not live in isolation. Instead, an
You thought about reporting him but you realize you will individual is a member of a community of people whose
have to admit violating company regulations on logging common goal is to survive and thrive. As human societies
into someone else's computer. Even if you report him evolved, they found that human communities have better
anonymously, the investigation will ultimately lead back to chances to survive if they work together; and that working
you and the fact that you invaded Michael's privacy. If you together is more effective when there is a system, in place.
confront Michael cartoon strips created through One of the systems that humans developed are standards
about his illegal transactions, you will have to admit that guide human activities, or simply, "rules".
https://wwww.pixton.com that you logged into his In the simplest sense, rule is defined as "a statement that
computer without his permission. However, if you decide tells you what is or is not allowed in a particular,
not to do anything, you will have to carry the burden in situation." (Merriam-Webster, ©2017) For example, traffic
your conscience and continue working with Michael even rules regulate how motorists should behave on the road.
though you know he is doing something illegal. You will Sports rules not only determine the winner, these also
have to live with the knowledge that the company is losing ensure that players play fair and safe. Most human
money because of his dishonest transactions, and that you societies have rules to ensure a safety level for its
did not do anything to stop him just because you knew members. These rules and its system of implementation
about it by invading his privacy. What will you do allow people to productively function in the community
 ETHICS
despite the existence of conflict within its members. In a the person whom you know as someone who is true to his
broad sense, rules are in place to manage harmful or her word.
behaviors; it hopes to prevent chaos; and it aims to
encourage stability.
LESSON 2: MORAL VS. NON-MORAL STANDARDS 5. Moral standards are based on objectivity. This
means what you consider as right or wrong does not
Characteristics Of Moral Standards depend on whether the action advances the interest of a
One definition of moral standard is "a code of what is right particular person or group, but your action depends on a
or wrong without reference to specific behaviors or universal standpoint where everyone's interest is counted
beliefs" (O'Connor, Lynn, 1997). It has been observed that as equal.
this intrinsic code of honor is already present in children, 6. Moral standards are associated with vocabulary
and it continually undergoes revisions as the child matures that depicts emotion or feelings. For example, when you
and influenced by his or her surroundings. Moral go against your moral standards you will say you feel
standards deal with matters that the person thinks have guilty, remorseful, or ashamed. You may describe your
serious consequence.However, these standards are not behavior as immoral or sinful. If you see other people
hinged on external authority or rules, but based or good going against your moral standards you feel indignant or
reason and impartial considerations overriding self- perhaps disgusted with that person.
interest. Feelings of guilt and shame are often associated Moral versus Non-moral Standards
when the person goes against his or her moral standard Whether your computer can download a movie from the
(Mandal, 2010; Velasquez, 2012). internet is a factual question. On the other hand, should
you pirate movies from the internet is a moral question.
Moral standards have six characteristics that set it apart When judgment is founded on the rightness or wrongness
from non-moral standards (Velasquez, 2012). These are: of an action the criteria is based on one's moral standards.
1. Moral standards involve behaviors that seriously When you take a picture in the dark with no flash; when
affect other peoples well-being. It can either profoundly you wear a sleeveless shirt and shorts on a very formal
injure or benefit a person or persons. For example, lying, occasion; or you write a grammatically incorrect essay -
stealing, and killing are actions that hurt people. While you have violated certain standards. In the sample
treating people with respect and kindness uplifts them. situations, you violated non-moral standards in: technique,
2. Moral standards take a more important consideration fashion, and grammar. What are non-moral standards?
than other standards, including self-interest. For example, Non-moral standards can be considered as relative
because trust is important to you than revenge you refuse standards by which something or someone is judged as
to expose your friend's terrible secret even though she either good or bad. The rules of non-moral standards vary
offended you. because these rules depend on the guidelines agreed by a
3. Moral standards do not depend on any external particular group.
authority but in how the person perceives the Moral Standards versus Other Rules in Life
reasonableness of the action. For example, you will not Although the six characteristics of moral standards
copy your classmate's answers during the exam not distinguish it from other life rules, it is useful to discuss
because your teacher will fail you if you do, but because other standards with which moral standards are
you personally believe cheating is wrong and demeaning sometimes confused with.
to you as a student. Etiquette, Policy, Law, and Commandment
4. Moral standards are believed to be universal. Thus, Etiquette is a set of rules on how an individual should
when you truly believe an act is wrong you also will not responsibly behave in the society (Taylor and Williams,
agree or consent when other people commit what you 2017).). Table manners such as the proper use of utensils
consider a wrongful act. On the other hand, if you believe and the proper manner of eating are examples of
an action is morally right, then you will also support other etiquette. Meanwhile, a policy is a clear, simple statement
people doing such acts. For. example, you believe lying is of how an organization plans to handle its services,
wrong therefore you will also not agree when someone is actions, or business. Policies are guiding rules to help with
not telling the truth. On the other hand, you tend to trust decision making (The University of Sydney, © 2002-2017).
 ETHICS
When schools require their students to wear the proper possible course of action that you can do, it follows that no
school uniform and school ID before being allowed inside matter what action you choose you will go against your
the campus (or the No Uniform, No ID, No Entry rule sense of what is right or wrong. That somehow, no matter
posted in your school's entrance) is an example of a policy. what you do, you are doing something morally wrong, but
On the other hand, a law is a rule created and enforced by at the same time you are also doing something right.
the government and its agencies to maintain order, resolve
disputes, and protect a person's liberty and rights
(Robertson,2008; Brickley and Gottesman, © 2017). Can Three Levels of Moral Dilemma
you give an example of a law in the Philippines? Finally, a Personal moral dilemma is when your decision in a
commandment is a rule that is to be strictly observed situation where there is moral conflict is the cause of
because it was said to be set by a divine entity, such as either your own; that of another person; or a group of
those in the Ten Commandments (Stahl,2009). peoples potential harm. Our sample situation of Jane
versus Ana was an example of a personal dilemma. An
What is the advantage of owning moral standards over organizational dilemma is when a member or members of
merely abiding by moral standards? the organization is in a situation where there is moral
For most people, the fundamental moral question is, conflict, and the decision will potentially harm either some
"What should I do?" or "How should I act?" Ethics are members of the group or the entire organization (syn.
presumed as moral rules on how a person should act. For company, cooperative, association) itself. For example, a
example, "every person is obligated to do the greatest garments factory is not hitting its target profit. If the
good for the most number of people." There is also the company keeps on missing its target, the factory will also
philosophy that "everyone is obligated to act in ways that not achieve its five-year expansion plan which will severely
upholds the human dignity for all people." Moral affect the factory's future financial standing. One plan to
principles like these guide the practice of various solve the factory's imminent financial crisis was to cut cost
professions (professional ethics). by laying-off some of its employees. The CEO and the
But is that all there is to ethics? Is ethics just about members of the board now need to decide. Should they
following rules of dos and don'ts? This obsession with lay off the people who work for them to save the factory?
rules somehow neglects the more important aspect of Or keep the people working and just find other means to
being a human person and that is becoming what you hopefully increase profit and prevent their financial crisis
should be. In other words, the more important question in the future?
for ethics is not "What should I do?" but "What kind of Structural moral dilemma is when a person or group of
person should I be?" persons who holds high-level positions in the society faces
a morally conflicting situation wherein the entire social
LESSON 3: MORAL DILEMMA system is affected. An example of this level of dilemma
Dilemma Defined would be the controversy in the Social Security System in
By definition, dilemma is "a situation in which a difficult 2016. The SSS members have been asking for a two-
choice has to be made between two or more alternatives, thousand pesos SSS pension increase. Several lawmakers
especially equally undesirable ones" (Dictionary.com supported the call because they see that it will benefit the
02017). Thus, when you find yourself facing a problem but senior citizen members. On the other hand, the SSS
the solutions available to you will only create another executives opposed it saying the institution cannot sustain
problem or worse create more problems, then you are in a such amount in the long run, and the SSS will go bankrupt
dilemma. in 2024. Being the President of the Philippines, the final
A moral dilemma is a situation where: decision was in the hands of then President Benigno
1. There are two or more actions that you can possibly do. Aquino III. In the end, President Aquino vetoed the bill
2. There is a moral reason(s) for doing such actions. passed by Congress to hike the SSS pension because he
3. You cannot do all the possible actions presented to you. believed "the stability of the entire SSS benefit system will
You only need to choose one. be seriously compromised in favor of two million
pensioners and their dependents" (CNN Philippines,
Since there is a moral reason(s) for doing each of the ©2017).
 ETHICS
capacity for free moral judgment.

The Foundation of Morality

C.S. Lewis, a novelist, poet, academic, medievalist, literary
critic, essayist, lay theologian, broadcaster, lecturer, and
Christian apologist used an interesting metaphor to
explain morality. He likened morality to a fleet of ships.
According to Lewis, though each ship must sail well on its
LESSON 4: FREEDOM own, each must also coordinate with the other ships at all
times to stay in formation and avoid collisions. Finally the
Why Only Human Beings Can be Ethical fleet must have a destination or purpose for the journey
There has been some claim that morality is not unique to (Lewis, 2012) because if the ship was just aimlessly sailing
human beings. For example, Dame Jane Morris Goodall then it has failed its ultimate purpose, - that of getting
DBE, a British primatologist, ethologist, anthropologist, from one point to the next.
and UN Messenger of Peace reported that sometimes This is a very helpful way to think about morality in
chimpanzees show a truly selfless concern for the well- relation to self, to others, and your ultimate end. However,
being of others (Goodall, 1990). However, other thinkers there is one crucial difference between a ship and a
such as Immanuel Kant, René Descartes, Thomas Aquinas, person (aside, of course, from the obvious) - a ship is
Peter Carruthers, and various religious theories believe under the command of a ship captain. However, a person
that only human beings can be ethical (Wilson, ©2017). is someone who is free to decide his or her course.
According to St. Thomas Aquinas, the fundamental
difference between animal ethics and human ethics is that Why is freedom crucial in your ability to make moral
animals behave instinctively while human behavior is decisions?
rational (BBC © 2014). The personal aspect of morality is about developing
Instinctive behavior is a hard-wired, inborn, characteristic virtue so that thinking morally, performing moral acts, and
response to specific environmental stimuli; an example is choosing to do what is good becomes a habit. The
the altruistic behavior of social animals (Spink,2010). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2016) explained that
However, researchers found that the animal's intent of virtue is your thought or behavior guided by, and displays,
self-sacrifice is more on ensuring reproductive success (kin high moral standards. Virtues are habits developed
selection) rather than out of true selfless motive through learning and practice. Once you have it, your
(Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009). An example of this would virtues become your characteristic. Moreover, a virtuous
be the suicide attacks of worker honeybees in defense of person characteristically acts in ways consistent with his or
their colony against intruders. There is also reciprocal her moral principles. Thus, a virtuous person goes beyond
altruism where the animal will provide for another moral behavior. A virtuous person not only does what is
animal's need because it expects the similar act in a similar right but his or her behavior also becomes a standard for
manner at a later time. Chimpanzees scratching each everyone to follow.
other's back are an example of reciprocal altruism (Trivers, An efficiently run ship is like a virtuous person: both
1971). have internalized the practices that make them weather
storms. However, a ship is under the control of a captain
Rational behavior is a decision-making process where the while a virtuous person is free to cultivate his or her
person acts in ways that best achieve his or her needs in values. At the same time he or she is also free to abandon
accordance with his or her set preferences, priorities, and it. Hence, there is no virtue in self-restraint if, in the first
principles (Information Resources Management place, you are prohibited from indulging. And there is no
Association, 2015). Rational behavior is tied to moral virtue in giving if someone is forcing you to give up your
standards. Additionally, the human person in his or her possessions. Although cultural traditions and social
decision-making process is free to decide what to do and institutions can guide virtues, it cannot be coerced.
free to act on his or her decisions. Thus, only human Freedom, then, is the foundation of moral acts. For a
beings can be ethical because only humans have the person to be virtuous, he or she must also be free.
 ETHICS
Meanwhile, when talking about the interpersonal According to Gabriel Marcel, freedom is the ability to act
aspect of morality, the discussion turns to following rules. significantly. Free acts are significant because they help to
We have previously discussed the importance of rules in make us who we are as human beings.
human societies. It is important to note that even in Freedom is not merely the ability to make arbitrary
following rules freedom is essential. Rules help people live choices because we are not free if everything that we can
together in relative harmony. It makes a person recognize choose to do is insignificant in the first place. Freedom is
that apart from personal rights, other peoples rights are the ability to make significant choices and, according to
equally important. If people are allowed to dominate Marcel, it is a gift given to us by God. (Hernandez, 2009)
others, then people become mere tools - a means to an Freedom is Complementary to Reason
end. Not only does this fail to respect a person's dignity, it One of Aristotles ethical doctrines asserted that freedom
also stifles the development and progress of the human and reason are complementary. In Aristotles view, the
potential. Only when a person is free to recognize that he human person as a moral agent must exercise practical
or she has rights; that other people equally have rights; rationality in order to determine how to pursue his or her
and both need to be respected will the person be able to ultimate end (telos). Self-direction, rather than bare
pursue projects, be creative, and reach his or her full spontaneity, is the crucial characteristic of the free person.
potential for the benefit - not just of the self - but also of Aristotle considered freedom and reason as necessary
others. faculties for consciously making sense of things (events,
Finally, there is the question of the ultimate end. Why occurrences, phenomena, situations).
are you here? What is your purpose? The human person's (Walsh, 1997).
final end is always a debatable topic because it often goes Freedom is Absolute
hand in hand with specific religious views. However, the Existentialist philosopher Jean-Paul Sartres concept of
debate does not negate the fact that freedom remains freedom is not the freedom to do something or anything.
essential with one's view of his or her ultimate purpose. In Sartres view, the human person is "absolutely free".
To paraphrase Lord Acton - an English Catholic historian, Freedom sets the human person apart from other
politician, and writer - the human person's freedom is so creatures. You might say "But what about animal
precious that God will not take over and take control of freedom? Animals - unless caged - are also free. Animals
the person's life, even when that person badly misuses his just roam around, eat when they need to, and sleep where
or her freedom (1967). Whatever influences the person's they want. Animals are not tied down with responsibilities
view of his or her ultimate purpose, one aspect is clear like humans." Yes, it is true that animals are - unless caged
- only a free person can understand his or her ultimate - free. In fact, animals also have a notion of freedom.
end. Enlightenment cannot be forced. When they are caged, animals will try to escape from their
cages. This kind of freedom is called freedom from
The Human Person as a Free Being restrictions. It is a primitive kind of freedom. It is freedom
First, what does "human person" mean? In philosophy, a for mere survival.
human being is more than its biological components. The Humans, on the other hand, have a higher kind of
human being is a person endowed with characteristics that freedom. The freedom of the human person is beyond
are material, spiritual, rational, and free. A human person freedom from restrictions. In fact, a person in jail is still
is a being (the Aristotelian idea of being connotes free. He is free to think, to change, and to become a better
actuality; existence; an actual condition or circumstance) person. A prisoner is free to redefine himself. As human
with inborn properties that he or she uses to direct his or persons, we are free to make choices. We are free to
her own development toward self-fulfillment. One of the decide. And we are free to use this freedom to attain goals
inborn properties of the human person is freedom. higher than satisfying basic needs.
Philosophical Insights on Freedom Freedom Demands Responsibility
We have mentioned freedom numerous times. What is Jean-Paul Sartre said "You are free" because he believed
your understanding of freedom? Philosophers talked a person always has a choice. Thus, according to Sartre,
about this concept extensively. Here are some you must choose. His idea was that freedom is the
philosophical insights on freedom. capacity to choose, that even not choosing is a choice
Freedom is a Gift (Gallinero, 2014). It is important to note however, that he
 ETHICS
also added the concept of responsibility to freedom.
According to Sartre, even though individuals must make
their own choices because they are free, these choices
(though freely made) also have consequences to it. These
consequences to freedom are something that the person
must endure.
Therefore, it can be said that in Sartres concept,
responsibility follows freedom (Gallinero, 2014).
Chinese philosopher Lao Tzu also discussed freedom and
responsibility. Lao Tzu advocated that a person can and
should choose to act, but his or her actions should be that
which would result in harmony. Lao Tzu's idea was that in
any society, the exercise of ones freedom is not absolute.
The person is free to do anything; but it is not without
consequence of one's actions (Gallinero, 2014).
Responsibility, as a moral quality serves as a voluntary
check and balance of ones freedom. Without proper
balance limitless freedom is as dangerous as an extremely
controlling social group. Great social injustices have
resulted from such radical mindsets.