Handling Errors

Data may be damaged in transmission media, external noises, attenuation and delaying
(Delay distortion) are the facts affecting for this damaging.
One Error would be changing the bit value on transmission.
Following methods are used to correct those errors
• Parity bit methods
• CRC methods
• Hamming methods

Parity bit methods

➢ This methods is based on the number of 1 bits in a byte of data.

➢ There are two types of parity
❖ Even and odd parity
❖ One of the bits in the byte (usually the most significant bit or left most bit) is
reserved for a parity bit
Byte being sent
0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0

Byte being received

0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0

In this case, the byte received has three 1 bits, which means it now has odd parity, While the
sender’s byte was using even parity (four 1 bits) this mean an error has occurred during the
transmission of the byte.

Circuit Switching
•A method of implementing a telecommunication network
•A dedicated communication channel is established for communication Circuit
•Full bandwidth of the channel is available for the duration of the communication Session
•Analog telephone network
•Dedicated electrical circuit between telephones for the duration of a call

Advantages
•Dedicated bandwidth
•Continuous transfer of messages without the per message overhead in packet switching

Disadvantages
•dedicated bandwidth may not be fully utilized
•Other users cannot use the unutilized bandwidth
 Packet Switching
•A packet is a grouping of data and it consists of
•A header
•A Payload
•Two types
•Connectionless packet switching
•Connection oriented packet switching

Port Numbers
The data packets forwarded by application software should properly be forwarded to the other
relevant application software of the receiving computer. For that to identify each process,
certain pattern of numbers has to be used with the IP address. Port numbers are used for that.

Protocols
•Protocol is an agreement between two (or more) parties who want to communicate with each
other.

Protocol Full name of Protocol Network Layer Port number

SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol TCP 25
IMAP Internet Mail Access Protocol TCP 143
HTTP Hyper Text Transfer Protocol TCP 80
HTTPS Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure TCP 443
FTP File Transfer Protocol TCP 20/21
TELNET TELNET TCP 23
RDP Remote Desktop Protocol TCP, UDP 3389
SSH Secure Shell UDP, TCP 22
DNS Domain Name System UDP, TCP 53
DHCP Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol UDP,TCP 67 (Server)
68 (Client)
 Domain Names
➢ Name given for a website is called a domain names.
➢ Name of the website and domain type is two part of domain name.

Ex:
ranjan123.wiki.com

Hierarchy of the Domain names

Top level domains – TLD

➢ This is useful to identify the nature of the owner of the website.
Top level domain names are divided into four types
(1) Basic level domain types used for the categorization of websites.
Ex: .com, .org, .net, .mil, .edu, .gov
(2) Domain names that represent countries
Domain names Country
.lk
.uk
.in
.ae
.af
.ag
(3) ICANN era top level domain
(4) Domain names that represent geographical area.
Ex: .asia, .berlin, .kivi, .londo, .nye
Top level domain
TLD Type/ Related field
.aero
.asia
 .biz
.com
.edu

Network Models
• Peer to Peer
• Client Server

Peer to Peer
• This is a distributed application architecture that portions tasks (workloads)
between peers.
• It is decentralized.
Characteristics
• It is easy to install and configure.
• Failure of one peer doesn’t affect the functioning of other peers.
• Every user is the administrator of his machine, User can control their saved
resources.
• Less overall cost(No additional hardware/Software needed)
• Less security/privacy of data.

Client Server Architecture

• The computer or software which obtains a service a network is called client it is
called as host.
• The computer or software that provides the service is called the server.
• The operation speed of the server computer capacity of memory storage capacity
(data storage should comparatively be high
• There are number of servers (special software) installed in the server computer to
provide with various services to the clients who access the network.
Web server | Email Server | Proxy Server | Application server | Domain Name server |
DHCP Server
Web servers
• This is special software which provides web pages to client computers using
protocol called HTTP of WWW (World Wide Web).
Examples for Web servers
1. Apache HTTP server.
2. Microsoft Internet Information Services (IIS)
Characteristics
• More congestion on Server.
• More cost.
 • Easy to administrate network.
• More security/privacy of data.
E-Mail Servers
The software used to store email messages received to the users of internal server, carry
email messages forwarded to the outside parties is called Mail Server.
Protocols
o SMTP – is used to send messages.
o POP or IMAP – Used to receive messages.
Following are examples of Mail servers
• Microsoft Exchange
• Qmail
• Exim
• Sendmail
Proxy Server
• Works as an intermediate server between your or office computer and the rest of the
computers on the internet.
• Can hide your or office computer IP address and use one of its own IP addresses when
you request web page from a server. (Proxy server act as the client on your behalf). Once
it gets the page by is local cache or from relevant server it will forward the age back to
you.

Application Server
In a network software created with data files is stored in web servers.

Domain Name Server – DNS server

Accordingly Domain name should be change into IP address and it is done by the DNS.

Reference Models
•There are standard reference models to describe/design network architectures. Hardware,
software, protocols and security measures used for transmission of data.
• Open System Interconnection (OSI) model - 7 layers
• TCP/IP model -4 layers

OSI Model
Top to Bottom - All People Seems To Need Data Processing
Bottom to Top – Please Do Not Throw Sausage Pizza Away.
Encapsulation
Data → Segment → Packet → Frame → bits
De- capsulation
Bits → Frame → Packet → Segment → Data
•Physical Layer - Concerned with transmitting raw bits over the physical channel
•Data Link Layer - Transforms a raw transmission facility into a line that appears free of
undetected transmission errors (Frames)
•Network Layer -controls the operation of the subnet and determines how packets are routed
from source to destination.
•Transport Layer - accepts data from the layer above, splits it up into smaller units if need be,
passes these to the network layer, and ensures that the pieces all arrive correctly at the other end.
•Session Layer- establishes sessions between communicating parties (Dialog control /
Synchronization)
•Presentation Layer - concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information transmitted /
(Data representation / Data structures)
•Application Layer - contains a variety of protocols that are commonly needed by users.
Example -HTTP

UDP vs TCP
➢ Both protocols used in Transport layer
Features about UDP
• Receiver of the data does not confirm the receipt of data.
• Not suitable for a variable data transmission
• A protocol belongs to the transport protocol.
• Protocol DNS, DHCP, RIP, VoIP operate in connection with this protocol.
• Transmission speed is very high as there is no checking or fetching of data.
• No control of data flow.
• Much suitable for high speed data transmissions.
Examples
o Multi user online games
o On video Conferences.
Features about TCP
• Data transmission is done keeping the connection between devices.
• More suitable for a reliable data transmission
• Recipient confirms the receipt of data.
• IP addresses are used to identify the transmission devices.
• HTTP, HTTPs, FTP, SMTP, Tenet are other protocols that operate with this
protocol.
• Provide flow control.
• Transmission speed in comparison to the UDP protocol is low.
• Connection Oriented.
 TCP/IP Model
• Link Layer Host to Network Layer- Not really a layer
•It does not define a protocol between peer entities
•Defines an interface to the upper layer –Internet Layer

• Internet Layer - Corresponds (approximately) to the Network Layer in the OSI

model
•Packet routing
•Packets are moved towards the destination independent of each other
•They may arrive out of order
•They may not arrive at all

• Transport Layer
•Allows peer entities on the source and destination hosts to carry on a conversation
•Similar to OSI transport layer
•Transmission Control Protocol –TCP
•User Datagram Protocol –UDP

• Application Layer
•This includes session and presentation functions of the OSI model in addition to
application protocols