CHAPTER

12

Young's Modulus

12.01. ELASTIC BEHAVIOUR OF SOLIDS

Sometimes, a force acting on a body, instead ot producing a changein its state of rest or of uniform motion,
produces achange in the shape of the body. Suchaforeis called the deforming force. Arigid body can be noticeably
stretched, compressed,bent or twisted by applvinga suitable deforming force. That a body can be deformed by a
force can be easily shown by stretching arubber band or by loading a spring. Delicate measurements indicate that
deformations do take place, even when the applied forces are smal.
Elastic body. Abody that returns toits original shape and size on the removal of the deforming force (ivhen deformed
unthin elastic limit) iscalled an elastic body.
Actually, this concept of an elastic body is an idealisation and no material behaves as perfectly elastic.A quartz
fibre is the nearest approach to aperfectly elastic body. Thus, all bodies are elastic ; the difference lies only in degree.
Elasticity. The property of matter by virtue of which it regains its original shape and size, when the deforming forces hare
been removed is called elasticity.
Contrary to the concept of elasticity in daily life; in physics, elasticity stands for opposition to change.
Qualitatively, more rigid a body, more elastic it is said to be. For this reason, steel is more elastic than rubber.
12.02. ELASTIC LIMIT

When a body is deformed, the deformation produced is always directly proportional to the applied deforming
force so long as it does not exceed beyond alimit. Within this limit, called the elastic limit, the body regains its original
state when the deforming force is removed.
Thus, the elastic limit of abody may be defined as the maximum stress up to which the body exhibits the property of elasticitu.
12.03. STRESS
We know thát when a body is deformed, the restoring forces are developed uniformly inside the body.
Stress. It is defined as the restoring force per unitarea set up in the body, when deformed ty the external force. Thus,
restoring force
stress=
area

The restoring force set up in the body is equal and opposite to the external deforming force (so long as no
permanent deformnation is produced i.e. when deformed within the elastic limit),
Therefore, the stress may be measured as the external force acting per unit area. Thus,
external force applied F
stress
area A
Stress is of the following two types:
() Normmal Stress. The deforming force acting per unit area normal to the surface of the body is called nornal stress.
For example, when a wire is pulled by apPplying force along the length of the wire, the stress is called normal
stress.
(i) Tangential stress. The deforming force acting per unit area tangential to the surface is called tangential stress. For
example, when a body is sheared, it is under tangential stress.
In c.g.s. System, stress is measured in dyrn cm and it is measured in newton metre-2 (N m-2) in SI. The
dimensional formula of stress is [ML-1T.
12.04. STRAIN
When a deforming force acts on a body, it undergoes change in its dimensions and the body is said to be deformed
or strained.

YOUNG's MODULUS 71
 Strain. The tato of change in dimenSion of the body to the original dimension is called strain.
Since a body can have three types of deformations i.c. in length, in volume or in shape, likewise there are th.
following three types of strains :
() Longitudinal strain. It is detincd as tihe in rease n length per wut orignal length, wen deformed by th exterme
force. It is also called linear strain or tensile strain.

Thus, change in the length

longitudinal strain L.
original length
where Lis the original length and l, the increase in length.
() Volumetric strain. It is defmed as change in tolume pfr unit orgmal volume, elen deformed by the external for.e
Thus, volumetric strain change in volume AV
original volume V
where V is the original volume and AV, the change in volume.
(ii) Shear strain. When change takes place in the shape of the body, the strain is called the shear strain.
It is defined as the angle 0(in radian), through wuch a line
applying tangential detorming force. originallyperpendicular to thc fixed face gets turned on
This angle,through which the reference line turns, is called the angle of shear.
When force is applied tangentially to the surface of a solid body clamped
only in the shape of the body. The body remains in equilibrium as there is no rigidly, then the change takes place
body. Such a shear is called pure shear. It can happen only in case of a solid. Ifa net force or net torque acting on the
of a fluid, it willbegin to flow in the direction of force is applied parallel to the surface
applied force.
All the three types of strains have no units, as they are ratios of
the like physical quantities. Also strain is a
dimensionless physical quantity.
12.05. HOOKE'S LAW
It states that the extension produced in a wire is
directly proportional to the load attached to it.
Thus, according to Hooke's law,
extension « load
However, this proportionality holds good upto a certain limit,called the
In 1807, English physicist Thomas elastic limit.
Young pointed
described in termns of stress and strain respectively. Thus, out that the load and the
Hooke's law may be statedextension
are mnore scientifically
tostrain and according to modified form of that stress is directly proportional
Hooke's law,
stress « strain
Or
stress = constant x strain
or stress
*CONstant
strain
The ...(12.01)
Its value constant
of proportionality is called the
modulus of
depends upon the nature of the material of the elasticity or the coefficient off elasticity of the material.
body and the manner in which the body is
12.06. MODULI OF deformed.
ELASTICITY
A body can
elasticity, namelyundergo
Young's
three types of strain.
modulus Corresponding
(Y), bulk modulus to three types of strain,
1. Young's
modulus (Y). It is defined as the ratio of (K) and modulus of rigidity (). there are three moduli o
2.Bulk modulus (K). It is defined as
the
normal stress to longitudinal strain.
3.Modulus of rigidity (y). It ratio of normal
is defined as the ratio of stress to volumetric strain.
12.07. YOUNG'S tangential stress to shear strain.
MODULUS OF A WIRE
Consider a
normal force F iswire (or a rod) of length L and
applied to the free end the wirearea of cross section a
fixed at one end [Fig. 12.01].
and its length increases by 1. Then, Suppose tha
 normal stress =

longitudinal stain=
Now, according to the
definition of Young's modulus,
Y= normal stress
...(12.02)
krom the equation (12.02),longitudinal
we have
strain
Y= F/a
1/L
Y
FL
al ...(12.03)
the wire is of Circular
cross-section of radius r. then Fig. 12.01
Y= FL
...(12.04)
The units of Young'smodulus are pascal (P'a)
orNm 2 in SI and dyne cm in c-g.5 Systen
12.08. TO LOAD AWIRE WITHIN ELASTIC LIMIT
The Young s modulus of a wire can be found by 1sing the eauation (12.04). However, it is necessary tnat one
should knowelastic
hevondthe the value
limit,of
thethestrain
load up
willtono longer
which the wire proportional
remain canbeloadedto the
within the i.e.elastic
stress limit.law
Hooke's If thewillwire
not ishold.
loaded
It is
found that the load remains within the elastic limit, if the load does not exceed one third of the value of the breaking
weight for the wire.
Breaking weight. The value of the load,. at which awire breaks, is called the breaking uweight for the wire.
Breaking stress. If is defined as the breaking weight per unit area of the cross-section of the wire.
Thus, breaking stress breaking weight
area of cross - section of the wire
breaking weight =breaking stress xarea of cross-section
Therefore, the maximum load that can be applied to load the wire within elastic limit
1 ...(12.05)
W =X breaking stress x I
3
:
The following table gives the breaking stress for wires of a few different material
Breaking stress for various materials

Material Braking stress (kg cm) Material Breaking stress (kg cm)
3,600 Iron 5,000
Brass
2,800 Steel 8,000
Copper
stress for it (rom the above table) and measuring the
Knowing the material of the wire and hence the breaking wire within the elastic limit can be calculated by using
radius of the wire, the maximum load that can be applied to the
the equation (9.05).
12.09. SEARLE'S APPARATUS
Young's modulus of the material of a wire.
Searle's apparatus is used to find the two frames
apparatus consists of two metallic framesP and Qheld together bycross bars B, and B. The
modulus is to be
Searle's
with the help whose Young's
of wires W, (experimental wire,frame
are suspended from a rigid support P. The slotted weights each
determined) and W., (compensating wire). A hanger H is attached to the metallic value. In order to keep
experimental wire to a desired
of halfkilogram canbe slipped to the hanger so as to load the
73
YOUNG'S MODULUS
the compensating wire W, taut, afixed weight W,,calledthe dead uciglhl is
attached to the metallic frame Oas shown in
fig, f1202.
Aspirit level Sis mounted between the two frames Pand Oin such a
way that itss one end is pivoted tothe frame Q
andthe other endrests on the W W.
tip of the screw of the:spherometer fixed to the frame P. Whenthe screw of
the spherometer is turned, it moves against avertical scale graduatedin
millimetres.
To find Young's offthe wire,the spherometer
1S turned so as to bring modulus of the
the bubble in thematerial
spirit level exactly at its cen
slipping the slotted weights to the hanger, the experimental wire is loaded
by a known weight Mg.
On loading, wire increasesin
length and the metalic frame Pmoves,thedownward.
experimental
As aresult, the bubble
no longer remains at the centre of the spirit tlevel. So as to bring the bubble
back to the centre of the
spirit level,the spherometer Screw is moved
upward.The distance, through whích the screwvhas to be moved, is noted
rom the spherometer and it gives the extension in the
and r, the radius of the wire. then Young's wire. If Lis the lengu
modulus of the material of wire,
Y= MgL (:: F=Mg)
Knowing
material
the
of the wire values of M, L, r and I, Young's
can be calculated. modulus of
Fig. 12.02

EXPERIMENT NO. 12
AlM. To determine Young's modulus of the material of a
given wire using Searle's apparatus.
Apparatus
Searle's
and a numberapparatus,
two exactly identical
of slotted weights, each of wires, ametre scale, ascrew gauge, a dead weight of 1kg, a 1kg hanger
1/2 kg.
Theory
Refer to sections 12.07 to 12.,09.
Formula used
The Young's modulus of the
material of the wire,
Y= MgL
where Mgis the weight attached to the
in length of the wire. wire;L, the original length of wire ; , the radius of the wire
Procedure and l, the increase
1. Take two
identical wires W, and W,. Attach the wire
Pand the wire W, (compensating
to the rigid support as shown in Pig. W(experimental
wire) to the torsion head oftheframe Q.
wire) to the torsion head of the frame
2. Suspend a dead 12.02. Fixthe upper ends of the two wires
hanger H.
weight W(=1 kg) from the frame Qand an
3. Remove the kinks in equal weight from the frame
the two wires, if any.
The kinks can be removed by
Pwith the help ot
loading and then unloading the two
between the two wooden pieces.
4. Measure the length of the wires again and again or
head on the rigid _upportexperimental wireewith
v a by pulling themlength wise
be L. and the point, enters the
it metre scale between the point it
(a) To measure radius of the torsion head on the frame P. projects
Let
out of the torsion
5. Find the pitch and
wire : the length of the wire
least count of
6. Find the zero error (if any) of thethe screw gauge.
screw gauge and
hence the zero
74
correction.
MODERN'S abc OF PRACTICAL PHYSICs(X)
 7. Measure the diameter of the experimental wire in two mutually perpendiculr
directions aand batleast at six different places [Fig. 12.031. Find the mean diameter
of the wire and hence its mean radius (r).
(b) To calculate the maximum load to be applied :
S. Note the breaking stress for the material of the wire from the table for breaking stress
Rven insection 12.08.Calculate the breaking weight for the wire from the relation
breaking weight =breaking stress x r
The experimentalwire should not be loaded more than one third of the breaking weighi. Fig.12.03
(c) To measure extension in the wire :
9, Find the pitch and least count of the
spherometer.
10. Move the screw of the spherometer upwards or downwards, till the bubble in the spirit level is at its centre
NOe the reading of the spherometer. Record this reading of the spherometer against the zero load.
1
11. Adda
2kg slotted weight to the hanger gently and wait for some time, so that oscillations in the wire (it
any)subside completely. Move the serew of the spherometer so as to bring the bubble again at the centre of
the sprnt level. Note the spherometer reading and record it against kg load, when the wire is being loaded.
Take care that the spherometer screw is moved in upoard direction ony so as to avoid the backiash error.
12. By adding a slotted weight of 71 kg each time, go on increasing the load and noting the reading of the
spherometer after bringing the bubble at the centre of the spirit level in each observation. Record the readings
of the spherometer against the value of the load, when the wire is being loaded.
Take care that the load does not exceed the value of themaximum allowed load calculated in step 8.
1
13. Now start unloading the experimental wire by removing aslotted weight of kg each time and go on noting
the reading of the spherometer after bringing the bubble at the centre of the spirit level in each observation.
Record the readings of the spherometer against the value of the load,when the wire is being unloaded.
To atoid backlash error during unloading, the screw of the spherometer has to be moved in downwar direction enly
14. For each same value of the load during loading and unloading of the wire, find the mean of the two
spherometer readings.
I may be pointedoutthat for the same value of load during loading and unloading of the uire, the spherometer roadings
may not be the same in tw0 cases.
15. Calculate the extension in the wire for a load of 2-0 kg by taking the difference of the mean spherometer
readings for the loads of2-0 kg (observation no. 5) and zero kg (observation no. 1). Similarly, calculate the
extension in the wire for a load of 2-0 kg by taking the difference of the mean spherometer readings for the
loads of 2-5 kg (observation no. 6) and0-5 kg (observation no. 2) ;then for the ioads of 3-0 kg(observation
no. 7) and 1-0 kg (observation no. 3) and finally for the loads of 3-5 kg (observation no. 8) and 1-5 kg
(observation no. 4).
Find the mean of these four values of extension in the wire for a load of 2-0 kg.
Observations
Length of the experimental wire, L =.... cm
(a) To find radius of the experimental wire :
Pitch of the screw gauge =... Cm
Least count of the screw gauge =.. Cm
Zero error (if any) of the screw gauge, e =....cm
Zero correction of the screw gauge, C =-e= .... cm

Observed diameter of the wire Mean observed diameter of the wire, Corected diameter of the wire,
D' Dia'+ Db)'
No. Dia' Db h2
D=D'+c

1.
2.
3

5.
6.

YOUNG'S MODULUS 75
 places
material). the
kg, .. noting
Extension
for
2-0 I,=
Ry-
R=R4= different
1(cm) I,=
R-R,-Ry
of -
and before
Joad Rz
= radiusseveral
a I,
minutes),
direction.
completely.
length,
at
directions
kgf Mean
spherometer
reading
CmCm (same one of
wire couple yielded.
(cm) in
identicalperpendicular
only each.
2
eyne
cn experimental cross-section.
Ry cm-2 moved(a kg have
D r r Z
tables)breaking
weight spherometer
spheroneter2 Rz time
wire,wire, n 1/2
may
z R=
dyne cm2 dyne be properly.
weight should be some of
the the (írom mutually steps suspended
980x, ..... the should kg,each.
of of for of
radius wire
diameter breaking theofthe unloaded
(y) = wiresin equal atea aftr
Spherometer
reading,
when Cm tables) kinks wait
applied: of wire,
% =.. two screw non-uniform
Mean
the 3 P'itch
count 1000) compensating gently. unloaded, in 1/2 looked
been
kg, (from wire the at decreased
corrected of wire
material
applied the
wire
is I4+I+l3
+l4 the2% spherometer
mneasured of
have
Least 2-0 the remove unloaded exactly
of wire been
be cxperimental of material of
be : loaded
) load 4
M&L material or have
wires
to be have
Mean the to wire
load
of be
theexperiment, loaded
or
material should or increased notmay the
for loadthe a
for the %
error
=
and
wire.theloaded not
maximum
stress Maximum the error, may maywhich
in wire of experimental the is
the of wire reading. wire
spherometer
Breaking extension
the
modulus the
modulus the of backlash be wire be weights error
from
for Load
atttached
to
the
hanger, of thelength should should experimental
M
(kg) in starting the
the weight 2-53-03-5
051·01·520
extension
modulus of
time Sources
backlash
slotted support
0 Young's radius
theavoid oferror
Young'sthe wire load
calculate
Breakingmeasure Before
Young's Precautions Both ThealongTheEveryThe TheTheTheThe
Mean To
Now,
The 4. 5. 6. 7. 1. 2. 3. 4.
To No.
5. 6. 7. Result 1. 2. 3.
To 1. 2. 3. 4 8
(b) (c) 76