Department of Electrical Engineering

National University of Computer and

Emerging Sciences,
Chiniot Faisalabad Campus

EL1001: LINEAR CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

LAB MANUAL
Spring 2025

Name:
Roll No:
Section:

Page | 1
2
 Revision History

• Created by: Engr. Ms. Fazeelat Mazhar

Date: January 2016

• 1st Revision By: Engr. Ms. Fazeelat Mazhar

Date: January 2018

• 2nd Revision By: Engr. Ms. Iqra Hameed

Date: January 2019

• 3rd Revision By: Engr. M. Umair Akram Butt

Date: January 2020

• 4th Revision By: Engr. Mr. Umer Farooq

Date: January 2021

Last Updated by: Engr. Muhammad Irfan Ishaq

Date: January 2025

Approved by:

Course Teacher Name and Signature: ______________________________

HoD Name and Signature: ______________________________

3
Table of Contents
Sr. No. Description Page No.

1 List of Equipment 4

2 CLO to PLO Mapping 5

3 List of Experiments 6

4 Experiment No.1, To Demonstrate the Working of Basic Lab Apparatus 7

5 Experiment No.2, To Demonstrate the Resistor Color Code 15

6 Experiment No.3, To Demonstrate V-I Characteristic for A Resistor 24

Experiment No. 4, To Demonstrate Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) &

7 39
Current Law (KCL)
Experiment No. 5, To Demonstrate Series – Parallel Equivalent Resistive
8 50
Network
Experiment No.6, To Demonstrate Current Divider Rule (CDR) &
9 59
Voltage Divider Rule (VDR)
10 Experiment No.7, To Demonstrate Superposition Theorem 70
Experiment No.8, To Demonstrate Thevenin's Theorem and Maximum
11 76
Power Transfer Theorem
Experiment No.9, To Demonstrate Op-Amp Operation as Inverting/Non-
12 89
Inverting Amplifier
Experiment No.10, To Demonstrate Op-Amp Operation as Summing
13 95
Amplifier
Experiment No.11, To Demonstrate the Working of Function Generator
14 102
and Oscilloscope
15 Experiment No.12, To Demonstrate Response of First Order RC Circuit 105

16 Experiment No.13, To Demonstrate Response of First Order RL Circuit 110

17 Experiment No.14, To Demonstrate Response of Series RLC Circuit 115

18 Appendix A: Lab Evaluation Criteria 119

19 Appendix B: Lab Rubrics 121

20 Appendix C: Safety around Electricity 123

4
List of Equipment
Sr. No. Description

1 Oscilloscopes 40MHz

2 Signal Generators 10MHz

3 Power Supplies Variable + Fix

4 DMM

5 Breadboard

6 LCR Meters

7 Wire Strippers

8 Soldering Iron

9 Components (Resistors, Capacitors, Inductors, Transformers)

5
CLO TO PLO MAPPING:

Domain Taxonomy PLO

No. Class Learning Outcome (CLO) Statements Tool
Level
Behave responsibly within team and perform the Affective 2 L, P 9
1
experiment safely and efficiently.
To demonstrate the characteristics of electrical Psychomotor 4 L 4
2
components and working of basic lab apparatus.
To demonstrate the use of circuit analysis Psychomotor 4 L, P, F 4
3
techniques to conduct different experiments.
To demonstrate the operation of Op-Amp as Psychomotor 4 L, P, F 4
4
inverting, non-inverting and summing amplifier
To demonstrate the response of first order RC, RL Psychomotor 4 L, P, F 4
5
and RLC circuits

6
List of Experiments
Sr. # Title of Experiment CLO
01 To Demonstrate the Working of Basic Lab Apparatus 1,2
02 To Demonstrate the Resistor Color Code 1,2
03 To Demonstrate V-I Characteristic for A Resistor 1,2
04 To Demonstrate Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) & Current Law (KCL) 1,3
05 To Demonstrate Series – Parallel Equivalent Resistive Network 1,3
06 To Demonstrate Current Divider Rule (CDR) & Voltage Divider Rule (VDR) 1,3
07 To Demonstrate Superposition Theorem 1,3
08 To Demonstrate Thevenin's Theorem and Maximum Power Transfer Theorem 1,3
09 To Demonstrate Op-Amp Operation as Inverting/Non-Inverting Amplifier 1,4
10 To Demonstrate Op-Amp Operation as Summing Amplifier 1,4
11 To Demonstrate the Working of Function Generator and Oscilloscope 1,2
12 To Demonstrate Response of First Order RC Circuit 1,5
13 To Demonstrate Response of First Order RL Circuit 1,5
14 To Demonstrate Response of Series RLC Circuit 1,5

7
EXPERIMENT 1 Date Perform:
Roll No.

TO DEMONSTRATE THE WORKING OF BASIC LAB APPARATUS

OBJECTIVE:
1. Use of Digital Multimeter (DMM)
2. Overview Breadboard
3. Introduction to DC Power Supply
4. Circuit construction on Breadboard

EQUIPMENT:
1. Digital Multimeter (DMM), Breadboard, DC Power Supply, Resistors of different values,
Connecting Wires

BACKGROUND:

Resistor:
A resistor is a two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a circuit
element. Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits. Practical
resistors can be made of various compounds like carbon and films, as well as resistance wire (wire
made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome).

When an electrical current pass through a resistor, electrical energy is dissipated by the resistor in
the form of heat. The greater the current flow through the resistor, the hotter it gets. Therefore, there
is a limit to the maximum amount of a current a resistor (or any component in general) can tolerate.
This is indirectly given by its power rating or wattage rating, as the maximum power it can dissipate
safely.

Note that a resistor can be used with any reasonable voltage and current as long as the amount of
power it dissipates does not exceed its rated value.

Resistor Power = Voltage across Resistor x Current through Resistor, or

𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼

In this lab we generally use resistors rated at 0.25 W (or Quarter Watt). Resistors are generally labelled
with an R (often with a subscript to identify a particular resistance in multiple resistance circuit, as in
R1). The unit for resistance is Ohm (symbol Ω). The bigger units are kilo Ohm (symbol kΩ) and Mega
Ohm (symbol MΩ).

A very important concept to be learnt earlier on in this regard is that of a 'short circuit'. A short circuit,
technically, is a two-terminal resistor with a value of 0 Ω. Generally connecting a wire in place of a
resistor shorts the two terminals together. In contrast an 'open circuit' means no path for

8
current which technically is like having a resistance of infinite value (∞ Ω). Sometimes, depending
upon the configuration, a short circuit may create a fire hazard and, therefore, caution is needed.

DC Power Supply:
A DC (Direct Current) Power Supply is generally a two terminal device to supply DC voltage. The
power supply has two variable Master and Slave (0 to 30V) voltage sources and one fixed (5V) DC
voltage source. The variable supply has a current limit which can be set by the user. A typical DC
Power Supply is shown in the Figure 1.1:

Figure 1.1

DC Power Supply used in the lab

To use:
1. Press the Power On button.
2. If using the fixed 5V supply, connect red lead with + and black with -. This is the source we
will use for this experiment.
3. If using the variable DC supply, connect the red lead with + and the black lead with - .
4. The voltage and current can be set to desired level by rotating the knobs & the resulting value
appears on the display.
5. Two variable supplies can be used in series or parallel combination by using tracking buttons
(advanced use).
6. Don’t join + and – terminal (known as shorting or short circuiting) of the DC power supply.
This may harm you, damage the supply or cause the fuse to blow out.

9
Digital Multimeter (DMM):

A Digital Multimeter (DMM) is an electronic measuring instrument that combines several

measurement functions in one unit as shown in figure 1.2. A typical multimeter would include basic
features such as the ability to measure voltage, current, and resistance

Figure 1.2

A typical Digital Multimeter (DMM)

Breadboard
The Breadboard, figure 1.3, is a white board with holes to hold circuit elements for constructing and
testing electric circuits quickly without the need to use any permanent connection between circuit
elements. The components and wiring is inserted in these holes. No soldering is involved so the
components and the wiring can be easily removed and reconnected.

The Breadboard is divided into strips. There are two types of strips seen on the Breadboard. The ‘Bus’
strips are used to distribute power, ground and clock signals across the Breadboard. To use the
Breadboard, place the four terminals (black, red, yellow and green) on the left-hand side. These four
terminals are used to connect the power leads from power supply.

Five horizontal Bus strips:

Each horizontal strip (Bus strip) has two rows of holes. The two rows are divided in to two sections
A and B. The upper row in section A is divided into five groups of holes (25 holes) that are internally
connected to each other. Similarly, all the five groups of holes in the bottom row ofsection A
are connected to each other. There is no connection between the holes in the upper row and the holes
in the bottom row. Similarly, the five groups of 25 holes in the upper and bottom rowof section B
are internally connected. There is no connection between any of the four row segments.

10
 Figure 1.3

The breadboard used in the lab

Two vertical Bus strips:

Each vertical strip is identical to the horizontal strips described above. Like the horizontal strips,
each of the two vertical strips has four column segments.

Four horizontal Terminal strips:

Each of the four horizontal strips (terminal strips) is divided in to two with a notch in the middle. There
is total of 10 rows of holes, five on each side of the notch. If you look carefully, the rows areA to J.
The internal connection of the holes is different from the connections in the bus strips. Here the holes
are connected together column wise rather than row wise. The columns have been numbered from 1
to 64. Thus, for example, all the five holes (rows A to E) in the column 1 are connected together and
all the five holes (rows F to J) in column 1 are connected together. There is no connection between
holes on one side of the notch with holes on other side of the notch.

11
Procedure:

1. Use of Digital Multimeter (DMM):

How to Measure Resistance:
1. Rotate the knob of digital multimeter from OFF to Ω.
2. Verify that the red lead plugged into the Ω jack and the black lead plugged into the COM
jack.
3. Connect the red and black leads across the resistor.
4. The resulting value will appear on the display.
NOTE: The unit for resistance is Ohm (symbol Ω). The bigger units are kilo Ohm (symbol
kΩ) and Mega Ohm (symbol MΩ).

How to Measure DC Voltage:

1. Rotate the knob from OFF to V.
2. To switch between AC & DC press SHIFT button once.
3. Verify that the red lead plugs into the V jack and the black lead plugs into the COM jack.
4. To make a measurement, connect the tip of the red lead and the tip of the black lead across the
points where you want to measure voltages (potential difference). A positive meter reading
means the point where the red tip is connected is higher in voltage than the point where the
black tip is connected.
NOTE: The unit for voltage is the volt (symbol V). Smaller units of voltage are the
millivolt (10-3 volt) symbol mV, and the microvolt (10-6 volt) symbol μV.

How to Measure Current:

1. Rotate the knob to A.
2. Make sure that the red lead plugs into the A or µA.mA jack and the black lead plugs into the
common jack.
3. To switch between AC & DC press SHIFT button once.
4. To make a current measurement, the tip of the red lead and the tip of the black lead must be
inserted in series with the element whose current is to be measured. A positive meter reading
means the point where the red tip is connected has current entering it.
NOTE: The unit for current is the ampere (symbol A – upper case). Smaller units of
current are the milliampere (10-3A) symbol mA, and the microampere (10-6A) symbol
μA.

12
LAB TASK:

Take the following values of resistors. By using DMM measure the values and fill in the table.
Do not touch your fingers with DMM leads or resistor while measuring the resistance.

Sr. # Resistor (Color Coded Value) Resistor (Measured Value)

1 470
2 1k
3 2.2k
4 3.8K

Construct the following circuit on breadboard for different values of resistors and voltage
source. Measure the corresponding voltages and currents and fill in the table.

Figure 1. 4

VS R RMEASURED VR IR
3 470
6 1k
9 2.2k
12 3.8K

13
Construct the following circuit on breadboard having the source voltage of 10V, R1=1kΩ, R2,
R3=470Ω, R4= 2.2kΩ, and R6= 3.8kΩ. Measure the corresponding voltages and currents and
fill in the table.

Figure 1. 5

VS IR1 VR4 IR5 VR1

10V

14
 EL-1001 LINEAR CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
LAB
To acquire practical knowledge about basic circuit elements, DC and AC circuits, and
verification of theoretical concepts and laws.
CLO Statement ↓ Exemplary Proficient Developing Beginning Novice
Score → (5) (4) (3) (2) (1)

Behave Takes Completes Needs help Needs help

responsibly ownership of assigned from group from others Does not
1 within team and the group and task(s) on member to group to work
perform the helps other time without complete complete
experiment group any help assigned assigned
safely and member as task(s) task
efficiently. well

To Correctly Correctly Partially Poorly

demonstrate performs the performs the performs the performs the
Does not
2 the lab and lab but lab and lab and have
work
characteristics completely partially partially no
of electrical addresses the addresses the addresses the theoretical
components manual manual manual knowledge
and working of of the
basic lab concept
apparatus.

CLO MARKS OBTAINED

1
2

Instructor’s Signature:

15
EXPERIMENT 2 Date Perform:
Roll No.

To Demonstrate the Resistor Color Code

OBJECTIVE:
• Finding value of resistance by color coding & by measurement
• Circuit construction on breadboard
• Observing and measuring many circuit concepts such as increasing/ decreasing/ shorting/
opening resistances in series/ parallel and the concept of in-circuit resistance.

EQUIPMENT:
• Digital Multimeter (DMM)
• Breadboard
• DC Power Supply
• 10 Resistors of different values
• Connecting Wires

BACKGROUND:

Resistor Color Coding:

Because carbon resistors are small physically, they are color coded to mark their value in Ω. The basis
of this system is the use of colors for numerical values as listed in table. The color coding is
standardized by EIA (Electronic Industries Association).

Table 2.1: Resistor Color Code

Color Value
Black 0
Brown 1
Red 2
Orange 3
Yellow 4
Green 5
Blue 6
Violet 7
Gray 8
White 9
Golden 10-1
Silver 10-2

16
If you note the bold initial letters of the color codes listed in the table 1.1, the color sequence and hence
the values can be memorized by using the pneumonic:

B. B. Roy of Great Britain has Very Good Wife

The use of Resistors Color Bands is the most common system for coding carbon resistors resistance
values. Color bands are printed at one end of the insulating body. Reading from left to right, the first
band that is close to the edge gives the first digit in the numerical value of the resistance. The next
band marks the second digit. The third band is the decimal multiplier, which gives the number of
zeroes after two digits.

The amount by which the actual resistance of a resistor can be different from the color-coded value
is given by tolerance, usually given in percentage. For instance, a 1000Ω resistor with ±10% tolerance
means that its actual value can be any value between a 10% threshold above or below the coded value.
Such a resistor, therefore, will have a value between 900Ω and 1100Ω. In some resistors the first three
bands represent the digits and fourth band is the decimal multiplier.

In four band resistors the 4th band and in five band resistors the 5th band is the tolerance band. Color
coded values for tolerances are indicated in the table 2.2

Table 2.2: Resistor Tolerances Band values

Color Tolerance
Brown ±1%
Red ±2%
Golden ±5%
Silver ±10%
None ±20%

Example:
A resistor with a color-code of “Red-Violet-Orange-Silver” would have a color-coded value of 27
k.
The color-coded tolerance of silver band is ±10%, and 10% of 27 k is 2.7 k.
This means the resistor should have an actual measured value within the range of (27 k – 2.7 k =
24.3 k) and (27 k + 2.7 k = 29.7 k).

17
LAB TASK:

Take 10 resistors of different values and fill in the table 2.3 below:

Table 2.3: Resistance Color Code & Measurement

Color Code
S. RCC RMIN-RMAX RM ()
(Record color band T (%)
No. () RCC () (Use DMM)
names)

Red-Violet-Orange-
0 Silver
27k 10 27k ± 2.7k = 24.3 - 29.7k 25.1k

10

18
1. Constructing a Resistive Circuit on Breadboard:
Construct the following circuit on your breadboard using the resistors (and wires) provided to you.
To begin with, use the following values of resistances:
R1 = 1kΩ
R2 = 4.7kΩ
R3 = 2.7kΩ
R4 = 10kΩ
VS = 5V, must be taken from the fixed output of the DC Power Supply.
IMPORTANT: The layout of the circuit on the breadboard should be the same as in the schematic
diagram below (figure 2.1). This makes verification and debugging easy.
R1 R2

R4

Figure 2.1: Circuit to be constructed on breadboard

There are 5 elements in the circuit, 4 resistors and 1 voltage source.

Your task now is to measure the voltages (5 readings) across all the components and currents (5
readings) through all the components.
To facilitate you please note the voltages and currents as mentioned in figure 2.2 below:
I1 or I2
R1 R2

Is + V1 - + V2 - I3 I4
+
Vs 5V + +
_ V3 R3 V4 R4
_ _

Figure 2.2: All voltages (with polarity) and currents (with direction)

19
It is very important to note that a voltage is marked with polarity signs (i.e., + and -). Use the red lead
of the DMM (set to measure DC voltage) to connect to the terminal marked with + and black lead to
terminal marked with - sign to measure a specified voltage.
Similarly, current is marked with a direction of flow by an arrow. The branch of the circuit where
current is to be measured must be cut because DMM must be inserted in series. Use the red lead of
the DMM (set to measure DC current) to connect to the side pointed to by the tail of the arrow and
the black lead to the other side (the head of the arrow).

In order to achieve the task, you may have to tweak (make slight changes) the circuit based on your
own intuition for easy measurement.

When you can conveniently measure all voltages and currents, please proceed to note down measured
results and drive conclusions from your observations.

Configuration # 1: Note down the various measured voltages and currents in the table below:

Table 2.4: Configuration # 1 Record

Config # 1 VS R1 = 1kΩ R2 = 4.7kΩ R3 = 2.7kΩ R4 = 10kΩ

Voltage (V)

Current (mA)

Conclusion: Can you draw any relationship between the various voltages listed in the table above?
By a relationship we mean a mathematical expression that relates them together. If yes write all such
relationships down. Similarly find all relationships for current and note them down.

20
Configuration # 2: Swap R1 with R2 (values of R1 and R2 change now) and take all measurements
again and fill the table below:
Table 2.5: Configuration # 2 Record
Config # 2 VS R1 = 4.7kΩ R2 = 1kΩ R3 = 2.7kΩ R4 = 10kΩ

Voltage (V)

Current (mA)

Conclusion: What conclusion do you draw from observations in configuration # 1 and configuration
# 2? Note down the quantities affected by the swap. Use your own words to describe your conclusion.

Configuration # 3: Restore R1 and R2 to original configuration. Swap R3 with R4 (values of R3 and

R4 change now) and take all measurements again and fill the table below:
Table 2.6: Configuration # 3 Record
Config # 3 VS R1 = 1kΩ R2 = 4.7kΩ R3 = 10kΩ R4 = 2.7kΩ

Voltage (V)

Current (mA)

Conclusion: What conclusion do you draw from observations in configuration # 1 and configuration
# 3? Note down the quantities affected by the swap. Use your own words to describe your conclusion.

21
Configuration # 4: For the resistor R1 in the configuration # 1 circuit, fill the voltage/current columns
below for different values of R1 to see how everything is impacted as R1 is increased, short-circuited
and open-circuited. Use one of the values from configuration # 1 experiment record in table 1.4 where
R1 had a value of 1kΩ. Use just one different value greater than 1kΩ to see how increase impacts the
other voltages and currents. Record your conclusion in the conclusion table.

Table 2.7: Configuration # 4 Record

CURRENT TABLE VOLTAGE TABLE
Config # 4 (For every R1 measure all voltages)
(For every R1 measure all currents)
I4 I3 I2 I1 IS R1 VS V1 V2 V3 V4
1kΩ 5V

5V

Short cct 5V

Open cct 5V

Conclusion: What conclusions do you draw from the above voltage table? Try filling the following
table by answering what happens to each voltage when R1 is shorted, increased, and opened.
Specify whether a value remains (i) unaffected, (ii) decreases, (iii) increases, or (iv) becomes zero.

Table 2.8: Configuration # 4 Conclusion

CURRENT TABLE VOLTAGE TABLE
Conclusion (For every R1 measure all voltages)
(For every R1 measure all currents)
I4 I3 I2 I1 IS R1 VS V1 V2 V3 V4
R1 increased

Short cct

Open cct

Any other conclusion:

22
2. Measuring in-circuit resistance:

Turn OFF and disconnect (remove leads) DC power supply from the breadboard and circuit. Short
circuit the two terminals where power supply was connected.

Take a few resistors (at least two) and fill up the table below. The 1ST column is to be filled by
using a DMM to measure out-of-circuit resistance (as before). The 2ND and 3RD columns are to be
filled when it is connected in place of R1 and R3 respectively in the circuit of Configuration # 1.

Table 2.9: Measuring in-circuit Resistance

S. RM () RIC-1 () RIC-3 ()

No. (Use DMM) Replace R1 Replace R3

Conclusion: Do you get the same (or comparable) values in the last 3 columns? Why? What is your
idea as to why this is so?

23
 EL-1001 LINEAR CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
LAB
To acquire practical knowledge about basic circuit elements, DC and AC circuits, and
verification of theoretical concepts and laws.
CLO Statement ↓ Exemplary Proficient Developing Beginning Novice
Score → (5) (4) (3) (2) (1)

Behave Takes Completes Needs help Needs help

responsibly ownership of assigned from group from others Does not
1 within team and the group and task(s) on member to group to work
perform the helps other time without complete complete
experiment group any help assigned assigned
safely and member as task(s) task
efficiently. well

To demonstrate Correctly Correctly Partially Poorly

the characteristics performs performs the performs the performs the
Does not
2 of electrical the lab and lab but lab and lab and have
work
components and completely partially partially no
working of basic addresses addresses the addresses the theoretical
lab apparatus. the manual manual manual knowledge
of the
concept

CLO MARKS OBTAINED

1
2

Instructor’s Signature:

24
EXPERIMENT 3 Date Perform:
Roll No.
To Demonstrate V-I Characteristic For a Resistor

OBJECTIVE:
• Measure Parameters of Resistive circuits
• Verify Ohm’s Law

EQUIPMENT:
• Digital Multimeter (DMM)
• Breadboard
• DC Power Supply
• Resistors (as required)
• Connecting Wires

BACKGROUND:

Ohm’s Law:
Ohm’s Law is an empirical law, that states that the current through a resistor between two points is
directly proportional to the potential difference across the two points.
Using the constant of proportionality as the resistance between the two points, one arrives to the
following mathematical equation:
𝑉
𝐼=
𝑅
where I is the current through the resistor in units of amperes (A), V is the potential difference
measured across the resistor in units of volts (V), and R is the resistance of the resistor in units of
Ohms (Ω).

Note the use of word 'across' for voltage and the use of word 'through' for current. By changing the
voltage across a resistor changes the current through it. If we double the voltage, the current doubles
and if we are told that the current has halved, the voltage must also should have halved.

The way in which we accomplish this is to measure the voltage across and current through a known
resistor for several different pair of values. We can then plot the data on a graph, and if the relationship
is truly linear it should yield a straight line.

When graphing data such as those obtained in this experiment, either the x or y-axis can be chosen to
display the voltage or current values. When the y-axis is chosen as the voltage axis, and the x-axis as
the current axis, the plot is known as V-I characteristics of the device. The slope of the line ∆V/∆I
should be equal to the resistance R of the resistor. When plotting a straight line on a graph such as this,
it is important that you draw the best straight line that you can through the data points.

25
Power in DC Circuits:
Electronic devices and circuits require energy to operate. Power is a measure in watts (W) of the energy
in joules (J) consumed by a given device in one second. For a resistor, three equations will yield the
power dissipated:
𝑉2
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 = = 𝐼2𝑅
𝑅

In this experiment, you will verify these formulae and plot graphs of the power versus the current, and
then power versus the voltage. The resulting curves are parabolas, and the equations of the curves are
called quadratic. By plotting P for two different resistors on the same graph paper (same scale) we can
see which resistance consumes more power for a given current (or voltage).

DC Power Supply:
In this experiment we will use the variable DC voltage source of the DC Power Supply introduced in
Lab # 01 (last time we used a fixed DC voltage source of 5V).
To use:
1. Disconnect the supply from any circuit.
2. Press the Power On button.
3. If using the variable DC supply, connect the red lead with + and the black lead with -.
4. The voltage and current can be set to desired level by rotating the knobs & the resulting value
appears on the display.
5. DO NOT join + and – terminal (known as shorting or short circuiting) of the DC power
supply. This may harm you, damage the supply or cause the fuse to blow out.

Review:
In the last lab, we learnt how to measure voltage across a resistor and current through it. The
measurements were done using the Digital Multi-Meter (DMM). When measuring voltage, the DMM
is referred to as a voltmeter and when measuring current, as ammeter.

Measuring voltage:
To measure voltage across a resistor, we connect the voltmeter in parallel to the resistor. In general,
in order to measure voltage between any two points in the circuit, the red lead of the voltmeter is
connected to the end marked + and the black to the end marked - to measure voltage.

RCL b
a c a c
red
+
red d
VR
VS
R
VS V R
_

g e
e f

Figure 3.1:

How to measure voltage across an element.

Both configurations measure voltage across R or VR
26
Measuring current:
To measure current through a resistor, we connect the ammeter in series with the resistor (or inserted
within the branch). The red lead of the ammeter must be connected to the tail end of the arrow showing
the reference direction of the current and the black lead to the side with the head of the arrow.

VS

Figure 3.2:
How to measure current through an element, R i.e., IR.

Burning Ammeter Fuse:

The main reason of the ammeter fuse getting burnt was connecting the ammeter (the DMM in ammeter
configuration) directly across the DC power supply terminals in order to try to measure supply current.
RCL

red
d
VS VR
IR R

Figure 3.3:
How NOT TO measure supply current.

Please remember that to measure current from the supply, the ammeter must be inserted in series
with one of the leads coming from the supply and not across the supply terminals.

RCL

red d
VS
R

Figure 3.4:
How to correctly measure supply current.

27
Measuring resistance:
When measuring resistance using an Ohmmeter, do not touch the terminals of the Ohmmeter or the
resistor with your body. Your body will alter the value of the resistance being measured. This will give
a wrong value for the resistance you are measuring, especially if it is a comparable value to the
resistance of your body between the two points being in contact with the resistor/ohmmeter.

You can try to measure this resistance by holding the Ohmmeter leads in both of your hand's index
fingers and thumbs separately.

RB (resistance of body) =

Now get a resistance comparable to this measured value. Measure it using ohmmeter such that it is
held by you in your hands.

R1 (with fingers touching terminals) =

Insert the resistor into the breadboard (both terminals must not be shorted). Use the Ohmmeter to
measure the resistance in such a way that no part of your hands touches either the resistor or the leads.

R2 (with no contact with terminals) =

Conclusion:
Which one is larger, R1 or R2?
Why?

LAB TASK:

During this lab, you are not allowed to measure anything (voltage or current) directly from the
supply terminals.

We introduce a preventive measure within the circuit to

limit current. This is the inclusion of a current limiting
resistor, RCL= 470 Ω (or a closely available value).

This RCL should not be removed throughout the lab

session.
Figure 3.5

28
1. Verify Ohms law by measurement and V-I characteristics:
Connect the circuit of figure 3.5 using R = 4.7kΩ = R1.

Remember to connect the power supply when the rest of the circuit has been made. Adjust the
voltage on the power supply such that VR achieves the values shown in the table.

Take multiple measurements of VR and IR and fill the column for R1 in the table below.
Repeat the same experiment for R = 5.6kΩ = R2 and fill the column for R2.
Table 3.1
ColorCoded value R1 = R2 =
Measured value of R R1 = kΩ R2 = kΩ
S# VR (V) IR1 (mA) IR2 (mA)
1 0
2 2
3 4
4 6
5 8
6 10
7 12
8 14
9 16
10 18
11 20

Plot this data on the same graph paper, given below. Use different symbols to mark each dataset. For
example, for R1, use small circles and for R2 use small crosses, x.
Draw the best straight line that connects the points (symbols) for each data set.

29
V - I Characteristics (V on y-axis, I on x-axis):
(Label the axis, properly draw the scale of each of the axis)

From the graph, find a ∆V for a ∆I to find the values of resistances of both resistors using
∆𝑉
𝑅=
∆𝐼

R1 (from slope) =
R2 (from slope) =

Does the straight-line pass through the origin?

Should it pass through the origin?
Why?

Now find the relationship between VS and VR.

30
Is VS : VR somehow related to RCL : R or RCL+R : R?
How?

Measure VR when R1is connected as R. Now without changing anything else, replace with R2 and
measure VR again.

Is VR still the same?

Any explanation for the behavior?

2. Accuracy of measuring resistance:

Using results already derived for the 2 resistors, fill up the table below with their color-coded values,
measured values with DMM, and calculated values using Ohm's law relationship,
𝑉𝑅
𝑅=
𝐼𝑅

Table 3.2
S# RColorCode (kΩ) RMeater (kΩ) ROhmLaw (kΩ)
1 R1
2 R2

Which method finds the most accurate value of resistance?

Why?

31
3. Percentage Error:
Take few resistors. Use them in the circuit of figure 3.5 in place of R, one by one and use Vs = 5v.
Measure VR. Using Ohm's law predict the value of current through the resistor, i.e., IR using:
𝑉𝑅
𝐼𝑅 =
𝑅

and write it down in the table below as IRCALC. Then measure the current and note it down as IRMEAS.
Calculate the percentage error in the calculated and measured value.

Percentage of error is found by the following formula:

𝐼𝑅𝑀𝐸𝐴𝑆 − 𝐼𝑅𝐶𝐴𝐿𝐶
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100
𝐼𝑅𝐶𝐴𝐿𝐶

For example, say IRMEAS = 15 mA and IRCALC = 14.8 mA, then

15 − 14.8
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100 = +1.35%
14.8

Table 3.3
Sr.# R (kΩ) VR (V) IRCALC (mA) IRMEAS (mA) % error
1 R1
2 R2
3 10.0

32
4. Resistor Power and Power Rating:
Inform the lab instructor when you are about to perform this experiment.
Turn the voltage of the power supply to minimum (0V).
In the circuit of figure 3.5, make R = 1.0 kΩ.
Hold the resistor R between your thumb and index finger.
Gradually (very slowly) increase the voltage of the power supply while holding the R until ...

What do you observe/feel?

Does the same thing happen to RCL?
Whats happening? Give a reason.

Resistors consume power (dissipate energy) in the form of heat. It may not be noticeable if too little
amount of heat is being dissipated.
You have just crossed the limit the 1kΩ resistor could tolerate! However, the RCL did not cross it!

Try redoing the experiment and measuring VR and IR when you feel the 1kΩ resistor becoming
warmer.
𝑉𝑅 2
𝑃𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅 =
𝑅
𝑃𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅 2𝑅

Find PR =
How is this value comparable to 0.25W?

33
Remember from the Lab # 01 write-up that the resistors used in the labs are Quarter (1/4) Watt
resistors. This means that they can only consume power up to 0.25W.
Thus, in practical (real life) circuits power consumed by resistors should be taken in consideration
before buying resistors. Resistors with higher power ratings are also available in the market, termed
as Power Resistors. They are bulkier and may have metal casing to dissipate heat easily.

Figure 3.6:
An Aluminum-housed power resistor rated for 50W with heat sink.

Now suppose you replace the 1kΩ value of R with two resistors of 500Ω (or closest available, e.g.
470Ω) each in series. Their equivalent value is around the same, i.e., 1kΩ (or within tolerance range).

Set the same VR as noted above (when 1kΩ was being used).

Are the two resistors or any one of them getting hot as much as the 1kΩ was getting hot?

Why? How can this be?

34
5. P-V and P-I - Plots:
Take values from the table 3.1 for first experiment. Fill up the following table below:

Table 3.4
ColorCoded R1 = R2 =
value
S# VR (V) IR1 (mA) PR1 (mW) IR2 (mA) PR2 (mW)
1 0
2 2
3 4
4 6
5 8
6 10
7 12
8 14
9 16
10 18
11 20

Using the table above, plot P-V curves for both resistors on the same graph paper. Then plot the P-I
curve for both resistors on another same graph paper given below.

35
P - V: Plot: (P on y-axis and V on x-axis)

Any conclusions from the P-V curves for the two resistors:

36
P - I : Plot: (P on y-axis and I on x-axis)

Any conclusions from the P-I curves for the two resistors:

37
6. Verify whether Ohm's law works with a network of resistors or not:
Do not remove RCL for the experiment below.
Take 5 resistors of any value of your choice (with values in kΩ). Setup any combination of these
resistors on your breadboard. Take two wires out from this network of 5 resistors, and replace the
resistor R in figure 3.5 with this network (connect the two wires in place of the terminals of R).
Draw your network in the space below. Mark the value of each resistor clearly:

For a random setting of voltage on the power supply, note VR and IR and calculate R.
VR =
IR =
RCALC =
Remove the network terminals from the circuit and use an ohmmeter to measure the network
resistance:
RMEAS =

Suppose a single resistor of value exactly RMEAS is available and we connect that in the circuit
instead of the 5-resistor network.

Will the VR and IR remain the same?

38
 EL-1001 LINEAR CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
LAB
To acquire practical knowledge about basic circuit elements, DC and AC circuits, and
verification of theoretical concepts and laws.
CLO Statement ↓ Exemplary Proficient Developing Beginning Novice
Score → (5) (4) (3) (2) (1)

Behave Takes Completes Needs help Needs help

responsibly ownership of assigned from group from others Does not
1 within team and the group and task(s) on member to group to work
perform the helps other time without complete complete
experiment group any help assigned assigned
safely and member as task(s) task
efficiently. well

To Correctly Correctly Partially Poorly

demonstrate performs the performs the performs the performs the
Does not
2 the lab and lab but lab and lab and have
work
characteristics completely partially partially no
of electrical addresses the addresses the addresses the theoretical
components manual manual manual knowledge
and working of of the
basic lab concept
apparatus.

CLO MARKS OBTAINED

1
2

Instructor’s Signature:

39
EXPERIMENT 4 Date Perform:
Roll No.

To Demonstrate Kirchhoff's Voltage Law & Current Law

OBJECTIVE:
• To verify Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) through measurements.
• To verify Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) through measurements.
• To validate analysis/measurement through Power Check.

EQUIPMENT:
1. Digital Multimeter (DMM)
2. Breadboard
3. DC Power Supply
 Resistors (1.5K, 2.2K, 2.7K,1K,3.3K)
5. Connecting Wires

BACKGROUND:

The foundations of Circuit Analysis are based on 4 basic concepts. These are:
1. Passive sign convention
2. Ohm's Law
3. Kirchhoff's Laws (KVL and KCL)
4. Power Check

In the Lab session # 03, you verified Ohm's law through measurements. This lab session is to verify
the Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) and Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL). Once all the voltages and
currents in a circuit are known, the Power Check can be employed to know if the computed/measured
values are indeed correct or not. Here is a brief introduction about these vital concepts:

Passive Sign Convention:

A voltage between two points in a circuit is specified by a value as well as a reference polarity
(marking a terminal as + and the other as -) which can be marked arbitrarily (randomly).

A current through an element in a circuit is specified by a value as well as a reference direction

(marked by an arrow) which can be marked arbitrarily (randomly).

The passive sign convention (psc) is said to be fulfilled if the current reference direction and the
voltage reference polarity are such that the current enters the element from the + end. As a mnemonic
to remember psc engrave →e+ in your minds.

40
Ohm's Law:
The voltage across a resistor is given by the product of the current through the resistor and its
resistance, if, the passive sign convention is fulfilled.
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
Otherwise a negative sign is used if psc is not fulfilled.
𝑉 = −𝐼𝑅

Kirchhoff’s Laws:
Before knowing Kirchhoff's laws know that a node is defined as a point (or part) of a circuit where 2
or more elements join and a loop is defined as any closed path in the circuit (without passing a node
twice).

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law:

Sum of all the voltage drops in a loop is zero.

∑ 𝑉𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑠 = 0
𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝
We take drops as positive and rises as negative. This is unintuitive but becomes convenient when you
just use the sign of the polarity at which point you enter an element when traversing a loop. Traversal
direction does not matter.

Kirchhoff’s Current Law:

Sum of all the currents entering a node is zero.

∑ 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 0
𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒
We take currents entering the node as positive and leaving the node as negative. This is intuitive.

Power Check:
Sum of all the power consumed in a circuit (closed system) is zero.

∑ 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 = 0
𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡

We take power consumed as positive and power generated as negative. This is unintuitive but in line
with the convention. So, a resistor always has a positive value of power attached to it (as it cannot
generate power).
This is an excellent way of knowing if the computations are correct or not.

Measuring Supply Current:

By now you should have learnt being careful in measuring supply current.

41
Do not connect ammeter ACROSS supply to measure supply current. To measure current of the
supply connect the ammeter in series with one of the wires coming from the supply.

Using mutliple Voltage Sources in the same circuit:

We can use up to 3 different Voltage Sources in the same circuit. The DC power supply available on
your bench, contains three different outlets, except that one (the right most) has a fixed voltage of 5V.

Note: In case, there are not sufficient number of leads to connect the power in your circuit, use jumper
wire to connect it appropriately. Furthermore, be careful not to short the source terminals together.
A red light WARNS about a short circuit which must be quickly sorted out before thesupply is
damaged (or its fuse blows).

Current Sources:
Current Sources do not exist in nature. Good practical ones are hard to make and have limitations.
Current sources are thus more of a mathematical model. In lab, we rarely use a Current Source.

LAB TASK:

Circuit # 1: Learn how to apply KVL and KCL. Verify through measurements.

This part is meant to make you understand KVL and KCL on simple circuits before moving to a
slightly complicated circuit. Where R1 = 1.5KΩ, R2 = 2.2K Ω, R3 = 2.7K Ω and VS = 10V

KVL:
Make the following circuit on
breadboard. Note the polarity mark for
V2 is different than the rest. Be careful.

Figure 4.1

KVL states that:

−𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 = 0

Plug in measured values into the equation above and verify it:
−( )+ ( )− ( )+ ( )=0

42
KCL:
Make the following circuit on breadboard. Choose
any values of R1, R2, R3 and VS (can be the same as
above). Note the direction mark for I3 is different than
the rest. Be careful.

Figure 4.2

KCL states that:

+𝐼𝑆 − 𝐼1 − 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 = 0

Plug in measured values into the equation above and verify it:
+( )− ( )− ( )+ ( )=0

Now for the circuit given below, understand the analysis already done for you using the 4 basic
concepts given above. Then make measurements on a prototype circuit built on a breadboard to verify
the analysis. Record your measurements. Once done, use the Power Check on measuredvalues
to validate them.

Figure 4.3

Let

𝑅1 = 1𝑘𝛺, 𝑅2 = 2.2𝑘𝛺, 𝑅3 = 3.3𝑘𝛺, 𝑉𝐴 = 10𝑉, 𝑉𝐵 = 5𝑉

43
This circuit has 4 nodes and 3 loops. So, 4 equations for KCL and 3 equations for KVL can be written.
But generally, we do not need to write all the equations. We only write as many are required.

Figure 4.4

Let us write the KVL equation for Loop 1, Loop 2 and Loop 3 respectively:

−10 + 1𝐾𝐼1 − 2.2𝐾𝐼2 = 0 ---------------------------- (1)

+2. 2𝐾𝐼2 + 3.3𝐾𝐼3 − 5 = 0 ---------------------------- (2)

−10 + 1𝐾𝐼1 + 3. 3𝐾𝐼3 − 5 ---------------------------- (3)

=0

If we add equations (1) and (2) we get equation (3). From our high school knowledge, we know that
if there are 3 unknowns we need 3 independent equations to be able to find their values. Equation (3)
does not qualify to be a proper equation (because it can be obtained from the other two and hence is
not independent).

The third equation comes from applying KCL at node marked N.

+𝐼1 + 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 = 0 ---------------------------- (4)

44
Solve these 3 equations [(1), (2) and (4)] simultaneously to arrive to the given values:

Calculated (mA) Measured (mA) Same?

𝐼1 = 5.454

𝐼2 = −2.273

𝐼3 = 3.181

45
Power Check:

In order to make sure that the values are correctly computed (measured), we perform a power check.
For each of the 5 elements in the circuit, we calculate the power and fill the table below:

Element Power Formula Power (mW) Measured Measured Power (mW) Same?
R (kΩ) Current Measured
(mA) Values

𝑉𝐴 𝑃𝐴 = −𝑉𝐴𝐼1 𝑃𝐴 = −54.54 --xxxx-- 𝑃𝐴 =

𝑉𝐵 𝑃𝐵 = −𝑉𝐵𝐼3 𝑃𝐵 = −15.91 --xxxx-- 𝑃𝐵 =

𝑅1 𝑃1 = (𝐼1)2𝑅1 𝑃1 = +29.75 𝑃1 =

𝑅2 𝑃2 = (𝐼2)2𝑅2 𝑃2 = +10.33 𝑃2 =

𝑅3 𝑃3 = (𝐼3)2𝑅3 𝑃3 = +30.36 𝑃3 =

Circuit # 2: Learn by applying KVL and KCL. Verify through measurements.

Based on your learning from Circuit # 1, please do
the analysis and verification for the following
circuit by yourself.

Figure 4.5

Take the same values for the elements, i.e.:

𝑅1 = 1𝑘𝛺, 𝑅2 = 2.2𝑘𝛺, 𝑅3 = 3.3𝑘𝛺, 𝑉𝐴 = 10𝑉, 𝑉𝐵 = 5𝑉

How many number of nodes are there:

Now many loops are there:

46
Use KVL, KCL, Ohm's law and psc to solve for the currents through all elements (mark any
convenient directions for the currents called IA, IB, I1, I2 and I3):

47
 Table2: Current calculations and measurements of circuit 2

Calculated (mA) Measured (mA) Same?

𝐼𝐴 =

𝐼𝐵 =

𝐼1 =

𝐼2 =

𝐼3 =

Power Check:

Finally run the Power Check on both calculated as well as measured values:

Table3: Power calculations and measurements of circuit 2

Element Power Formula Power (mW) Measured Measured Power (mW) Same?
R (kΩ) Current Measured
(mA) Values

𝑉𝐴 𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝐴 = --xxxx-- 𝑃𝐴 =

𝑉𝐵 𝑃𝐵 = 𝑃𝐵 = --xxxx-- 𝑃𝐵 =

𝑅1 𝑃1 = _ 𝑃1 = 𝑃1 =

𝑅2 𝑃2 = 𝑃2 = 𝑃2 =

𝑅3 𝑃3 = 𝑃3 = 𝑃3 =

Effect of R2:

Find how the rest of the circuit (specifically IA, IB, I1, I3) is impacted if the resistor R2 is removed.

48
Circuit # 3: For different circuit configurations of your choice, analyze and verify.
This is the best time to correct your basic circuit concepts. Make simple as well as complex networks
and verify your theoretical concepts. Draw each circuit with values of the resistor(s) and value(s) of
the voltage source(s). Show your analysis to find a calculated value and verify by measuring it. Show
a couple of such circuits to your lab instructor. Make sure, before you leave today's lab, you have your
concepts about KVL and KCL cleared.

49
 EL-1001 LINEAR CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
LAB
To acquire practical knowledge about basic circuit elements, DC and AC circuits, and
verification of theoretical concepts and laws.
CLO Statement ↓ Exemplary Proficient Developing Beginning Novice
Score → (5) (4) (3) (2) (1)

Behave Takes Completes Needs help Needs help

responsibly ownership of assigned from group from others Does not
1 within team and the group and task(s) on member to group to work
perform the helps other time without complete complete
experiment group any help assigned assigned
safely and member as task(s) task
efficiently. well

To Correctly Correctly Partially Poorly

demonstrate performs the performs the performs the performs the
Does not
3 the use of lab and lab but lab and lab and have
work
circuit analysis completely partially partially no
techniques to addresses the addresses the addresses the theoretical
conduct manual manual manual knowledge
different of the
experiments. concept

CLO MARKS OBTAINED

1
3

Instructor’s Signature:

50
EXPERIMENT 5 Date Perform:
Roll No.

To Demonstrate Series – Parallel Equivalent Resistive Network

OBJECTIVE:
• To verify voltage division through series resistors
• To verify current division through parallel resistors
• To find the equivalent resistance through terminal behavior

EQUIPMENT:
• Digital Multimeter (DMM)
• Breadboard
• DC Power Supply
• Resistors (7 x 1kΩ) - 7 (seven) resistors of the same value
• Connecting Wires

BACKGROUND:

Measuring Current through a Resistor without using an ammeter:

To avoid the hassle of switching the leads of the DMM and turning the knob to the appropriate
ammeter setting, you can use the following procedure to find the actual current flowing through a
resistor (emphasis - remember this technique will only work with a resistor and not with a voltage
source - why?).

1. Measure the actual value of resistance being used using a DMM setting for Ohmmeter at the start
of the experiment. Suppose you took a resistor whose color code shows that it is a 1.2kΩ resistor but
when you measured it, it turned out to be 1.187kΩ.

2. Whenever you have to measure current through it, measure the voltage across it. Suppose a
particular reading on the voltmeter comes out to be 3.905V.

3. Finally using Ohm's law, find the current through the resistor:

𝑉𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠 3.905
𝐼= = = 3.29𝑚𝐴
𝑅𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠 1.187

51
Resistors in Series:

When two or more resistors are connected in series in any circuit, KCL proves that the same amount
of current would flow through each of them and the equivalent resistance would be the sum of all
resistors in series, as shown below:

𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼3 = 𝐼

𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3

𝐼𝑅𝐸𝑄 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 + 𝐼𝑅3

𝑅𝐸𝑄 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3

Figure 5.1: Series Circuit

Resistors in Parallel:

When two or more resistors are connected in parallel in any circuit, KVL proves that the same
amount of voltage must drop across each of them, as shown below:

𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉3 = 𝑉

𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3

𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
= + +
𝑅𝐸𝑄 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅𝐸𝑄 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

Figure 5.2: Parallel Circuit

52
Visualizing connection on the breadboard before doing it:

For your ease and practice, it is suggested and recommended that make a layout of components on
paper before you make it on the breadboard. To facilitate the breadboard schematics have been
provided on a page.

53
LAB TASK:

1. Note down the color-coded value of the 7 identical resistors used: R (kΩ) =

2. Wire the circuit on your breadboard as given in Figure 5.3 below (draw a visualization on the
breadboard schematics page):

Figure 5.3: Series-Parallel Resistive Network

3. Before connecting each resistor, measure its value using the Ohmmeter. Record that in table 4.1
below.

4. Set a voltage of 15V on the DC Source.

5. Find the voltages across all the resistors. Assign polarity marks on the circuit in figure 5.3 for all
the resistors that matches your measurement. Record these in the Table 4.1 below:

Table 5.1: Measured Values

Resistor R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7
Resistance (kΩ)
Measured, RM
Voltage (V)
Measured, VM
Current (mA)
𝑉
Measured, 𝐼𝑀 = 𝑅𝑀
𝑀

54
6. Mark the directions of the currents based on the polarity marks in figure 5.3.

7. Disconnect the circuit from the DC source terminals. Measure with the DMM (Ohmmeter) the
equivalent resistance.
REQ (kΩ) = (measured)
15
Does this value match (kΩ)? (terminal behavior)
𝐼𝑅1

8. Reconnect the circuit of Figure 5.3 to the source voltage. Make sure the voltage source is set to the
same value as before. Using the Voltmeter, measure the voltage at point H with respect to point J.
Make sure the RED lead is at H and the BLACK lead of the meter is at J. Record it below.
VHJ (V) =

9. Using the Ammeter, measure the current through branch DG.

IDG (mA) =

10. Can you find the value of one resistor such that if you connect it with the same DC voltage as in
figure 5.3, you get the same amount of current as flowing out of the source for the circuit of figure
5.3? If yes, what is the value of its resistance:

11. Use this one resistor to connect as in figure 5.4 and see that if the current through it matches the
current through resistor R1 as in figure 5.3 or not. Matches? _

Figure 5.4: Series-Parallel Resistive Network Equivalent

55
From this point onwards you do not need to measure anything. Just analyze the readings by
answering the various questions posted and do theoretical analysis.

12. Measured-Value Analysis: Refer to the circuit in Figure 5.3:

A. In branch DG, how are R5, R6, and R7 related to each other?

How are their currents related?

How much is the total resistance in branch DG? _

How are their voltage drops related to the voltage across branch CF and branch BE?

B. In branch CF, how are R3 and R4 related to each other?

How are their currents related?

How much is the total resistance in branch CF? _

How are their voltage drops related to the voltage across branch BE and branch DG?

C. What is the relationship between the sum of the currents of branches BE, CF and DG to the
current through R1?

D. Make a statement that compares the amount of current through each branch BE, CF, and DG
with the amount of resistance in branches BE, CF, and DG, respectively.
_

E. Branch CF and branch DG are in parallel. Correct?

Voltages across parallel branches are the same. Correct?

R3 is in branch CF and R5 is in branch DG. Are the voltages across R3 and R5 the same?

Why? (or why not?)

56
13. Theoretical Analysis of the circuit in Figure 5.3: You are already familiar with all the basic laws
of circuit analysis (viz., PSC, Ohm's law, KVL and KCL). Solve the circuit theoretically to find
all the resistor voltages and currents and see if they match the values obtained in table 5.1 or not.
Record the results in table 5.2. For your convenience, the circuit is redrawn below. Write the color-
coded values of the resistances that you had used above.

R (kΩ) =

Table 5.2: Calculated values

Resistor R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7
Resistance (kΩ)
Color Coded, RC
Voltage (V)
Calculated, VC
Current (mA)
𝑉
Calculated, 𝐼𝐶 =𝑅 𝐶
𝐶

Also find the following:

VHJ (V) =

REQ (kΩ) =

How do the calculated values match the measured values (of table 5.2 with those in table 5.1)?

57
Do your theoretical analysis on this page:

Figure 5.5

58
 EL-1001 LINEAR CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
LAB
To acquire practical knowledge about basic circuit elements, DC and AC circuits, and
verification of theoretical concepts and laws.
CLO Statement ↓ Exemplary Proficient Developing Beginning Novice
Score → (5) (4) (3) (2) (1)

Behave Takes Completes Needs help Needs help

responsibly ownership of assigned from group from others Does not
1 within team and the group and task(s) on member to group to work
perform the helps other time without complete complete
experiment group any help assigned assigned
safely and member as task(s) task
efficiently. well

To Correctly Correctly Partially Poorly

demonstrate performs the performs the performs the performs the
Does not
3 the use of lab and lab but lab and lab and have
work
circuit analysis completely partially partially no
techniques to addresses the addresses the addresses the theoretical
conduct manual manual manual knowledge
different of the
experiments. concept

CLO MARKS OBTAINED

1
3

Instructor’s Signature:

59
EXPERIMENT 6 Date Perform:
Roll No.

To Demonstrate Current Divider Rule and Voltage Divider Rule

OBJECTIVE:
• To verify Voltage Divider (VD) & Current Divider (CD) rules.
• To be able to design a practical VD circuit meeting an output voltage requirement.
• To verify the effect of Load resistor on a VD circuit.
• To be able to estimate the effect of resistance tolerance on VD output.
• To empirically find the load resistor that takes on maximum power from VD circuit.
• To find voltage source based model of the VD circuit through terminal measurement.
• To verify/find the relationship of the maximum power load resistor to model resistance.

EQUIPMENT:
• Digital Multimeter (DMM)
• Breadboard
• DC Power Supply
• Resistors: 1kΩ, 2.2kΩ, 3.9 kΩ, 4.7 kΩ
• Connecting Wires

BACKGROUND:

Current Divider Theorem

We have already conducted an experiment to learn that a string of series connected resistors can be
used to divide a source voltage into smaller portions. The voltage divider allowed us to calculate the
distribution of voltages in such circuits without the requirement for calculating the current. In a similar
manner, the current divider theorem allows us to calculate the magnitudes of the currents in a parallel
circuit, using only the total current and the resistor values. It is particularly useful when the circuit is
driven by a constant current source as opposed to a constant voltage source.
The formula for the current In in a specific resistor Rn of a parallel combination RTotal, when the total
current IT entering the junction is known, can be written
𝑅𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝐼𝑛 = 𝐼𝑇
𝑅𝑛

Where RTotal is the total parallel resistance of R1, R2, R3 and R4 as shown in figure: 6.1
Rn is the nth resistance in the parallel combination. Here in this example, n can have any value; n =
{1, 2, 3, 4}

60
 Figure 6.1

In this experiment we will verify the current divider theorem by adjusting the source for a specified
total current and measuring the individual branch (resistor) currents. Remember that the resistor
tolerance will affect your results. Even if only one resistor is out of tolerance, all the resistor currents
will be affected.

Voltage Divider Theorem

Voltage dividers find many applications in electronic circuits. The requirement for voltages of
different values often arises and is normally accomplished by a voltage divider circuit. With reference
to Figure-1, the output voltage across the nth resistor, Rn, where n = {1, 2, 3, 4} is given by
𝑉=𝑉 𝑅𝑛

𝑛 𝑆 𝑅𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
where RTotal is the total series equivalent of R1, R2, R3 and R4.

Figure 6.2

Visualizing connection on the breadboard before actually doing it:

For your ease and practice, it is suggested and recommended that make a layout of components on
paper before you make it on the breadboard. To facilitate, the breadboard schematics have been
provided on this page.

61
62
LAB TASK:

1. Current Divider

1. By using current divider theorem calculate IT, I1, I2, I3, I4 for the circuit shown in figure: 6.3
and record in table: 6.1.
2. Connect the circuit on breadboard (place resistors as placed in figure: 6.3).
3. By using DMM measure currents IT, I1, I2, I3, I4 and record in table: 6.1.
4. Compare these with the calculated values of IT, I1, I2, I3, I4 in table: 6.1.
𝐼𝑀𝐸𝐴𝑆−𝐼𝐶𝐴𝐿𝐶
5. Find percentage error using formula: 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100
𝐼𝐶𝐴𝐿𝐶

Figure 6.3

Table 6.1: Calculated and Measured Values of a parallel circuit

Measured Resistance Calculated Measured
% error
(kΩ) Currents (mA) Currents (mA)
𝑅1
𝑅2
𝑅3
𝑅4
Measured Calculated
𝑅𝑇

Please note that RT is the total resistance (or equivalent resistance) as seen by the voltage source.
It can be measured by removing the source and using Ohmmeter to measure the resistance between
the two terminals (where source was earlier connected).

63
2. Voltage Divider

1. Now by using Voltage divider theorem calculate V1, V2, V3, and V4 of the circuit shown in
figure: 6.4 and record in table: 6.2.
2. Connect the circuit as shown in figure: 6.4.
3. Measure VS, V1, V2, V3, and V4 by using DMM and note in table: 6.2.
4. Compare these measured values with the calculated values of V1, V2, V3, and V4 in table: 6.2.
𝑉𝑀𝐸𝐴𝑆−𝑉𝐶𝐴𝐿𝐶
5. Find percentage error using formula: 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100
𝑉𝐶𝐴𝐿𝐶

Figure 6.4

Table 6.2: Calculated and Measured Values of a series circuit

Measured Calculated Measured
% error
Resistance (kΩ) Voltages (V) Voltages (V)
𝑅1
𝑅2
𝑅3
𝑅4
𝑅𝑇

64
 3. Design a VD (Theoretical)

Design a VD circuit where VS = 12V and we require V2 = 5V

Note: The value of V2 will be assigned by the insturctor!

12V

Figure 6.5

Make sure the R1 and R2 that you choose must be in kΩ and available in the lab.

R1 =

R2 =

65
 4. Effect of Tolerance

Construct the circuit in figure 6.5 on the breadboard using R1 and R2 as in your design (in point # 3).
Measure V2 =

How does measured V2 compare with actual V2? % error =

5. Effect of Load Resistance, RL

The VD circuit was supposed to supply V2 voltage to a load (which can be modeled by a single
resistor, called RL).

Choose a value for the resistor, RL (different than R2) and connect it in parallel with R2 as shown in
circuit in figure 6.6 below:

R1

VS
+
12V
R2 V2 RL

-
Figure 6.6

Does V2 remain the same (at the value in point # 4)?

Why?

66
How to get the required V2 in the presence of RL used above (i.e., when RL is connected as in figure
6.6)? Discuss and show your approach to your instructor. You will come up with new values of R1
and/or R2.

R1

VS2V
1
R2 V2 RL

Figure 6.7

Using the circuit in figure 6.7, measure voltage across load, i.e., VL = .

Now remove RL from the circuit. Measure VL(OC) =

Why are VL and VL(OC) not comparable?

67
 6. Maximum Power: What value of RL dissipates the maximum power

Now take many different values of RL (starting from 200Ω till 100kΩ), connect them one by one
into the VD circuit that you have constructed according to your new approach (at the end of point # 5)
and measure the voltage across them, called VL. None of the other parameters should be changed.

We need a lot of values because we wish to make as accurate a plot (graph) as is possible. Fill in the
table below with your observations (if your choice of resistor is different than those mentioned, please
mention the values you use):

𝑹𝑳 (kΩ) Calculate
Measured 𝑽𝑳 𝟐
S# Color 𝑷 = (mW) 𝐥𝐨𝐠𝟐 𝑹𝑳
Measured 𝑽𝑳 (V) 𝑳
Code 𝑹𝑳

1 0.2

2 0.4

3 0.8

4 1.5

5 3.2

6 6.4

7 12.8

8 25.6

9 51.2

10 102.4

Plot the values of PL vs RL on the attached semi-log graph paper. It is called a semi-log graph paper
because one of the axis is linear while the other is logarithmic. Logarithmic scale helps us to
accommodate too small and too large values on the same graph and within reasonable space. In our
case, instead of plotting RL, we can plot log2 𝑅𝐿, where
log10 𝑅𝐿 log10 𝑅𝐿
log 𝑅 = = = 3.322 log 𝑅

2 𝐿 10 𝐿
log10 2 0.301

68
69
 EL-1001 LINEAR CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
LAB
To acquire practical knowledge about basic circuit elements, DC and AC circuits, and
verification of theoretical concepts and laws.
CLO Statement ↓ Exemplary Proficient Developing Beginning Novice
Score → (5) (4) (3) (2) (1)

Behave Takes Completes Needs help Needs help

responsibly ownership of assigned from group from others Does not
1 within team and the group and task(s) on member to group to work
perform the helps other time without complete complete
experiment group any help assigned assigned
safely and member as task(s) task
efficiently. well

To Correctly Correctly Partially Poorly

demonstrate performs the performs the performs the performs the
Does not
3 the use of lab and lab but lab and lab and have
work
circuit analysis completely partially partially no
techniques to addresses the addresses the addresses the theoretical
conduct manual manual manual knowledge
different of the
experiments. concept

CLO MARKS OBTAINED

1
3

Instructor’s Signature:

70
EXPERIMENT 7 Date Perform:
Roll No.

To Demonstrate Superposition Theorem

OBJECTIVE:
• To demonstrate superposition theorem

EQUIPMENT:
• Digital Multimeter (DMM)
• Breadboard
• DC Power Supply
• Resistors (4 different resistors with values in kΩ)
• Connecting Wires

BACKGROUND:

The superposition theorem allows us to calculate the combined effects of a multi-source circuit by
summing the individual effects of each source acting alone. Particular attention must be paid to current
directions and voltage polarities when applying superposition. The circuit has two voltage sources,
VS1 and VS2. According to superposition theorem, currents I1, I2, I3, I4 and I5 and voltages V1, V2, V3,
V4 (where the voltage Vi is across the element Ri such that passive sign convention is fulfilled with
respect to Ii) can be calculated by taking their values due to individual source acting alone, and then
adding them. The source not being considered is to be replaced with a short circuit.

IMPORTANT:

You must remove the power supply terminals from the circuit BEFORE you replace it with a short
circuit. Never short-circuit a functioning power supply.

Also, pay attention to the polarity of voltages due to each source so that you algebraically sum them
to get the totals.

71
LAB TASK:

Figure 7.1: Circuit to verify Superposition Theorem

1. Mark the voltages V1, V2, V3, V4 on the circuit above. The voltage Vi is across the element Ri
such that passive sign convention is fulfilled with respect to Ii.
2. Use R1 = 1KΩ, R2 = 2.2KΩ, R3= 3.3KΩ, R4= 4.7KΩ. Set VS1 to 10V and VS2 to 15V.
3. Measure the values of the resistors using the DMM and list below (with appropriate units):

R1 =
R2 =
R3 =
R4 =

4. First do theoretical analysis to find all the voltages (be careful about their polarity) and
currents (be careful about their direction) and fill table 7.1. Note that V11 is the component of
V1 due to VS1 acting alone; V12 is the component of V1 due to VS2 acting alone, and so on.
5. Now complete the measurements. Measure all the required voltages and currents for the
circuit in figure 7.1. Then remove VS2 and replace it with a short circuit. Do the same
measurements steps again. Repeat the procedure again by removing VS1 (short its terminals)
and restoring VS2. Fill the table 7.2 with all these measurements.
6. Verify whether superposition holds or not.

72
Theoretical Analysis: (Use a method of your choice to solve the circuit completely.)

73
Theoretical Analysis: (Use a method of your choice to solve the circuit completely.)

74
 Table: 7.1 - Calculated Data

Both VS1, VS2 Active VS1 Active only VS2 Active only Superposition

V1 V11 V12 V11+V12

V2 V21 V22 V21+V22

V3 V31 V32 V31+V32

I1 I11 I12 I11+I12

I2 I21 I22 I21+I22

I3 I31 I32 I31+I32

I4 I41 I42 I41+I42

I5 I51 I52 I51+I52

Table: 7.2 - Measured Data

Both VS1, VS2 Active VS1 Active only VS2 Active only Superposition
V1 V11 V12 V11+V12

V2 V21 V22 V21+V22

V3 V31 V32 V31+V32

I1 I11 I12 I11+I12

I2 I21 I22 I21+I22

I3 I31 I32 I31+I32

I4 I41 I42 I41+I42

I5 I51 I52 I51+I52

75
 EL-1001 LINEAR CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
LAB
To acquire practical knowledge about basic circuit elements, DC and AC circuits, and
verification of theoretical concepts and laws.
CLO Statement ↓ Exemplary Proficient Developing Beginning Novice
Score → (5) (4) (3) (2) (1)

Behave Takes Completes Needs help Needs help

responsibly ownership of assigned from group from others Does not
1 within team and the group and task(s) on member to group to work
perform the helps other time without complete complete
experiment group any help assigned assigned
safely and member as task(s) task
efficiently. well

To Correctly Correctly Partially Poorly

demonstrate performs the performs the performs the performs the
Does not
3 the use of lab and lab but lab and lab and have
work
circuit analysis completely partially partially no
techniques to addresses the addresses the addresses the theoretical
conduct manual manual manual knowledge
different of the
experiments. concept

CLO MARKS OBTAINED

1
3

Instructor’s Signature:

76
77
EXPERIMENT 8 Date Perform:
Roll No.

To Demonstrate Thevenin's Theorem and Maximum Power Transfer

Theorem

OBJECTIVE:
• To find Thevenin's equivalent circuit (TEC) for few linear networks
• To find Thevenin's equivalent resistance using 3 different methods
• To verify that all linear circuits can be represented by its Thevenin's equivalent circuit
• To verify that TEC and the original circuits have identical terminal behavior

EQUIPMENT:
• Digital Multimeter (DMM)
• Breadboard
• DC Power Supply
• Resistors (as required)
• Connecting Wires

BACKGROUND:
Thevenin’s theorem
Thevenin’s theorem for DC circuit theory states that: Any linear electrical network containing only
voltage sources, current sources and resistances can be replaced at terminals A-B by an equivalent
voltage source VTH in series with an equivalent resistance RTH.
Thevenin's Equivalent circuit can simplify analysis.
VTH is obtained at terminals A-B of the network with terminals A-B open circuited. Thus 𝑉𝑇𝐻 =
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝑂𝐶. RTH is the resistance obtained at terminals A-B of the network when all 'independent'
current sources are open circuited and 'independent' voltage sources are short circuited.
There are 3 methods of finding RTH:
1. Measuring RTH using a DMM after removing the sources as mentioned above.
𝑉𝑇𝐻
2. Measuring ISC and finding 𝑅𝑇𝐻 = 𝐼𝑆𝐶
without removing any source.

3. Applying a test voltage VT across terminals A-B and measuring the current IT supplied by
𝑉𝑇
test voltage source, without removing any source. Then 𝑅 𝑇𝐻 = .
𝐼𝑇
1
If IT = 1mA, then 𝑅𝑇𝐻 = 𝑉𝑇 kΩ. Else if VT = 1V, 𝑅𝑇𝐻 = Ω.
𝐼𝑇

To demonstrate this, we will apply the theorem to a simple circuit as in Figure 8.1. According to the
theorem, we should be able to replace the circuitry to the left of terminals A-B in Figure 8.1 with
that in Figure 8.2. To obtain the equivalent source voltage, you will measure the open circuit voltage.
The Thevenin resistance is obtained by measuring RA-B after replacing the source voltage VS by a short
circuit.
78
 R1 R3 A RTH A

IL IL
+ +

VS R2 RL VL VTH RL VL
10V
- -

B B
Figure: 8.1 - Original Circuit Figure 8.2 - TEC
R1 R3 A

Red Voltmeter
Lead
VS R2
10V

B
Figure: 8.3 - Measuring VOC = VTH
R1 R3 A

Red Ammeter
Lead
VS R2
10V

B
Figure: 8.4 - Measuring ISC
R1 R3 A

IT

R2
VT

B
Figure: 8.5 - Test voltage source method to find RTH

Figure 8.3 shows how to measure VOC (VTH), figure 8.4 shows how to measure RTH directly with a
DMM according to 2nd method and figure 8.5 shows how to connect a test source to measure RTH.
More about Thevenin's Theorem and TEC:

79
The usefulness of TECs comes from the fact that they are very simple circuits that can be used to
represent complicated or even unknown circuits. This can greatly simplify the analysis of circuits when
a series of different load conditions need to be analyzed. By reducing a circuit to a TEC,finding
the voltage and current through a load become a simple application of a voltage divider and Ohm’s
law instead of a perhaps messy node-voltage or mesh-current analysis.

When the term “output resistance” appears in a datasheet (for a device), it is referring to the value of
the Thevenin resistance of the output circuit.

TECs are also useful when investigating unknown circuits. If a TEC for the circuit can be determined,
then knowledge of how the actual circuit works is unnecessary because the circuits behavior can be
predicted from the TEC.

Thevenin’s theorem applies to linear circuits, so the I-V (or V-I) characteristic of the TEC is also
linear. Since a line can be determined by finding two points on it, a TEC can also be determined by
finding two points on the I-V characteristic.
V

VOC

I
ISC

Figure: 8.6 - V-I Characteristics of a TEC

Depending on the situation, some points of on the I-V characteristic may be easier than others. One
point that is often convenient to measure is called the open-circuit voltage or VOC. This is the voltage
at the terminals of the device when no load is applied, i.e. the circuit is open (RL = ∞). Since this point
corresponds to a current I = 0, the current through the Thevenin resistance is also 0. When no current
flows through a resistor, there is no voltage drop across that resistor. In a TEC, this means that the
voltage across the output nodes is the same as the voltage of the source, VTH.

Given that VOC is an easy point to measure, it would seem like the symmetric point, the short-circuit
current or ISC, might also be an easy point to measure. However, shorting the output of a circuit is
almost never a good idea as it is possible to damage some circuits this way. In practice, it is a good
idea to choose a different point when it is unknown if a short-circuit will cause damage.

80
Use your TEC model to predict what the voltage will be for three different resistive test loads, then
apply these loads to verify that your model is correct my measuring the voltage across and current
through the load. Show that your model is correct and that the circuit is linear by plotting the three
points on top of the theoretical I-V characteristic of the TEC you derived.

Maximum Power Transfer:

The maximum power transfer theorem states that maximum power transfer from a source to a load
resistance occurs when the load resistance is equal to the Thevenin resistance.
RL = RTh

LAB TASK:

Task 1:
Construct the circuit of figure 8.1 on the breadboard. Use the following resistance values:
R1 = 3.3kΩ, R2 = 2.2kΩ, R3 = 1kΩ, RL = 3.3kΩ

Do not connect RL at the moment and leave terminals A-B open.

Measure VAB (which is VTH).

Measure RTH using an Ohmmeter after removing the source and shorting the terminals (DO NOT
short the voltage source directly).

VTH =
RTH =

Verify the RTH using ISC - Find ISC by finding the current using an ammeter as in figure 8.4.
ISC =
𝑉𝑇𝐻
RTH = 𝑅𝑇𝐻 = 𝐼𝑆𝐶

Verify the RTH using test source method - Apply a test source VT as shown in figure 8.5 (short out
the source voltage). Measure VT and IT.
VT =
IT =
𝑉𝑇
RTH = 𝑅𝑇𝐻 =
𝐼𝑇

Get to the original circuit of figure 8.1 and connect RL. Measure the voltage VL across it and current
IL through it.
VL =
IL =

81
Now build the TEC using VTH and RTH on your breadboard and connect the same RL to terminals A-
B as in figure 8.2. Measure the voltage VL across it and current IL through it again.
VL =

IL =

% error between original circuit and TEC values - shows how accurately TEC is modeled.
% error in VL =

% error in IL =

Plot the I-V (or V-I) characteristics: Plot V on y-axis and I on x-axis. For a straight line we only
need two points. Use (0, VTH) and (ISC, 0) to make the straight line.

82
Now try to clearly mark the point (IL, VL) on the graph above.
Does it lie on the straight line?
Try to mark another point on the straight line, let it be (IX, VX). Set this VX as figure 8.7 below and
measure IX as shown.
R1 R3 A

IX
VS R2
10V VX

B
Figure: 8.7 - Set VX and find IX
(IX, VX) =

IX (MEAS) =

Calculation based verification of results:

[Do it in the lab so that in case of disparity, you can redo part of the experiment.
Show the calculations to your lab instructor]
Corroborate your measurements with your theoretical knowledge. Use color coded values of the
resistors in calculations.
1. Find the TEC for the circuit given in figure 8.1 for the resistances used in the experiment
above and match with VTH and RTH measured.
2. Find the equivalent resistance and match with RTH.
3. Solve for IT given the VT you used in the test source method and corroborate with IT
measured as in figure 8.5.

83
84
85
Task 2:
You are working as a design engineer in Pakistan national Engineering firm. A team of R&D
department is currently working on an automation project which involves a lot of individual modules
mounted together. They designed the following circuit of fig. 8.9 whose primary objective is to run a
robotic arm which is shown as RL in the circuit diagram between points A and B, and they gave it to
you to make the hardware of this circuit but the components at your disposal are not enough for you
to make the actual hardware. Sophie, a newly graduated engineer who is working under your
supervision, suggested that we have a variable voltage supply of 30V and a couple of resistors. She
thought that we can use this variable voltage supply and a resistor to power the robotic arm, which is
shown as RL.

Fig. 8.9

Where R1 = 1 KΩ; R2 = 2.2 KΩ; R3 = 2.7 KΩ; R4 = 4.7 KΩ; R5 = 5.6 KΩ; R6 = 1.2 KΩ; RL = 3.9
KΩ

a) Briefly describe in two lines that how a variable voltage supply and resistor are enough to run
the robotic arm (RL)?

b) Can this circuit provide same current and voltage as the original circuit? If yes than suggest
the values of voltage source and resistor based on mathematical calculations and show your
calculations below. If no then give the reason why not?

Note: write proper steps in the calculations and draw the appropriate circuit diagram where
possible.

86
87
c) Implement your proposed solution on breadboard.

d) Implement the original circuit of fig. 8.9 on breadboard separately from circuit implemented
in part (c).

88
Task 3:
For the circuit given in fig. 8.10 take any values of R1 and R2 and write the them in the table below:

R1 R2
Color Code value
Measured value

e) Figure: 8.10
Calculate the value of RL for which source transfers maximum power to the load. Show your
calculation below:

Now construct the circuit of fig. 8.10 on breadboard and insert your calculated RL and find the power.
Then insert two different values of RL; one greater than your calculated RL and second lesser than RL
and fill the table below:

R Voltage Current Power

Calculated Value
Greater Value
Lesser Value

Based on your readings what can you say about Maximum Power Transfer theorem? Do your results
match with your calculations?

89
 EL-1001 LINEAR CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
LAB
To acquire practical knowledge about basic circuit elements, DC and AC circuits, and
verification of theoretical concepts and laws.
CLO Statement ↓ Exemplary Proficient Developing Beginning Novice
Score → (5) (4) (3) (2) (1)

Behave Takes Completes Needs help Needs help

responsibly ownership of assigned from group from others Does not
1 within team and the group and task(s) on member to group to work
perform the helps other time without complete complete
experiment group any help assigned assigned
safely and member as task(s) task
efficiently. well

To Correctly Correctly Partially Poorly

demonstrate performs the performs the performs the performs the
Does not
3 the use of lab and lab but lab and lab and have
work
circuit analysis completely partially partially no
techniques to addresses the addresses the addresses the theoretical
conduct manual manual manual knowledge
different of the
experiments. concept

CLO MARKS OBTAINED

1
3

Instructor’s Signature:

90
EXPERIMENT 9 Date Perform:
Roll No.

To Demonstrate Op-Amp Operation as Inverting / Non-Inverting

Amplifier
OBJECTIVE:
• Introduction to Op-amp
• Op-amp as inverting/non-inverting amplifier

EQUIPMENT:
• Digital Multimeter (DMM)
• Breadboard
• DC Power Supply
• Op-amp μA-741
• Resistors (in kΩ)
• Connecting Wires

BACKGROUND:

An operational amplifier is a very high gain amplifier having very high input impedance (typically a
few mega ohms) and low output impedance (less than 80 ohms). The basic circuit is made using a
difference amplifier having two inputs, inverting and non-inverting (marked with negative & positive
sign respectively) and one output. Figure 9.1 shows a basic op-amp unit.

+VCC
+VCC
+

VCC
-

GND
-VCC

Figure 9.1: VCC

Basic Op-amp symbol
-VCC

Figure 9.2:
Power supplies configuration

The schematic of Figure 9.2 shows a standard ±VCC configuration for op-amp. Although both the
supplies shown here are shown of equal value, they can be of different values. Sometimes they are

91
also referred to as V+ and V-. These supplies need to be a constant DC voltage. They are not signal
sources. The term 'signal' usually refers to the voltage (not necessarily DC) to be amplified.

Figure 9.3:
Generic op-amp pinout. (Source - Wikipedia)

Study the chip pinout of Figure 9.3. The standard procedure on DIP (dual in-line package) “IC
chips” is to identify Pin 1 with a notch in the end of the chip package. The notch always separates
pin 1 from the last pin on the chip. In the case of the 741, the notch is between pins 1 and 8.
Pin 2 is the inverting input Vin (-), pin 3 is the non-inverting input Vin (+), and the amplifier output
Vout is at pin 6. These three pins are the three terminals that normally appear in an op-amp circuit
schematic diagram. Even though the ±VCC connections must be completed for the op-amp to work,
they usually are omitted from the circuit schematic to improve clarity.
The null offset pins (1 and 5) provide a way to eliminate any “offset” in the output voltage of the
amplifier. The offset voltage (usually denoted by Vos) is an artifact of the integrated circuit. The offset
voltage is additive with VO (pin 6 in this case), can be either positive or negative and is normally less
than 8 mV. Because the off-set voltage is so small, in most cases we can ignore the contribution VOS
makes to VO and we leave the null offset pins open.
Pin 8, labeled “NC”, has no connection to the internal circuitry of the 741, and is not used.

Data Sheet
A datasheet, data sheet, or spec sheet is a document summarizing the performance and other
technical characteristics of a product, machine, component (e.g. an electronic component), material,
a subsystem (e.g. a power supply) or software in sufficient detail to be used by a design engineer to
integrate the component into a system. Typically, a datasheet is created by the
component/subsystem/software manufacturer and begins with an introductory page describing the rest
of the document, followed by listings of specific characteristics, with further information on the
connectivity of the devices. Depending on the specific purpose, a data sheet may offer an
average value, a typical value, a typical range, tolerances, or a nominal value. The type andsource of
data are usually stated on the data sheet. (Wikipedia)

92
LAB TASK:

Inverting Amplifier
The most widely used constant-gain amplifier circuit is the inverting amplifier, as shown in Figure
9.4. The output is obtained by multiplying the input by a fixed or constant gain, set by the input resistor
RIN and feedback resistor RF. The polarity of the output is opposite to that of the input (reflected by the
negative sign in the output-input relationship or gain equation).
𝑅𝐹
𝑉𝑂 = − 𝑉𝐼𝑁
𝑅𝐼𝑁

Note all values of resistors (color coded and measured value in brackets, e.g. 8k (8.841k)), voltages
used/applied and measured right on the circuit.

Use RF = 10K and RIN = 5K ohms

RF=

VIN
=
VO
+

Figure 9.4:
Op-amp as an inverting amplifier

If you keep on increasing the input voltage, VIN, at some input value the output voltage VO will
reach its maximum value. Beyond that point increasing the input further will not increase VO.

The same behavior will be experienced if you reverse the polarity of VIN and increase it. VO in this
case will attain a maximum limit in the opposite polarity.

The range of input voltage for which the output changes proportionally defines the linear region of
operation. Outside this range, the op-amp saturates. Note these values in the table 9.1.

Table - 9.1: Inverting amplifier voltage transfer limits

Min VIN Max VIN
Max VO Min VO

93
Based on the data in table 9.1, make the voltage transfer characteristics for the inverting amplifier
below. Please note voltage transfer characteristics is a graph between VO (y-axis) and VIN. It shows
how output changes with input. Choose the scale wisely.

VO

VIN

Figure 9.5:
Voltage transfer characteristics for an inverting amplifier

Non-inverting Amplifier

The connection of the figure 9.6 shows an op-amp circuit that works as a non-inverting amplifier.
Through the following equation we can calculate output of the non-inverting amplifier. Remember
always use color coded values of resistors for calculations.

𝑅𝐹
𝑉 = (1 + )𝑉
𝐼𝑁
𝑂 𝑅𝐼𝑁

94
 RF=

12V

VO

+
=

-12V

Figure 9.6:
Op-amp as a non-inverting amplifier

Table - 9.2: Inverting amplifier voltage transfer limits

Min VIN Max VIN
Min VO Max VO

VO

VIN

Figure 9.7:
Voltage transfer characteristics for a non-inverting amplifier

95
 EL-1001 LINEAR CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
LAB
To acquire practical knowledge about basic circuit elements, DC and AC circuits, and
verification of theoretical concepts and laws.
CLO Statement ↓ Exemplary Proficient Developing Beginning Novice
Score → (5) (4) (3) (2) (1)

Behave Takes Completes Needs help Needs help

responsibly ownership of assigned from group from others Does not
1 within team and the group and task(s) on member to group to work
perform the helps other time without complete complete
experiment group any help assigned assigned
safely and member as task(s) task
efficiently. well

To demonstrate Correctly Correctly Partially Poorly

the operation of performs the performs the performs the performs the
Does not
4 Op-Amp as lab and lab but lab and lab and have
work
inverting, non- completely partially partially no
inverting and addresses the addresses the addresses the theoretical
summing manual manual manual knowledge
amplifier of the
concept

CLO MARKS OBTAINED

1
4

Instructor’s Signature:

96
EXPERIMENT 10 Date Perform:
Roll No.

To Demonstrate Op-Amp Operation as Summing Amplifier

OBJECTIVE:
• Use of op-amp as a summing Amplifier

EQUIPMENT:
• Digital Multimeter (DMM)
• Breadboard
• DC Power Supply
• Op-amp μA-741
• Resistors (in kΩ)
• Connecting Wires

BACKGROUND:
An operational amplifier is a very high gain amplifier having very high input impedance (typically a
few mega ohms) and low output impedance (less than 100 ohms). The basic circuit is made using a
difference amplifier having two inputs, inverting and non-inverting (marked with negative & positive
sign respectively) and one output. Figure 10.1 shows a basic op-amp unit.

+VCC
+VCC
+

VCC
-

GND
-VEE

Figure 10.1: VEE

Basic Op-amp symbol
VEE

Figure 10.2:
Power supplies configuration

The schematic of Figure 10.2 shows a standard ±VCC (or +VCC & VEE) configuration for op-amp.
Although both the supplies shown here are shown of equal value, they can be of different values.
Sometimes they are also referred to as V+ and V-. These supplies need to be a constant DC voltage.
They are not signal sources. The term 'signal' usually refers to the voltage (not necessarily DC) to be
amplified.

97
 Figure 10.3:
Generic op-amp pinout. (Source - Wikipedia)

Study the chip pinout of Figure 10.3. The standard procedure on DIP (dual in-line package) “IC
chips” is to identify Pin 1 with a notch in the end of the chip package. The notch always separates
pin 1 from the last pin on the chip. In the case of the 741, the notch is between pins 1 and 8.
Pin 2 is the inverting input Vin (-), pin 3 is the non-inverting input Vin (+), and the amplifier output
Vout is at pin 6. These three pins are the three terminals that normally appear in an op-amp circuit
schematic diagram. Even though the ±VCC connections must be completed for the op-amp to work,
they usually are omitted from the circuit schematic to improve clarity.
The null offset pins (1 and 5) provide a way to eliminate any “offset” in the output voltage of the
amplifier. The offset voltage (usually denoted by Vos) is an artifact of the integrated circuit. The offset
voltage is additive with VO (pin 6 in this case), can be either positive or negative and is normally less
than 9 mV. Because the off-set voltage is so small, in most cases we can ignore the contribution Vos
makes to VO and we leave the null offset pins open.
Pin 8, labeled “NC”, has no connection to the internal circuitry of the 741, and is not used.

LAB TASK:

A summing amplifier is shown in Figure 10.4. The output is

𝑅𝐹 𝑅𝐹 𝑅𝐹
𝑉 = −( 𝑉 + 𝑉 + 𝑉)

𝑂 1 2 3
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

Note down all values of resistors (both color coded and measured value), voltages used/applied and
measured right on the circuit. Remember that color coded values of resistors should be used in all
computations.

98
 R1 RF
V1

V2

V3
VO

+
Figure 10.4:
Op-amp as a summing amplifier
Since we have difficulty managing multiple inputs (as each bench contains a DC power supply with
two variable voltage supplies and one fixed only), we modify the circuit such that the available
resources suffice, as follows.

5V

V1

RA

V2
VO
+

RB

Figure 10.5:
Op-amp as a summing amplifier for this lab

Now
𝑅𝐹 𝑅𝐹
𝑉 = −( 𝑉 + 𝑉)
𝑂 1
𝑅1 𝑅2 2

99
List down the component values you use (IMPORTANT: Please use an RF = 1kΩ and all other
resistor values > 1kΩ).

Resistor Color Coded (kΩ) Measured (kΩ)

R1
R2
RA
RB
RF

List down measured voltages:

Voltage Calculated (V) Measured (V) %error

VCC -x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-
VEE (-VCC) -x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-
V1 -x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-
V2
VO

Theoretical Analysis:

Write NVA equation at inverting input. Take voltage at inverting input = Vn

Write NVA equation at V2 node.

Now solve for V2 and then for VO.

100
Before leaving the lab answer the questions below and show them to your instructor. Do not return
the apparatus or dismantle the circuit as you may need to test your answers!
Question 10.1: Design the circuit of figure 10.5 to obtain a VO = -12V, V2 = 2.5V. List down the
values of all the resistors.

101
Question 10.2: Design the circuit of figure 10.4 such that 50% of V1, 25% of V2 and 9% of V3 are
added together to obtain -VO. List down the values of all the resistors. Also find VO?

102
 EL-1001 LINEAR CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
LAB
To acquire practical knowledge about basic circuit elements, DC and AC circuits, and
verification of theoretical concepts and laws.
CLO Statement ↓ Exemplary Proficient Developing Beginning Novice
Score → (5) (4) (3) (2) (1)

Behave Takes Completes Needs help Needs help

responsibly ownership of assigned from group from others Does not
1 within team and the group and task(s) on member to group to work
perform the helps other time without complete complete
experiment group any help assigned assigned
safely and member as task(s) task
efficiently. well

To demonstrate Correctly Correctly Partially Poorly

the operation of performs the performs the performs the performs the
Does not
4 Op-Amp as lab and lab but lab and lab and have
work
inverting, non- completely partially partially no
inverting and addresses the addresses the addresses the theoretical
summing manual manual manual knowledge
amplifier of the
concept

CLO MARKS OBTAINED

1
4

Instructor’s Signature:

103
EXPERIMENT 11 Date Perform:
Roll No.

To Demonstrate the Working of Function Generator and Oscilloscope

OBJECTIVE:
• To use an oscilloscope to display and record a waveform
• To use an oscilloscope to measure frequency, period, voltage of the waveform

EQUIPMENT:
• Function Generator
• Oscilloscope

BACKGROUND:
Oscilloscope:
The oscilloscope is an instrument for the analysis of electrical circuits by observing voltage and current
waves. It may be used to study wave shape, frequency, phase angle, and time, and to compare the
relation between two variables directly on the display screen. Perhaps the greatest advantage of the
oscilloscope is its ability to display shapes of both periodic and single-shot waveforms being studied.

Function Generator:
The SDG10000 Series Function/Arbitrary Waveform Generator has a clear and simple front panel.
The front panel has a knob and functional keys. The 5 blue grey buttons on the right side of the screen
are menu buttons (named F10 to F5 from up to down) with the help of which, you can enter different
functions menu or have direct specific applications. The signal input and output interfaces are set at
the front and rear panels which can help generating multiple arbitrary waveforms. The various
interfaces can meet the need of the multiple interface communications.

104
 LAB TASK:

TASK 1- Voltage and Frequency Calculations using Oscilloscope

• Connect Function Generator CH1 to Oscilloscope CH1 using probs.
• Select Sine Wave from the Function Generator. Set frequency and amplitude as given in
table.
• Rotate push-variable and push-zoom buttons to tune the output on oscilloscope. Push-
variable changes the value of scale on voltage axis, which is shown as Ch1 / Ch2 on bottom
left corner. While push-zoom changes the value of scale on time axis, which is shown as
M on bottom center.
• Count the number of boxes of Vertical axis from negative peak to positive peak of
waveform and multiply it to the vertical scale for obtaining Peak to Peak voltage in volts.
• Count the number of boxes of Horizontal axis for one cycle of waveform and multiply it to the
horizontal scale for obtaining Time period in milliseconds.

Table 11.1: Voltage and Frequency Calculation using Oscilloscope

Function Oscilloscope
Generator
Vpp in frequency No. of verticle VPP = No. of Boxes on horizontal T = No. of frequency Same?
Volts in kHz Boxes on scale No. of horizontal Axis scale Boxes × f=10/T Yes/
Vertical Boxes × horizontal No
Axis verticle scale
scale
5 10

6 2
8 3

TASK2- Generating Waveforms and DC offset

Q. Generate a Sinusoidal Waveform of 5VP-P amplitude, 2kHz frequency, 90º Phase. Take print of
Waveform and Paste below. Mention Graph scale carefully.

Q. Generate a Rectangular Waveform of 3VP-P amplitude, 2kHz frequency, 45º Phase and 1.5V DC
offset. Take print of Waveform and Paste below. Mention Graph scale carefully.

105
 EL-1001 LINEAR CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
LAB
To acquire practical knowledge about basic circuit elements, DC and AC circuits, and
verification of theoretical concepts and laws.
CLO Statement ↓ Exemplary Proficient Developing Beginning Novice
Score → (5) (4) (3) (2) (1)

Behave Takes Completes Needs help Needs help

responsibly ownership of assigned from group from others Does not
1 within team and the group and task(s) on member to group to work
perform the helps other time without complete complete
experiment group any help assigned assigned
safely and member as task(s) task
efficiently. well

To Correctly Correctly Partially Poorly Does not

demonstrate performs the performs the performs the performs the work
2 the lab and lab but lab and lab
characteristics completely partially partially
of electrical addresses the addresses the addresses the
components manual manual manual
and working of
basic lab
apparatus.

CLO MARKS OBTAINED

1
2

Instructor’s Signature:

106
EXPERIMENT 12 Date Perform:
Roll No.

To Demonstrate Response of First Order RC Circuit

OBJECTIVE:
• Understand the step and natural responses of a simple RC circuit

EQUIPMENT:
• Function Generator
• Oscilloscope
• Resistor
• Capacitor
• Connecting Wires

BACKGROUND:

RC Circuit
RC circuits are used in electronics for timing, for example flashing lights circuits.

Transient Behavior
RC circuits do not exhibit constant currents and voltages like resistive circuits. Their values changes,
especially initially. The period during which the various currents and voltages change (especially
that of the capacitor) is said to be the transient period, the circuit is said to be in the transient state
and the changing nature of current and voltage is known as its Transient Behavior. In contrast when
an RC circuit has passed this transient period, and all currents and voltages have become stable or
constant the circuit is said to be in Steady State. This experiment mainly finds out the Transient
Behavior of an RC circuit.

Step Response
When RC circuits are suddenly connected to a source its currents and voltages define the Step
Response of the circuit, i.e., how does the circuit behave when an external source is connected in it.

Natural Response
RC circuit with an energized C dissipates its energy in the R. This behavior is described by its Natural
Response.

Typical capacitor voltage charging and discharging curves are shown below:

107
 Figure 12.1:
Typical capacitor voltage charging and discharging curves

LAB TASK:

Task1: Analyze Step and Natural Response of RC Circuit

1) Construct the following circuit. Apply Rectangular Waveform from Function Generator of
5VP-P amplitude, 2.5Vdc offset and 1000Hz frequency.

Figure 12.2:
Circuit for experiment. Both Step Response and Natural Response Circuits

• Connect Oscilloscope CH2 across capacitor to check waveform for Step and Transient
Response. You may adjust the waveform to display for only one Time period. Find the Time-
Constants, T and 5T for each of the circuits and write in the table below.
• Connect Oscilloscope CH2 to across the Supply Voltage i-e to check the Waveform Vac= V1.
• Note time from time axis and corresponding Voltage Vc from voltage axis of CH2 and write
it on your table for Step Response.

108
 • For VR: Use Math Function and subtract CH1 & CH2 to obtain VR. And Note VR in table.

Fill the rest of the table as follows:

• Given 𝑉𝑅, find 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑅/𝑅 (Ohm's Law). Use measured value of R.
𝑡
−
• Calculate 𝑉𝐶 = 𝑉1(1 − 𝑒 𝑟) Equation for Step Response
𝑡
−
• Calculate 𝑉𝐶 = 𝑉0𝑒 𝑟 Equation for Natural Response

Measurements

Color coded values of R=

Measured values of R=

Measured Value of C=

Step Response of RC Circuit

T = RC
5T
Time, t (s) i(t) (μA) VR (V) VC (V) VC (V) (Calc)
0T= 0
1T=
2T=
3T=
4T=
5T=

Measurements

Color coded value of R =

Measured value of R =

Measured Value of C =

109
 Natural Response of RC Circuit
T = RC
5T
Time, t (s) i(t) (μA) VR (V) VC (V) VC (V) (Calc)
0T= 0
1T=
2T=
3T=
4T=
5T=

Attach Graphs here. Clearly mention the Scales and neatly mark the Step and Natural
Responses. (Mention Time axis in term of Time constant.)

110
 EL-1001 LINEAR CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
LAB
To acquire practical knowledge about basic circuit elements, DC and AC circuits, and
verification of theoretical concepts and laws.
CLO Statement ↓ Exemplary Proficient Developing Beginning Novice
Score → (5) (4) (3) (2) (1)

Behave Takes Completes Needs help Needs help

responsibly ownership of assigned from group from others Does not
1 within team and the group and task(s) on member to group to work
perform the helps other time without complete complete
experiment group any help assigned assigned
safely and member as task(s) task
efficiently. well

To Correctly Correctly Partially Poorly Does not

demonstrate performs the performs the performs the performs the work
5 the response lab and lab but lab and lab
of first order completely partially partially
RC, RL addresses the addresses the addresses the
manual manual manual
and RLC
circuits

CLO MARKS OBTAINED

1
5

Instructor’s Signature:

111
EXPERIMENT 13 Date Perform:
Roll No.

To Demonstrate Response of First Order RL Circuit

OBJECTIVE:
• Understand the step and natural responses of a simple RL circuit

EQUIPMENT:
• Function Generator
• Oscilloscope
• Resistor
• Inductor
• Connecting Wires

BACKGROUND:

Transient Behavior
RL circuits do not exhibit constant currents and voltages like resistive circuits. Their values changes,
especially initially. The period during which the various currents and voltages change is said to be
the transient period, the circuit is said to be in the transient state and the changing nature of current
and voltage is known as its Transient Behavior. In contrast when an RL circuit has passed this transient
period, and all currents and voltages have become stable or constant the circuit is said to be in Steady
State. This experiment mainly finds out the Transient Behavior of a RL circuit.

Step Response
When RL circuits are suddenly connected to a source its currents and voltages define the Step
Response of the circuit, i.e., how does the circuit behave when an external source is connected in it.

Natural Response
RL circuit with an energized L dissipates its energy in the R. This behavior is described by its
Natural Response.

LAB TASK:

Task1: Analyze Step and Natural Response of RL Circuit

1. Construct the following circuit. Apply Rectangular Waveform from Function Generator of
5VP-P amplitude, 2.5Vdc and 1kHz frequency.

112
 Figure 13.1:

Circuit for experiment. Both Step Response and Natural Response Circuits

2. Connect Oscilloscope CH2 across Inductor to check waveform for Step and Transient Response.
You may adjust the waveform to display for only one Time period. Find the Time-Constants, T and
5T for each of the circuits and write in the table below.

3. Connect Oscilloscope CH2 to across the Supply Voltage i-e to check the Waveform Vac= V1.

4. Note time from time axis and corresponding Voltage VL from voltage axis of CH2 and write it on
your table for Step Response.

5. For VR: Use Math Function and subtract CH1 & CH2 to obtain VR. And Note VR in table.

Fill the rest of the table as follows:

• Given 𝑉𝑅, find 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑅/𝑅 (Ohm's Law). Use measured value of R.
𝑡
𝑉1
• Calculate 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑖𝐿 = 𝑅
(1 − 𝑒 −𝑟) Equation for Step Response
𝑡
−
• Calculate 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑖𝐿 = 𝐼0𝑒 𝑟 Equation for Natural Response

Measurements

Color coded values of R=

Measured values of R=

Measured Value of L=

113
 Step Response of RL Circuit
T = L/R
5T
Time, t i(t) (μA) VR (V) VL (V) i (t) (Calc)
(s)
0T= 0
1T=
2T=
3T=
4T=
5T=
6T=
7T=
8T=

Measurements

Color coded value of R =

Measured value of R =

Measured Value of L=

Natural Response of RL Circuit

T = RC
5T
Time, t (s) i(t) (μA) VR (V) VL (V) i (t) (Calc)
0T= 0
1T=
2T=
3T=
4T=
5T=
6T=
7T=

114
 8T=
9T=

Paste print of your Graphs here. Clearly mention the Scales and neatly mark the Step and
Natural Responses. (Mention Time axis in term of Time constant.)

115
 EL-1001 LINEAR CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
LAB
To acquire practical knowledge about basic circuit elements, DC and AC circuits, and
verification of theoretical concepts and laws.
CLO Statement ↓ Exemplary Proficient Developing Beginning Novice
Score → (5) (4) (3) (2) (1)

Behave Takes Completes Needs help Needs help

responsibly ownership of assigned from group from others Does not
1 within team and the group and task(s) on member to group to work
perform the helps other time without complete complete
experiment group any help assigned assigned
safely and member as task(s) task
efficiently. well

To Correctly Correctly Partially Poorly Does not

demonstrate performs the performs the performs the performs the work
5 the response lab and lab but lab and lab
of first order completely partially partially
RC, RL addresses the addresses the addresses the
manual manual manual
and RLC
circuits

CLO MARKS OBTAINED

1
5

Instructor’s Signature:

116
 EXPERIMENT 14 Date Perform:
Roll No.

To Demonstrate Response of Series RLC Circuit

OBJECTIVE:
To investigate the behavior of Over Damping, Critical Damping & under Damping in Series RLC Circuit.

THEROTICAL DESCRIPTION:

117
118
SIMULATION RESULTS:

CONCLUSION:

119
 EL-1001 LINEAR CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
LAB
To acquire practical knowledge about basic circuit elements, DC and AC circuits, and
verification of theoretical concepts and laws.
CLO Statement ↓ Exemplary Proficient Developing Beginning Novice
Score → (5) (4) (3) (2) (1)

Behave Takes Completes Needs help Needs help

responsibly ownership of assigned from group from others Does not
1 within team and the group and task(s) on member to group to work
perform the helps other time without complete complete
experiment group any help assigned assigned
safely and member as task(s) task
efficiently. well

To Correctly Correctly Partially Poorly Does not

demonstrate performs the performs the performs the performs the work
5 the response lab and lab but lab and lab
of first order completely partially partially
RC, RL addresses the addresses the addresses the
manual manual manual
and RLC
circuits

CLO MARKS OBTAINED

1
5

Instructor’s Signature:

120
Appendix A: Lab Evaluation Criteria

Labs with open ended lab

1. Experiments and their report 50%
2. Open Ended Lab 10%

3. Open Ended Lab 20%

4. Final Exam 20%

Labs without open ended lab

1. Experiments and their report 60%
2. Project evaluation 20%
a. Project Implementation 60%
b. Project report and quiz 40%

3. Final Exam 20%

Notice:
Copying and plagiarism of lab reports is a serious academic misconduct. First instance of copying
may entail ZERO in that experiment. Second instance of copying may be reported to DC. This may
result in awarding FAIL in the lab course.

121
Appendix B: Lab Rubrics
EL-115 LINEAR CIRCUIT ANALYSIS LAB

To acquire practical knowledge about basic circuit elements, DC and AC circuits, and verification of theoretical concepts and laws.

Attainment
CLO Statement↓ Score→ Exemplary (5) Proficient (4) Developing (3) Beginning (2) Novice (1)
Target
Behave responsibly
within team and Needs help from
Takes ownership of Completes assigned Needs help from others group to
perform the the group and helps task(s) on time group member to
1 complete assigned Does not work 3
experiment safely other group member without any help complete assigned task
and efficiently. as well task(s)

To demonstrate the
characteristics of Poorly performs
Correctly performs Correctly performs Partially performs the lab and have
electrical the lab and the lab but partially the lab and partially
components and no theoretical Does not work
2 completely addresses the addresses the knowledge of the 3
working of basic lab addresses the manual manual concept
apparatus. manual

To demonstrate the
use of circuit Poorly performs
Correctly performs Correctly performs Partially performs the lab and have
analysis techniques the lab and the lab but partially the lab and partially
to conduct different no theoretical Does not work
3 completely addresses the addresses the knowledge of the 3
experiments. addresses the manual manual concept
manual
 To demonstrate the
operation of Op- Poorly performs
Correctly performs Correctly performs Partially performs the lab and have
Amp as inverting, the lab and the lab but partially the lab and partially Does not work
non-inverting and no theoretical
4 completely addresses the addresses the knowledge of the 3
summing amplifier addresses the manual manual concept
manual

To demonstrate the
response of first order Does not work
Correctly performs Correctly performs Partially performs Poorly performs
RC, RL and RLC
the lab and the lab but partially the lab and partially the lab
5 circuits 3
completely addresses the addresses the
addresses the manual manual
manual
Appendix C: Safety around Electricity
In all the Electrical Engineering (EE) labs, with an aim to prevent any unforeseen accidents during
conduct of lab experiments, following preventive measures and safe practices shall be adopted:

• Remember that the voltage of the electricity and the available electrical current in EE labs
has enough power to cause death/injury by electrocution. It is around 50V/10 mA that the
“cannot let go” level is reached. “The key to survival is to decrease our exposure to energized
circuits.”
• If a person touches an energized bare wire or faulty equipment while grounded, electricity will
instantly pass through the body to the ground, causing a harmful, potentially fatal, shock.
• Each circuit must be protected by a fuse or circuit breaker that will blow or “trip” when its safe
carrying capacity is surpassed. If a fuse blows or circuit breaker trips repeatedly while in normal
use (not overloaded), check for shorts and other faults in the line or devices. Do not resume
use until the trouble is fixed.
• It is hazardous to overload electrical circuits by using extension cords and multi-plug outlets.
Use extension cords only when necessary and make sure they are heavy enough for the job.
Avoid creating an “octopus” by inserting several plugs into a multi-plug outlet connected to a
single wall outlet. Extension cords should ONLY be used on a temporary basis in situations
where fixed wiring is not feasible.
• Dimmed lights, reduced output from heaters and poor monitor pictures are all symptoms of
an overloaded circuit. Keep the total load at any one time safely below maximum capacity.
• If wires are exposed, they may cause a shock to a person who comes into contact with them.
Cords should not be hung on nails, run over or wrapped around objects, knotted or twisted.
This may break the wire or insulation. Short circuits are usually caused by bare wires touching
due to breakdown of insulation. Electrical tape or any other kind of tape is not adequate for
insulation!
• Electrical cords should be examined visually before use for external defects such as: Fraying
(worn out) and exposed wiring, loose parts, deformed or missing parts, damage to outer
jacket or insulation, evidence of internal damage such as pinched or crushed outer jacket. If
any defects are found the electric cords should be removed from service immediately.
• Pull the plug not the cord. Pulling the cord could break a wire, causing a short circuit.
• Plug your heavy current consuming or any other large appliances into an outlet that is not
shared with other appliances. Do not tamper with fuses as this is a potential fire hazard. Do not
overload circuits as this may cause the wires to heat and ignite insulation or other combustibles.
• Keep lab equipment properly cleaned and maintained.
• Ensure lamps are free from contact with flammable material. Always use lights bulbs with
the recommended wattage for your lamp and equipment.
• Be aware of the odor of burning plastic or wire.
• ALWAYS follow the manufacturer recommendations when using or installing new lab
equipment. Wiring installations should always be made by a licensed electrician or other
qualified person. All electrical lab equipment should have the label of a testing laboratory.
• Be aware of missing ground prong and outlet cover, pinched wires, damaged casings on
electrical outlets.
• Inform Lab engineer / Lab assistant of any failure of safety preventive measures and safe
practices as soon you notice it. Be alert and proceed with caution at all times in the laboratory.
• Conduct yourself in a responsible manner at all times in the EE Labs.
• Follow all written and verbal instructions carefully. If you do not understand a direction or part
of a procedure, ASK YOUR LAB ENGINEER / LAB ASSISTANT BEFORE PROCEEDING
WITH THE ACTIVITY.
• Never work alone in the laboratory. No student may work in EE Labs without the presence
of the Lab engineer / Lab assistant.
• Perform only those experiments authorized by your teacher. Carefully follow all instructions,
both written and oral. Unauthorized experiments are not allowed.
• Be prepared for your work in the EE Labs. Read all procedures thoroughly before entering the
laboratory. Never fool around in the laboratory. Horseplay, practical jokes, and pranks are
dangerous and prohibited.
• Always work in a well-ventilated area.
• Observe good housekeeping practices. Work areas should be kept clean and tidy at all times.
• Experiments must be personally monitored at all times. Do not wander around the room,
distract other students, startle other students or interfere with the laboratory experiments of
others.
• Dress properly during a laboratory activity. Long hair, dangling jewelry, and loose or baggy
clothing are a hazard in the laboratory. Long hair must be tied back, and dangling jewelry and
baggy clothing must be secured. Shoes must completely cover the foot.
• Know the locations and operating procedures of all safety equipment including fire
extinguisher. Know what to do if there is a fire during a lab period; “Turn off equipment, if
possible and exit EE lab immediately.”

120