02_Computer Evolution and Performance
02_Computer Evolution and Performance
Computer Organization
and Architecture
7th Edition
Chapter 2
Computer Evolution and
Performance
ENIAC - background
• Electronic Numerical Integrator And
Computer
• Eckert and Mauchly
• University of Pennsylvania
• Trajectory ([trəˋdʒɛktrɪ] ) tables for
weapons
• Started 1943
• Finished 1946
—Too late for war effort
• Used until 1955
ENIAC - details
• Decimal (not binary)
• 20 accumulators of 10 digits
• Programmed manually by switches
• 18,000 vacuum tubes
• 30 tons
• 15,000 square feet
• 140 kW power consumption
• 5,000 additions per second
ENIAC - details
Turing Award Nobel Prize of computing
von Neumann/Turing
• Stored Program concept
• Main memory storing programs and data
• ALU operating on binary data
• Control unit interpreting instructions from
memory and executing
• Input and output equipment operated by
control unit
• Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies
—IAS
• Completed 1952
• Institute for Advanced Study (IAS),
Princeton, NJ, USA
Structure of von Neumann machine
IAS - details
• 1000 x 40 bit words
—Binary number One word hold two intsructions
—2 x 20 bit instructions
• Set of registers (storage in CPU)
—Memory Buffer Register
—Memory Address Register
—Instruction Register
—Instruction Buffer Register
—Program Counter
—Accumulator
—Multiplier Quotient
Structure of IAS –
detail
• 一種電子元件,在電路中控制電子的流動方向,放大訊號。
• 真空管因成本高、不耐用、體積大、效能低等原因,最後被電晶體
(transistor)取代了
• 但是可以在音響、微波爐及人造衛星的高頻發射機看見真空管的身影。部份
戰鬥機為防止核爆造成的電磁脈衝損壞,機上的電子設備亦採用真空管。另
外,像是電視機與電腦陰極射線管顯示器內的陰極射線管以及X光機的X射線
管等則是屬於特殊的真空管。
• 電晶體機聲音容易偏薄、偏硬,真空管聲音則較豐潤、較生動。
Vacuum tube
Transistor
• 一種固體半導體器件,可以用於放大、開關、穩壓、訊號調變和許多
其他功能。
•
• 電晶體作為一種可變開關,基於輸入的電壓,控制流出的電流,因此
電晶體可做為電流的開關,和一般機械開關(如Relay、switch)
• 在類比電路中,電晶體用於放大器、音頻放大器、射頻放大器、穩壓
電路;在計算機電源中,主要用於開關電源。
• 電晶體也應用於數位電路,主要功能是當成電子開關。數位電路包括
邏輯閘、隨機存取記憶體 (RAM) 和微處理器。
Transistor
Transistors
• Replaced vacuum tubes
• Smaller
• Cheaper
• Less heat dissipation
• Solid State device
• Made from Silicon (Sand)
• Invented 1947 at Bell Labs
• William Shockley et al.
Transistor Based Computers
• Second generation machines
• NCR & RCA produced small transistor
machines
• IBM 7000
• DEC - 1957
—Produced PDP-1
Viedos
PCI Express bus card slots (from top to bottom: x4, x16, x1 and x16),
compared to a traditional 32-bit PCI bus card slot (bottom).
Drum memory (磁鼓存儲器)
• Drum memory is a magnetic data storage device and
was an early form of computer memory widely used in
the 1950s and into the 1960s, invented by Gustav
Tauschek in 1932 in Austria. For many machines, a
drum formed the main working memory of the
machine, with data and programs being loaded on to
or off the drum using media such as paper tape or
punch cards. Drums were so commonly used for the
main working memory that these computers were
often referred to as drum machines. Drums were
later replaced as the main working memory by
memory such as core memory and a variety of other
systems which were faster as they had no moving
parts, and which lasted until semiconductor memory 鐵磁
entered the scene.
• A drum is a large metal cylinder that is coated on the
outside surface with a ferromagnetic recording
material. It is, simply put, a hard disk platter in the
form of a drum rather than a flat disk. A row of read-
write heads runs along the long axis of the drum, one
for each track.
Drum memory (磁鼓存儲器)
• 磁鼓記憶體(英語:Drum memory)是一
種依靠磁介質的資料儲存裝置,為20世紀50
年代和60年代計算機所用記憶體的早期形式
,由Gustav Tauschek於1932年在奧地利
發明。磁鼓為這套機制的主要工作儲存單元
,透過穿孔紙帶或者打孔卡載入、取出資料
。當時許多計算機採用了這種磁鼓記憶體,
以至於它們常常被叫做「鼓機」(drum
machines)。不過不久之後,磁芯記憶體等
其他技術取代了磁鼓器成為了主要的儲存媒
體,直到最後半導體記憶體進入了儲存媒體
的領域。
Magnetic core memory
• Magnetic core memory, or ferrite-core
memory, is an early form of random access
computer memory. It uses small magnetic
ceramic rings, the cores, through which wires are
threaded to store information via the polarity of
the magnetic field they contain. Such memory is
often just called core memory, or, informally,
core.
• Although computer memory long ago moved to
silicon chips, memory is still occasionally called
"core". This is most obvious in the naming of the
core dump, which refers to the contents of
memory recorded at the time of a program error.
Magnetic core memory
• 磁芯記憶體(英語:Magnetic Core Memory)是一種
早期的電腦記憶體。磁芯記憶體是利用磁性材料製成之記
憶體,其原理為:將磁環(磁芯)帶磁性或不帶磁性之狀
態,用以代表1或0之位元,一長串1或0之組合就代表要
儲存之資訊。
• 磁芯記憶體是一種隨機存取記憶體(Random Access
Memory),在電腦中可擔任主記憶體的角色。
• 磁芯記憶體是非揮發性記憶體(Non-volatile
([ˋvɑlət!] ,) Memory),它的一個特色是:即使當
機或電源中斷,只要沒有發生錯誤的寫入訊號,則仍然可
保有其內容。
Semiconductor Memory
• 1970
• Fairchild
• Size of a single core
—i.e. 1 bit of magnetic core storage
• Holds 256 bits
• Non-destructive read
• Much faster than core
• Capacity approximately doubles each year
附帶利益
Fairchild
• Present day Fairchild Semiconductor
International, Inc. is a spin-off
company resulting from reconstitution of
assets in National Semiconductor. It
inherits the Fairchild name of the original
Fairchild Camera and Instrument, which
had been the cornerstone of the
semiconductor industry since 1957. The
original Fairchild had been acquired by
Schlumberger which then sold it to
National Semiconductor.
flip-flop (正反器)
• In digital circuits, a flip-flop is a term referring
to an electronic circuit (a bistable multivibrator)
that has two stable states and thereby is capable
of serving as one bit of memory. Today, the term
flip-flop usually refers to clocked or edge-
triggered devices (i.e., devices that are a
conceptual combination of a transparent-high
latch with a transparent-low latch).
• A flip-flop is usually controlled by one or two
control signals and/or a gate or clock signal. The
output often includes the complement as well as
the normal output. As flip-flops are implemented
electronically, they require power and ground
connections.
flip-flop (正反器)
• 正反器(英語:Flip-flop, FF,中國大陸譯作触发器,台
灣譯作正反器),學名雙穩態多諧振盪器(Bistable
Multivibrator),是一種應用在數位電路上具有記憶功
能的循序邏輯元件,可記錄二進位制數位訊號「1」和「
0」。
• 正反器是構成時序邏輯電路以及各種複雜數位系統的基本
邏輯單元。
Set-Reset flip-flops (SR flip-flops).
— 1.Instruction fetch
— 2.Instruction decode and register fetch
— 3.Execute
— 4.Memory access
— 5.Register write back
Instruction pipeline (指令管線化)
• 指令管線化是為了讓計
算機和其它數位電子裝
置能夠加速指令的通過
速度(單位時間內被執
行的指令數量)而設計
的技術。
• http://zh.wikipedia.
org/wiki/%E6%8C
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