SI

MPLI
FIED
TRENDSI
NEDUCATI
ON

AND

SCHOOLMANAGEMENT
(
EDC242)

BY

E.K.O.N.
 PREFACE

Thisbooki spr
imaril
ywri
ttenfort
hestudent
sr ngTr
eadi endsin
Educat i
onandSchoolManagementi nGhanawit
hav iewt omakingt hem
under standt s‘
heconcept Management ,
Leader
shipandAdmi nist
r at
ion”
andbeabr eastoftheEducati
onalSy
stem i
nthecountry.Thetopicsare
practicall
ydemy st
ifi
edi
nthisbooktomakeeachst udentgraspthe
topics.

Manystudentscompl ai
naboutthedi
ff
icul
tyi
ncompr ehendingthis
cour
se.Iti
sinthelightt
hist
hatthewri
terhasthoughtitquiteexpedi ent
toputt
hev ar
iouslectur
enotesandref
erencemat er
ialsi odi
nt gest
ible
andcomprehensibl
eunitssoast omakeeverystudentunder st
andt his
cour
se.

Thewri
terhopest
hatthissmal
lpi
ecewil
lgoalongway,
notonl
yto
makestudent
spassthiscour
sewit
hease,butal
sopr
eparet
hem f
orl
i
fe.

Thewri
teraccept
sther
esponsi
bil
i
tyf
orinconsi
stenci
es,
inaccur
aci
es
ander
rorsthatmaybef
oundinthi
sbook.

Fi
rstEdi
ti
on,
Nov
ember27,
2014.

Cel
lnumber
:
0241240787

Emai
l
:manuel
nyameky
e@gmai
l
.com

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Gl
oryandador
ationbeascri
beduntoGodforleadingmetocomeout
wi
ththi
ssmallbook.MayHisnamebepr ai
sed!Ithoughty
ouwouldsay
‘
AMEN’.Ial
sothankyouforyourencour
agement.Iam mostgr
atef
ul.

DEDI
CATI
ON

Thi
sbooki
sdedi
cat oYOU.ImeanYOU(
edt whohav
eacopyoft
his
book)
.

1
 ADVI
CE

Asi
nist
wosi
nswheni
tisdef
ended,
sodon’
tdef
endsi
n.

TABLEOFCONTENTS

Chapt
er1:Themeani
ngofadmi
nist
rat
ion,
leader
shi
p,&
management

Chapt
er2:
Funct
ionsoft
headmi
nist
rat
ion(
POSDCORB)

Chapt
er3:
Organi
zat
ionasapr
ocess–Theor
iesX,
YandZ

Chapt
er4:
Leader
shi
ptheor
iesandst
yles

Chapt
er5:
Char
act
eri
sti
csofanef
fect
ivel
eader

Chapt
er6:
Admi
nist
rat
ivet
asks/
dut
iesofsuchhead

Chapt
er7:
Mot
ivat
ion

Chapt
er8:
Eff
ect
ivedel
egat
ioni
neducat
ional
organi
zat
ions

Chapt
er9:
Deci
sion-
maki
ngi
neducat
ional
organi
zat
ions

Chapt
er10:
Communi
cat
ioni
neducat
ional
organi
zat
ions

Chapt
er11:
Organi
zat
ional
cli
mat
e

Chapt
er12:
School
-communi
tyr
elat
ionshi
p

Chapt
er13:
Sol
uti
onst
osomepastquest
ions

Ref
erences

2
 CHAPTER1:

LEADERSHI
P,MANAGEMENTANDADMI
NISTRATI
ON

Leadershi
pcanbedefi
nedastheabil
it
ytoinfl
uencei
ndi
vi
dual
st o
worktowardtheat
t nmentofor
ai gani
zati
onalgoal
sorobj
ect
ives.

Educati
onall
eadershi
pisthepr ocessofenl
ist
ingandgui
dingt
he
tal
entsandenergi
esofteachers,pupil
s,andparent
stowar
d
achi
evingcommoneducat ionalaims.

Admini
str
ati
oninv
olvesanov er
alldet
erminat
ionofpoli
cies,
set
tngofmaj
i orobjecti
ves,
theidenti
fi
cat
ionofgeneralpurposes
andlay
ingdownofbr oadprogr
ammesandpr oj
ect
s.

Educational
administr
ati
onisasy st
emati
carr
angementof
resourcesandprogrammest hatareav
ail
abl
eforeducat
ion,
and
careful
lyusi
ngthem systemati
call
ywit
hindef
inedgui
del
inesto
achieveeducat
ionalgoal
s.

Managementistheactofcoor
dinati
ngt heef
for
tsofpeopl
eto
accompli
shdesir
edgoalsandobjecti
ves,usi
ngavai
l
able
resour
cesef
fi
cientl
yandeff
ecti
vely.

Educat
ionalmanagementinv
olv
est
hepl
anni
ngandfor
mulat
ionof
educat
ional
poli
ciesorpr
ogrammeswi
thavi
ewofachi
evi
ng
educat
ional
goals.

Funct
ionsofanAdmi
nist
rat
or

Lut
herGul
i
ckandLy
ndal
lUr
wickaskr
het
ori
cal
l
y,"
Whati
sthe
3
workofthechiefexecuti
ve?POSDCORBi stheanswer .InGul
i
ck
andUrwick’
sownwor ds,POSDCORBrepresentsplanning,
organi
zi
ng,staff
ing,di
recti
ng,
coor
dinat
ing,repor
ti
ngand
budgeti
ng.
Planni
ng:Thi
sinvol
vesworki
ngoutinbroadoutl
inet
het hi
ngsthat
needtobedoneandt hemethodsfordoi
ngthem toaccompli
sh
thepurposesetf
ortheor
ganizati
on.I
tal
soentail
sdecidi
ngin
advancewhattodo,howtodoi t
,whentodoit,
andwhoshoul ddo
i
t.

Organizi
ng:Thi
sent ai
l
st heestabli
shmentoft heformalst r
uct
ure
ofauthori
tythr
oughwhi chworksubdi visionsarearranged,
defi
ned,andcoordinatedf ort
hedef i
nedobj ecti
ve.Organizi
ng
musttakeintoaccountdel egationofaut horit
yandr esponsibi
l
ity
andspanofcont r
ol wi
t hinsupervisoryunits.

Staff
ing:Thisisthewhol eper sonnelf unctionofbr i
nginginand
tr
aini
ngthest affandmai ntainingf avourablecondi t
ionsofwor k.
Staff
ingmayal sodeexpl ainedasf i
ll
i
ngj obpositi
onswi ththe
ri
ghtpeopleatt her i
ghtti
me.I tinv olv
esdet erminingstaffi
ng
needs,writ
ingjobdescr i
pti
ons, recrui
tingandscr eeningpeopleto
fi
llt
hepositions,aswel l
asev aluatingtheirperf
ormanceand
provi
dingoppor tunit
iest
oensur et heirpersonalandpr ofessi
onal
growthanddev elopment.

Directi
ng/ commandi ng:Thisisthecont inuoust askofmaki ng
decisionsandembody i
ngthem i nspecificandgener alordersand
i
nst r
uct i
onsandser vingast heleaderoft heent erpr
ise.I
tinvol
ves
l
eadi ngpeopl einamannert hatachievest hegoal softhe
organization.Directi
ngal soinvolvesproperal locati
onof
resourcesandpr ovidinganef fecti
vesuppor tsystem aswellas
formul ati
ngrulesandr egul
at i
onst oguidet heconductofbot h
student sandst aff.

Coordinati
ng:Coordinati
onistheactofor ganizi
ng,making
dif
ferentpeopleorthingsworkt ogetherforagoal oreffectto
ful
fil
ldesi
redgoalsinanor ganizati
on.Itisamanager i
alfuncti
on
i
nwhi chdiffer
entactivi
ti
esoftheor ganizationareproperly
adjustedandinter
li
nked.

4
Repor t
ingi
nvolveskeepingthoset owhom t headminist
rat
oris
responsibl
einformedast owhati sgoingon, whi
chthusincludes
keepinghimself/hersel
fandhis/hersubordinat
esinformed
throughrecords,resear
ch,andinspection.

Budgeti
ng:
Thisisthefi
nanci
almanagementfunct
ioncarr
iedout
bytheadmini
str
ator.I
thastodowithpl
anni
ng,account
ingand
contr
oll
i
ngthefi
nancesoftheorgani
zat
ion.

Di
ff
erencesbet
weenAdmi
nist
rat
ionandManagement

Management Admi
nist
rat
ion

Thepr ocessofwor ki
ngwith Iti
sconcernedwi
thdi
rect
ing
andthr oughgroupsor andcontr
olli
ngl
if
einasocial
i
ndividualstoaccomplish syst
em
organizati
onalgoal
s

I
tdealswit
hthe I
tdealswiththeestabl
ishment
i
mplementati
onofl
awsand ofpoli
cythatguidesdecisi
on-
r
egulat
ions makingandr egul
ati
ons

I
tisami
ddl
elev
elact
ivi
ty I
tist
op-
lev
elact
ivi
ty

Iti
sagr oupofmanager i
al I
tconsist
sofownerswho
personnelwhouset hei
r i
nvestcapi
tali
nandrecei
ve
speciali
zedknowledgeto pr
ofit
sfrom anent
erpr
ise
ful
fil
ltheobject
ivesofan
enterpri
se.

Iti
susedinbusi
ness I
tispopularwit
hgov ernment
,
enter
pri
se mil
it
ary,educat
ionaland
r
eli
giousorgani
zations

I
trequi
rest
echni
cal
act
ivi
ti
es I
tneedsadminist
rati
verat
her
t
hantechni
calabil
it
ies

I
thandl
est
heempl
oyer
s Ithandl
esthebusi
nessaspect
s
suchasf i
nance
5
 Itf
ocusesonmot i
vat
ionand I
tfocusesonplanni
ngand
contr
oll
i
ngfunct
ions or
ganizi
ngfuncti
ons

CHAPTER2

LEADERSHI
PTHEORI
ESANDSTYLES

Leader shipTheor ies: Twobr oadcat egor

iesoft heori
escouldbe
i
dent i
fiedi neducat ional l
eader shipandmanagementl i
ter
ature.
Oneoft hem cont endst hatther eis‘onebestway ’ofexerci
sing
l
eader shi pand,ther efore,thattherei sapar t
icul
arsetof
charact erist
icswhi ch‘ good’leader sshouldpossess.Theot her
arguest hatther
ei s‘ nobestway ’
ofexercisingleadershi
p,but
therear ear angeofl eadershipst yleswhichshoul dbeapplied
diff
erent lyaccordingt ot hesituationinwhi chleadershi
pis
requir
ed.

TYPESOFLEADERSHI
P(3TYPES)

A.BASS’
THEORY:

1.Traitt
heory:
Thet heoryarguest hatsomepeopl ear eborn
withsomequal i
ti
es( i
ntell
i
gence, i
ntegr
it
y,phy sical
appearance,et
c.)whichmaket hem assumel eadership
positi
onsnatur
ally.Thekeyi deainthi
stheoryi sthat
l
eader sar
eborn, butnotmade.Ther eareaf ewpeopl e
whohav eanatural t
alentforleadi
ngothers.

2.Transformati
onal l
eader shi
ptheory(thebehav i
ourtheory)
:
Thistheoryarguesthatpeopl ecanchooset obecome
l
eader sandthatleader saremadenotbor n.Accordi
ngt o
thi
stheory,i
tispossi bleforordi
narypeopl etoacquir
ethe
rel
evantknowl edge,skill
sandcompet encesthatcould
maket hem assumel eader shi
proles.Thisisthemost
widelyacceptedtheor ytoday.

6
 3.GreatEv entTheor y:Acrisisori mportanteventmaycause
aper sont orisetotheoccasi on, whichbringsout
ext r
aordinaryleader
shipqual iti
esinanor dinaryperson.A
typicalexampl eofapol i
ticalleaderwhowasbor noutof
crisisi
st heformerPr esident,JerryJohnRawl ings.Hewas
anunknownor dinar
yper son, butbecamea‘ gr
eat’leaderi
n
Ghanadur ingthepolit
icalcrisisinthelate1970sand
1980s.Leader sareseendur ingcr i
sisperiod.Alexander
theGr eat.
B.SITUATI ONAL/ CONTI NGENCYLEADERSHI PTHEORY:
(ProfessorPaul Her sey-Si tuati
onalLeader ,andKen
Blanchar d-TheOneMi nuteManager ).Thef undament al
i
deaoft hesituational l
eader shi
ptheor yisthatthereisno
singl
e" best"styleofl eadership.Thet heorystates
successf ull
eader sshoul dchanget hei rl
eader shi
pstyles
basedont hemat urit
yoft hepeoplet heyar eleadingand
thedet ai
lsoft het ask.

C.PATH-GOALTHEORYOFLEADERSHI P: Thi
stheor
y
assumesthatper
formance,
sat
isf
act
ionandmot i
vat
ionof
agroupcanbeaffect
edbythel
eaderinanumberofways:

1.Off
eri
ngr
ewar
dsf
ort
heachi
evementofper
for
mance
goal
s;
2.Cl
ari
fyi
ngpat
hst
owar
dst
hesegoal
s;
3.andRemov
ingper
for
manceobst
acl
e

Char
act
eri
sti
csofEf
fect
iveEducat
ional s(
Leader Jones-
2006)
1.Eff
ecti
vel
eadersar
eabletopict
urearangeofpossibi
l
iti
es
sever
alst
agesaheadofcurr
entphaseoforgani
zat
ional
devel
opment.
2.Theyhav
eaf or
wardthinki
ngout
look.Theyinv
estthei
r
ti
meindevel
opingpeopleandt
heircapabi
li
tyfort
hefutur
e
7
 oft
heschoolandmanaget
hecur
rentneedsoft
heschool
.
3.Theyhaveagr eatsenseofti
ming–theyaresensit
iveto
theneedtochangewhennecessaryandhav ethepatience
towaitunt
ilt
het i
mei sri
ghttomakeamajorinter
vention.
Yethastheboldnesstostri
kedeci
siv
elywhenthemoment
i
sr i
ght.
4.Theyst
udythesit
uati
oninwhichtheyfindthemsel
vesand
deci
deonthestyl
esofleader
shi
pt hataresuit
abl
etoor
appr
opri
atefort
hatsi
tuati
on.
5.Theyemploydiverseappropri
atetechniquestomot i
vat
e
groupmember stowor ktoachieveorganizat
ionalgoal
s.I
n
otherwor
ds,theyperceivetheneedsoft hegroupand
organi
zethegroup’seffor
tstowardssat i
sfyi
ngthose
needs.
6.Theyarewill
i
ngtoworkwit
hot
her
si nal
li
anceand
agreementstomakeamoresi
gni
fi
canti
nterv
enti
ont
han
ei
therpartwoul
dbeablet
omakealone.
7.Theyattempttomaketheorgani
zati
onalgoal
s
complementaryt
othegroup’
sobjecti
vesanddir
ectt
he
group’
seffor
ttowar
dsthoseobject
ives.
LEADERSHI
PSTYLES

Aleadershipstyleisal eader'
sstyleofprovidi
ngdi recti
on,
i
mpl ementingplans, andmot ivat
ingpeople.Iti
st hemannerand
approachofpr ovidi
ngdi rect
ion,i
mpl ementingplans, and
mot i
vati
ngpeopl e.Thet hreemajorleadershipstyles:the
autocrat
ic,democr ati
corl ai
ssez-fai
rstyl
es.Othersi nclude
aff
ili
ati
ve,pace-setti
ng, t
ransacti
onal andcoachi
ngst yl
es.

 Autocrati
c/authori
tari
anl eader
shipsty l
e:Anaut ocr
atic
l
eaderkeepsst r
ict,cl
osecont r
oloverf ol
lower sbykeeping
cl
oser egulat
ionofpol ici
esandpr ocedures.He/ she
central
isespowerandaut hor
ityint hemanagementand
doesnoti nvolvei ndi
vidualworkersindeci sion-
making
process;dict
atesinor dertoattai
nthedet erminedgoal;
andset sthewor kerstoper f
ormt herolest heyaregiven.
8
St
rengt
hsandWeaknessesoft
heAut
ocr
ati
cleader
shi
pSt
yle

1.Thi
sst
yledoesnoti
nit
iat
erewar
dst
omot
ivat
ewor
ker
s.
2.Iti
mpelsthewor kerst
owor kqui
ckl
yforhighproduct
ion,
andensuredecisionsaret
akenmorequicklyf
or
i
mpl ementat
ion.
3.I
tdoesnotencour
agei
nit
iat
iveandcr
eat
ivi
ty.
4.Also,
theleadersensur
ethatclosesuper
visi
oni
sexer
cised
andthisi
sr esent
edbyworkers.
5. Leaderswhoar eautocrat
ici
gnoretheneedsofworkers
leadi
ngt ofr
ustrat
ionandlowmor ale,andconfl
i
ctbet
ween
admi ni
str
atorsandwor ker
sariseconstant
ly.

 Democr atic/Parti
cipati
veLeader shipStyle:The
democr ati
cleadershipsty l
econsi stsofthel eaderwho
sharest hedecisi
on- makingabi l
i
tieswithgr oupmember s
bypromot i
ngtheinterestsoft hegr oupmember sandby
practi
cingsocialequality
.Thisst yleofleader ship
encompassesdi scussion,debateandshar i
ngofi deasand
encouragementofpeopl et ofeelgoodaboutt hei
r
i
nv ol
vement .

Al
eaderwhoempl
oyst
hedemocr
ati
cleader
shi
pst
yle;

 Consider
stheneeds,i
nter
est
s,r
ight
s,andf
reedom of
workersorsubor
dinat
es.

 Giveshi
s/hersubor
dinat
esasubst ant
ialamountof
fr
eedom andareinvol
vedindeci
sion-making.

 I
nf l
uenceshis/hersubor
dinat
es,butdoesnotdominate
thei
rthinki
ng;he/sheoff
erssuggesti
onsrat
herthanissue
orders.

 Act
sasfaci
l
itat
orandprov
iderofi
nfor
mat i
onrat
herthan
bei
ngaut
hori
tar
ian;
prai
sesworker
sinsteadofcr
it
ici
zing
9
 t
hem.
St
rengt
hsandWeaknessesoft
heDemocr
ati
cLeader
shi
pSt
yle
tl
1.I eadst
ohi
ghmor
aleandcooper
ati
onamongwor
ker
s.
2. I
tal
sogivesfreedom t
owor
ker
stoexer
ciset
hei
r
r
esponsi
bil
i
ties.
3. I
tpr
omot
esi
nit
iat
iveandcr
eat
ivi
ty.
4. I
tpromot
eshi ghj
obmot
ivat
ionwhi
chl
eadst
oincr
eased
pr
oduct
ivi
ty.
5. Aleaderwhousest hedemocr
ati
cstyl
emaytakelongto
i
nvolveworkersi
ndecisi
on-
makingandtheymaygetlazy
andstartt
akingt
hingseasy
.

 TheLai ssez-
fair
e/Del egat i
veLeader shipSt yle(Lewin,
Lippi
tt,andWhi t
ein1938) :Thelaissez-fairestyleis
somet i
mesdescr bedasa"
i handsof f"leader shipst yl
e
becauset heleadersdel egatet
het askst ot heir
foll
ower swhileprovidingl i
tt
leornodi rectiontothem.I f
theleaderwithdrawst oomuchf rom thei rfoll
ower sitcan
somet i
mes r esultinal ackofproduct i
v ity
,cohesi veness,
andsat isf
acti
on.

 Laissez-
fair
eleader
sall
owfoll
owerstohavecompl
ete
freedom tomakedecisi
onsconcer
ningthecompl
eti
onof
theirwork.

 I
tall
owsf ol
l
owersahighdegreeofaut
onomyandself
-r
ule,
whi
leatthesamet i
meoffer
inggui
danceandsuppor
t
whenrequested.

 Thelai
ssez-fai
releaderusesguidedfreedom toprovi
de
thefol
l
ower swithallmateri
alsnecessarytoaccomplish
thei
rgoal
s,.butdoesnotdi rect
lypart
ici
pateindecisi
on
makingunlessthef ol
lowersrequestthei
rassist
ance

10
 Thelai
ssez–f
airest
ylei
sanef f
ecti
vestylet
ousewhen
fol
l
owersarehighl
yskil
l
ed,experi
enced,andeducated;
havepri
deinthei
rworkandthedrivetodoitsuccessful
l
y
onthei
rown.

 Iti
salsoappr
opr
iat
ewhenoutsi
deexper
ts,
suchasst
aff
speci
ali
stsar
eusedbyt
heorgani
zat
ion.

 Thelaissez-
fai
rest
ylei
mpliest
heatti
tudethateveryone
maydowhatt .Howev
heywant er,i
npracti
ce,ther
eisno
reall
eaderinanorgani
zat
ionwhichadoptsthi
sst y
le.
 Thecommi tt
eessetgoal
swhi
chnoonefeel
sboundto
adher
et oandsincet
herei
snohi
erar
chyofaut
hor
it
y,t
he
l
eaderismerelyasymbol.

St
rengt
hsandWeaknessesoft
heLai
ssez-
fai
reSt
yle
1.I
tal
lowsmaturepeopl
etof eelf
reetodowhatt heywantt
o
do,
thuspr
omot i
ngini
ti
ati
veandcr eat
ivi
ty,
andthey
moti
vat
et hemselv
estoenhancepr oducti
vit
y.
2.I
tisinappr
opr i
atewhenf ol
lower
sf eelunsecur
edatt
he
unavai
labi
li
tyofal eader
,andtheleadercannotorwi
l
lnot
prov
ideregularfeedbacktothei
rfoll
owers.
3. Moreoverinacont
extwherel
aissez-
fai
rel
eadershi
p
prev
ails,t
herei
snoclearl
eader
shipandcontrol
,andchaos
andconf l
i
ctsoft
enari
seduetounguidedfr
eedom.
4.Al
so,t
hesty
lel
eadst
ohi
ghr
ateofunheal
thycompet
it
ion
amongit
smembers.

 Transact i
onalLeader shi
pSt yl
e:(fi
rstdescr i
bedbyMax
Weberi n1947andt henlaterdescri
bedbyBer nardBassi
n
1981) .Iti
smai nlyusedbymanagement .Transacti
onal
l
eader sfocust heirl
eader shi
ponmot ivatingfoll
owers
throughasy stem ofr ewar dsandpuni shment s.Thereare
twof actorswhichf ormthebasi sfort hi
ssy stem:
contingentrewar dandmanagement -by-except i
on.
 Cont
ingentRewar
d:Thi
smeanst
hel
eaderpr
ovi
des
11
 r
ewards,
materi
ali
sti
corpsy
chologi
cal
,foref
for
tand
r
ecogni
zesgoodperfor
mance.
 Management -by-
Exception:Thel eadermai ntainst he
statusquo.Thel eaderinterveneswhensubor dinatesdo
notmeetaccept ableperfor
mancel evelsandi niti
ates
correctiv
eact iontoi mproveper for mance.Thi shel ps
reducet hewor kl
oadofmanager s.Italsoident i
fiest he
needsoft heirfoll
owersandgi vesr ewardst osat isfythose
needsi nexchangeofcer t
ainlev elofper f
ormance.He/ she
focusesoni ncreasingtheeff i
ciencyofest abl i
shed
routinesandpr ocedures,andismor econcer nedwi t
h
foll
owi ngexistingrulesthanwi thmaki ngchangest othe
organization.

 Affi
li
ati
vestyl
eofLeader ship:Aleaderwhoempl oysthe
affi
li
ati
vestyl
eofleadershipfocusesonpr omot i
ngf ri
endly
i
nteracti
onsamongwor kers,andplacesmor eemphasi s
onmeet ingst
aff’
semot ionalneedst hanondef ininggoals,
tasksandstandards.He/ shepaysat tent
iontoandcar es
forthewholepersonandst r
essest hi
ngst hatkeeppeopl e
happy.Theleaderident
ifiesopportuniti
esforposi ti
ve
feedbackandav oi
dsper formance-rel
atedconf r
ont ati
ons.
St
rengt
hsandWeaknessesoft
heAf
fi
li
ati
veLeader
shi
pSt
yle
1.I
tall
owsthel
eadert
ogiv
esupportt
oindi
vi
dual
sand
pr
omoteshar
moniousworki
ngr
elat
ionsamongdi
ver
se
gr
oups.
2.Theaffi
li
ati
vest
ylei
sinappropri
ateincri
sesorcomplex
si
tuati
onsneedi
ngcleardir
ecti
onandcont r
ol,andwit
h
staf
fmember swhoaretask-or
ientedorl
essconcerned
aboutfor
mingrel
ati
onshipswit
ht eam l
eaders.
Coer
civ
eleader
shi
pst
yle–r
uleswor
ktot
hel
ett
er.
CHAPTER3:

MANAGI
NGMOTI
VATI
ONI
NEDUCATI
ONALORGANI
ZATI
ONS

TheConceptofMot
ivat
ion:
Iti
sapr
ocesst
hati
nit
iat
es,
gui
des
12
andmai ntai
nsgoal
-or
ientedbehavi
ours.Moti
vat
ioniswhat
causesust oact
,whetheriti
sgett
ingaglassofwatertoreduce
thi
rstorreadi
ngabookt ogainknowledge.

Motiv
ati
onispiv
otalf
orteam l
eader
sbecauseitiswhatmakes
peopl
ewanttodot hi
ngs.I
tiswhatmakesthem putr
ealef
fort
i
ntowhattheydo.

TypesofMot
ivati
on:Basi
call
y,mot
ivat
ioniscl
assif
iedint
otwo–
i
ntri
nsi
cori
nternalmoti
vat
ionandextr
insi
corexternalmoti
vat
ion.
Int
ri
nsi
corExternalMotiv
ation:Thisi
stheneed,want,
anddesir
e
whichexi
stswit
hintheindivi
dual.I
tcomesasar esul
tofnat
ural
curi
osi
ty,
degreeofint
erestder i
vedfr
om anexperi
enceor
exci
tementandfutur
easpi r
ation.

Extr
insi
corExt ernalMotiv
ati
on:Thi
sisseeni nstaffmember s
whowor khardf orreward/ssuchasgif
ts,salar
ies,etc.Extri
nsi
c
motivat
iontakest woforms–t angi
bler
ewar ds(e.g.Sal ar
ies,
bonuses,et
c.)andi nt
angibl
erewar
ds(e.g.prai
se, compl i
ments,
etc.
)

Theor
iesofMotivati
on:Severalt
heor
iesofmotivat
ioncanbe
i
denti
fi
edinmanagementl iter
atur
e.However,t
hreeofthem ar
e
usef
ulfort
hiscourse:Maslow’sHier
archyofNeedstheory
,Two-
Fact
orTheoryandTheor i
esXandY.
HIERARCHYOFNEEDSTHEORY-ABRAHAM MASLOW: Abraham
Maslow’ s(1943,1970)need-basedtheoryofmot i
vati
oni sthe
mostr ecognizedandthemostr ef
erencedofthetheories.
Accordingt othi
stheory
,aper sonhasf i
vefundamental needsand
thesear hephy
et siol
ogi
cal,securi
ty/saf
ety
,social
,esteem and
self
-actual
izati
onneeds.
i
.Phy siol
ogicalneeds:Thesei ncludethemostbasi cneedsthat
arevitaltosurvi
val,suchast heneedsf orwater,ai
r,f
ood,and
sl
eep.Masl owbel ievedthattheseneedsar ethemostbasi cand
i
nstinctiv
eneedsi nt hehier
archybecauseal lneedsbecome
secondar yunti
lthesephy si
ologicalneedsaremet .

i
i.Secur
it
y/Saf
etyNeeds:Thesearerel
evantforsur
viv
al,
butthey
arenotasdemandingatthephysi
ologi
calneeds.Examplesof
13
secur
ityneedsi udet
ncl hedesi
ref
orsteadyempl
oyment
,heal
th
i
nsuranceandshel
terf
rom t
heenvi
ronment.

i
ii
.Soci alNeeds:Theseincludeneedsforbelongi
ng,loveand
affecti
on.Masl owconsideredtheseneedstobel essbasicthan
phy si
ologi
cal andsecuri
tyneeds.Relati
onshipssuchas
fr
iendships,romant i
catt
achment sandfamili
eshelpfulf
ilthese
needsf orcompani onshi
pandaccept ance.
i
v.Esteem Needs:Af
tert hef i
rstthreeneedshav ebeensat i
sfi
ed,
est
eem needsbecomei ncreasinglyimportant
.Est eem needs
i
ncludetheneedforthingst hatrefectonsel
l f
-esteem,personal
worth,soci
alr
ecogni
tionandaccompl i
shment .
v.Self
-act
ual
izat
ionNeeds:Thisi sthehighestlevelofMasl
ow’s
hier
archyofneeds.Self-
act
uali
zingpeopl eareself-awar
e,
concernedwithpersonalgr
owth, l
essconcer nedwi t
htheopi
nions
ofothersandint
erestedinful
fi
ll
i
ngt hei
rpotenti
al.
Masl sHi
ow’ erar
chyofNeedsTheor
y:

1.Sel
f-Act
ual
i
zat
ion
2.Est
eem Needs
3.Soci
alNeeds
4.Secur
it
yandSaf
etyNeeds
5.Phy
siol
ogi
calNeeds
TWO-
FACTORTHEORYOFMOTI
VATI
ON(
HERZBERG,
MAUSNER
&SNYDERMAN,
1959)

Two- f
act ort heoryisheav i
lybasedonneedf ul
fi
lmentbecauseof
theiri
nter estinhowbestt osat isfyworkers.Theycarriedout
severalst udiesi ntotherelati
onshi pbetweenjobsatisfacti
onand
productivity,leadingtothedev elopmentoft hetwo-f
act ort
heor
y
ofmot i
v at i
on.Thesewr itersident i
fi
edanumberoff actorsand
classi
fi
edt hem i nto mot i
v at
or s/sat
isf
ier
s’and‘hygiene
factor
s’/di ssatisfi
ers’

Mot
ivat
ors,
accor
dingt
oHer
zbergetal
(1959)
,ar
ethosef
act
ors
14
thatdriv
epeopl etowor kt
oachi evegoals.Moti
vat
orsi ncl
ude
achievement,recognit
ionforachievement,t
heworkitself,
responsibi
l
ity
,adv ancement(promot i
on)andthepossibil
it
yof
personalgrowth.
Theresearchersnotedthatmotivat
ional
fact
orsresul
tinstr
ong
sati
sfact
ionandgoodj obperformance.However
, t
heydonot
causedissati
sfact
ionwhent heyareabsenti
ntheworksituati
on.

Mot
ivat
ors(
basedonHer
zber
getal
.,
1959)ci
tedi
n(Jones,
2006)

Mot
ivat
ors Whyt
heywor
k

Achi
evement Reachingorexceedi ngtaskobj
ecti
vesi
s
part
icular
lyimportantbecausetheonwar
dsand
upwardsur getoachi ev
eisbasichumandri
veone
ofthemostpower fulmotiv
ator
sandagreat
sourceofsat i
sfact
ion.

Recogni
ti
on Theacknowl edgementofachievement
sbyothers
i
smot i
vat
ionalbecauseithel
pstoenhancesel
f-
esteem.Staffmayseer ecogni
ti
onasar ewar
din
i
tself.

JobI
nter
est
s Aj obthatprovi
dessati
sfact
ionforindiv
idualsand
groupswi l
lbeagreatermotivati
onalfor
cet hana
j
obt hatdoesnotsustainint
erest.Match
responsibi
li
ti
estoindi
vidual
s’int
erest.

Responsi
bil
i
t Thepowertoexerciseauthori
tyandpowermay
y demandleader
shipskil
ls,ri
sk-t
aki
ng,deci
sion-
making,
andself-
direct
ion,al
lofwhichrai
seself
-
est
eem andarestrongmot iv
ators

Adv
ancemen Promotion,pr
ogressandr i
singr
ewardsfor
t achi
evementar eimportanthere.Possi
blythe
mainmot iv
ator,
howev er,i
sthefeel
i
ngthat
advancementispossible.

15
Byhy gienefactor s,Herzbergetal.(1959)refertobasi cneedsat
wor kwhich,int hemsel ves,donotmot ivat
e,butt hei
rabsence
causessi gni
ficantdi ssati
sfacti
on.Thehy gi
enef actorsar erelated
tot hecontext/env ir
onmentoft hejobandi ncludepar kingspace,
holidayentit
lement ,of
fi
cespace, fr
ingebenef it
s.Accor di
ngt ot he
researchers,whent hesef actor
sarepresentint hewor kcont ext,
theempl oyeewi l
l notnecessaril
ybeeithersat i
sfi
edormot i
v ated.
Ifthesefactorsar eabsent ,
theempl oy
eewi l
l bedissatisf
ied.

Hy
gieneFact
ors(
BasedonHerzber
getal.
,1959)ci
tedi
n(Jones,
Hygi
eneFactor
s

Hy
gienef
act
ors Descr
ipt
ions

Salar
yand I
ncome,
bonuses,
hol
i
day
s,et
c
benefi
ts

Worki
ng Wor
kinghours,wor
kplacelay
out
,
condi
ti
ons f
aci
l
iti
es,equi
pment,etc.

Organi
zat
ional Rul
esandregul
ati
ons,f
ormal
i
tiesand
poli
ci
es i
nfor
mali
ti
es,et
c

St
atus Rank,
aut
hor
it
y,r
elat
ionshi
ptoot
her
s,
et
c

Jobsecur
it
y Degreeofconf
idenceempl
oyeehas
regar
dingcont
inuedempl
oyment.

Supervi
sion& Extentofcontr
olthatani
ndivi
dualhas
contr
ol overthecontentandexecut
ionofthe
j
ob.

Rel
ati
onshi
psat Levelandt
ypeofint
erper
sonalr
elat
ions
work wit
hintheworkenvi
ronment

Per
sonall
i
fe Ti
mespentonf
ami
l
y,f
ri
endsand

16
 i
nter
est
s.

Somecri
ti
cismst
hathav
ebeenl
evel
l
edagai
nstt
het
wo-
fact
or
theor
y
1.Thesampl estudi
edwasmadeupofpr ofessi
onal
sof
whit
e-coll
arjobs(
accountant
s,engineersandscient
ist
s)
andtherefor
ewasunrepresentat
iveofthewor ki
ng
popul
ation.
2.Ther esearchwasconductedintheWesternadvanced
countries.I
thastobeconductedinothernon-
western
contextsinordert
ostrengtheni
tsfi
ndings.

THEORYXANDTHEORYY:Dougl asMcGregor(1960)st
udi
ed
peopl
e’satt
it
udestowardsworkandrev
ealedtwosetsof
contr
asti
ngbeli
efsaboutpeopl
eandwork.Theyareknownas
Theori
esXandY.

Assumpt
ionsofTheor
yX Assumpt
ionsofTheor
yY

Theaveragehumanbeing Peopl
ear
e,bynat
urephysi
cal
l
y
hasaninherentdi
sli
kefor andment
all
yener
geti
c.
workandwoul davoi
ditif
possi
ble.

Becauseoft hi
shuman Peopl edonotneedt obe
char acteri
sticofdisl i
kefor externallycont
roll
edor
wor k,mostempl oy eesmust dir
ect ed.Theywillexer
cisesel
f
becoer ced,controlled, -di
rect i
oninpursuitof
dir
ect edandt hr
eat ened objectivesofobjecti
vesto
withpuni shmentt oget whicht heyarecommi t
ted.
them t oputf ort
hadequat e
efforttowar dsachi eving
17
 or
gani
zat
ionalobj
ect
ives.

Mostpeoplearenot Peoplewillseekandaccept
ambiti
ous,haveli
tt
ledesi
re r esponsi
bili
tyundert
heright
forr
esponsibi
l
ity
,andprefer condit
ions.
tobedirect
edorled.

Theaveragemanis,by Peoplehavethecapaci
tyt
o
nat
ure,i
ndolent–he/she exerci
seahighdegreeof
worksaslit
tl
easpossibl
e. creati
vi
ty,
imagi
nati
onand
i
ngenuity.

Mostpeoplehaveli
ttl
e
capacit
yforcr
eat
ivit
yin
solvi
ngorgani
zat
ional
probl
ems.

Moti
vat
ionoccur
sonlyat
t
hephysiol
ogi
calandsaf
ety
l
evel
s.

Mostpeopl ear
einherent
ly
self
-centered,i
ndi
ffer
entto
organizati
onalgoal
s.

Man,natur
all
y,r
esi
st
change.

HowTheor yXPr
inci
plesar
eexhi
bit
edi
nEducat
ional
Organi
zat
ions

1.TheoryXmanagementphil
osophi
esareoper
ati
onal
i
sedby
prof
essi
onal
sineducat
ioninthef
oll
owingways:
18
 2.Leaderswhoaretheoryxori
enteddonotinvol
vetheir
subordi
natesi
ndecisi
on-makingintheorgani
zati
on
becausetheyar
econsider
edimmat ure,
irr
esponsi
bleand
aslacki
ngcreat
ivi
ty.
3.Leaderswhoappl
yTheor
yXpr i
nci
plesal
soemploy
autocr
ati
c/aut
hor
it
ari
ansty
lesinmanagi
ngthei
rstaf
f.
4.Leaderswhobeli
eveinthesepri
nci
plesmoni
torand
superv
isethei
rst
affcl
oselyandcar
ef ul
l
y.
5.Leaders/
manager
soft
enissuei
nst
ruct
ionswhi
chmustbe
adheredtobyt
hei
rst
aff.
6.St
affmember s/
employ
eesareof
tenthreat
enedwit
h
di
smissalandpuni
shmentf
ornon-per
formance.
7.Leader
swhoar eTheoryXori
entedaremorei
nterestedin
perf
ormancethanful
fi
ll
ingt
hewelfar
eneedsoftheirstaf
f
andther
efor
etendtoexploi
tthem.
Howt
heor
yYmanagementphi
l
osophi
eswor
kinschool
s
1.Administr
ator
swhoar eTheoryYori
ent edseek
i
nformationfr
om t
heirworkersandl
istentothem.Theyare
concernedwit
hthei
rwor ker
sandwill
ingt ol
ist
entothei
r
probl
ems.
2.Intheclassr oom,thet
eacherwhoi sYori
entedwi l
lbe
student-
orientedandgivethem fr
eedom t
oexpr essthei
r
i
deas, andt hestudent
salsorecei
vesupportfr
om teachers
duringclass-work
3.Thetheoryl
eadstodecentrali
zati
onofacti
vi
ties/power
anddelegat
ionofauthori
ty.Thati
s,r
esponsibil
i
tiesar
e
shar
edamongwor kers
4.Thewor kersaregiv
enauthori
tytoacertai
nextent.e.g.
Theyar egivenalar
gemeasur eofsel
f-
esteem, sel
f-
direct
ion,fr
eedom t
oact(part
ici
pate)
,responsi
bili
tyand
recogniti
onforachi
evement.Bythi
sthewor kerbecomes
highly
-mot i
vat
ed
19
 5.Wor
kersar
er egar
dedasresponsi
bleandmat
uredand
t
her
efor
etreatedwit
hduerespect
.
6.Fi
nal
ly
,atheoryYmanageri
albehavi
ourwoul
dref
lecta
moredemocrati
cleader
shi
pstyl
e.
THEORYZ:Thi sistheJapaneseappr oacht omanagement ,
propoundedbyWi l
li
am G.Ouchi( 1981).Ouchiadvancesthatthe
theory,asamanagementst yl
e,doesnotonl yyiel
dgreater
productiv
ityandprofi
tabi
li
ty,butalsohigherdegreesofwor ker
sati
sfacti
on,companyl oyal
tyandper formance.TheoryZ
manager sassumet hataveragewor kerwant st
obei nvol
vedi n
managi nganor gani
zati
onand bui l
dingtr
ustamong
organizati
onalmember siscentraltoraisi
ngproducti
vit
y.
SomeKeyPr
inci
plesi
nTheor
yZ
1.Employeesarefr
eet omakethei
rspeci
alcont
ribut
ionsand
toadvancethei
rideasf
orthesol
uti
onofproblems.
2.Manager str
ustt heiremployeesandshareinfor
mati
on
wit
ht hem.Basict ot heTheoryZisthebeli
efthataperson
t
reatedwi t
ht r
ustwi llper
for
m mor eef
fi
cientl
ynotonlyon
t
hejob, butinallareasoflif
e.
3.Promotionwithinthetheor
yzorientedcompaniesissl
ow,
butopportuni
tiesfornewexperi
encesandfortaking
responsi
bil
it
yar edeli
berat
elypr
ovided.
4.Par t
icipat
ivedecisi
on-makingischeri
shedint
heor
yZ
orientedorganizati
ons.Insuchorgani
zati
ons,
deci
sions
takenar ebasedondel iber
ati
onsandconsensus.
5.TheoryZmanager
sof
fert
hei
rempl
oyeesl
i
fet
ime
employment
s.
6.Thetheoryemphasi seslong-t
erm developmentoft he
company ’
semploy eesaswel lasitsproducts.Resources
arecommi t
tedtodev elopactivi
ti
esthatmaynotshow
resul
tsformanyy ears.Thisemphasisi sespecial
lystrong
formanagers.Experiencemanager sareexpect edto
mentortheyoungonesf orfutur
edev el
opmentoft he
20
 or
gani
zat
ion.

Pr
esenceandAbsenceofMot
ivat
ionamongSt
affMember
s
Iti
simpor t
antforleaderst
oknowwhet hert
heirst
affmember s
aremot i
vatedornoti ft
heobjectivessetwil
lbeachieved.This
knowledgeenablest hem (
theleaders)takeri
ghtacti
onsi nthe
organi
zati
on.Thet ablebel
owi ndicatesthesignsofpresenceand
absenceofmot ivati
onamongst affmember soforganizat
ions.

I
ndi
cat
orsofpr
esentandabsentmot
ivat
ion(
Jones,
2006)

Si
gnsthatmot
ivat
ioni
s Si
gnst
hatmot
ivat
ioni
sabsent
pr
esent

Hi
ghper
for
mance Apathyandindi
ff
erence
towardsthej
ob.

Highr
esult
sbeing Poorr
ecor
dofti
me-keepi
ng
consi
stent
lyachi
eved andhi
ghabsent
eei
sm.

Unst
int
ingcooper
ati
ont
o Exaggerat
ionoftheef
fect
s/
over
comeproblems. di
ffer
encesencounter
edin
probl
ems, di
sput
esand
gri
evances.

Wil
l
ingnesstoaccept Lackofcooper
ati
oni
ndeali
ng
r
esponsibi
l
ity wit
hproblemsanddi
ff
icul
ti
es

Will
i
ngnesst
o Unjust
if
iedr
esi
stancet
o
accommodatenecessar
y change
change.

21
 CHAPTER4:

EFFECTI
VEDELEGATI
ONI
NEDUCATI
ONALORGANI
ZATI
ONS

Del
egat
ionisaprocessbywhichmanagers,suchashead
t
eacher
st r
ansf
erpartofthei
raut
hori
tytothei
rsubordi
nat
esf
or
t
he perfor
manceofcertaint
asksandresponsi
bil
it
ies.

Del
egati
oninvolvesentr
ustinganotherpersonwi thataskfor
whicht
hedelegatorremainsulti
mat el
yresponsible.I
nother
words,
theleaderremainsresponsiblei
fsomet hinggoeswr ong
wit
hthetasksdelegatedsincehe/sheisthemanager .

22
I
mpor
tanceofDel
egat
ion

1.Itenabl
esal eadert
oconcent
rat
eonhigh-l
evelt
asks
suchaspl anni
ng,moni
tori
ng,
coordi
nat
ing,and
control
l
ing;
2.Iti
swayoftr
aini
nganddev el
opi
ngst af
ftohandl
ehi
gher
andmorechal
lengi
ngresponsi
bil
i
ties;
3.I
tbui
l
dst
heconf
idenceofst
afforsubor
dinat
es;
4.I
tencour
agescooper
ati
onandt
eamwor
k;
5.I
thel
psl
eader
stomanaget
hei
rwor
kload;
6.I
treducesst
ress;
7.I
tfaci
l
itat
esef
fi
ciencyandqui
ckact
ions;
and
8.I
timpr
ovesempl
oyeemor
ale.
9.I
treducesst
ress;
10.I
tfaci
l
itat
esef
fi
ciencyandqui
ckact
ions;
and
11.I
timpr
ovesempl
oyeemor
ale.
Thetwotypesofdel
egat
ionar
e‘gof
erdel
egat
ion’
and
‘
stewar
dshipdel
egat
ion’
.
1.Thef
ormermeans‘
goforthi
s,gof
ort
hat
,dot
his,
dot
hat
,
andt
ellmewheni
tisdone’
.
2.Thelatt
erisfocusedonoutcomesinsteadofmet
hods.I
t
off
erstheteam member sachoiceofhowtodothi
ngs
andresponsibi
li
tyforwhat
everhappens.

Whysomel eader
smayf
eel
uncomf
ort
abl
etodel
egat
e
r
esponsi
bil
i
t i
es?

23
 1. Responsibi
li
ty:Theybel
i
evethati
ftheyarer
esponsi
ble
forthejob,
itnormall
ymeanstheyaretheoneswho
actual
lycarr
yitout.

2. Author
it
y:Thi
srel
atest
ot hedeci
sion-
maki
ngpartoft
he
j
ob.Leadersmakedeci
sionsaboutthewayt
hejobis
done.

3. Account
abi
li
ty:Thisrel
atest otheownershi
ppartofthe
j
ob.Leadersareaccountable,eveni
f,t
heydidn’
tactual
l
y
per
formthetaskthemselves.

Pr
inci
plesofEf
fect
iveDel
egat
ion

1.Setst
andar
dsandout
comes
2.Ensur
ecl
ari
tyofaut
hor
it
yandr
esponsi
bil
i
ty
3.I
nvol
vest
affmember
s
4.Ensur
ethecompl
eti
onoft
asks
5.Thepr
inci
plesofwi
l
li
ngnessandpr
ofi
ciency
6.Appl
yadequat
econt
rolmeasur
es
7.Pr
inci
plesofappl
i
cabl
eaut
hor
it
y
8.Pr
inci
pleofuni
tyofcommand
Bar
ri
ersCausedbyManagement

1.Thebel
i
eft
hatsomet
hingmaygowr
ong
2.Desi
ret
ogai
nrecogni
ti
onf
rom st
akehol
der
s
3.Conser
vat
iveandcaut
ioust
emper
amentoft
hemanager
4.Desi
ret
odomi
nat
esubor
dinat
es
5.Theybel
i
evet
hatt
askwi
llbecompl
etedqui
ckerbydoi
ng
24
 i
tthemsel
ves
6.Theyat
temptt
oav
oidov
erwor
kingt
eam member
s
7.Someoft hem mayoperat
ewithi
nthei
rcomfor
tzones–
theybel
i
ev et
heyalwayscarr
youtsometaskst
hemselv
es:
Bar
ri
ersCausedbySt
affMember
s/Subor
dinat
es

1.Toomuchdependenceont
hemanagerf
ordeci
sions:
2.Fearofcr
it
ici
sm:
3.Lackofi
nfor
mat
ion:
4. Absenceofposi
ti
vei
ncent
ives
5. Di
ff
icul
tyi
ndeci
sionmaki
ng
6. Poorsuper
ior
-subor
dinat
erel
ati
ons:
7. Fearofbei
ngexposed:
TheStagesofDel
egati
on:Hel
l
er(
1997)pr
esent
edt
hef
oll
owi
ng
asst
agesofdelegat
ion:
1.Analy
sis[
Sor
ti
ngtaskst
obedel
egat
ed]
:Sel
ectt
asksand
def
inepar
ameter
s.
2.Appoi
ntment[
Namingthedelegat
e]:Appr
opr
iat
eper
son
shoul
dbeassi
gnedthetasks.
3.Brief
ing[
Defi
ningt
hetask]
:Youcannothol
dpeopl
e
responsi
blef
orvagueorundef
inedt
asks.
4.Contr
ol[Moni
torandencourage]:Monitor
ingshouldbe
usedforcont
rolandcoachi
ngr athert
hani nt
erf
erence.
5.Apprai
sal[
Reviewi
ngandr
evisi
ng]:Howwellhasthe
del
egateperf
ormed?Whatchanges,onbot
hsides,need
tobemadet oimprov
eper
formance?

25
TRY:Cri
ti
cal
l
yfi
vebarr
ier
stoef
fect
ivedel
egat
ioni
nbasi
c
i
nsti
tut
ionsi
nGhana.(
2013/
2014–Lastyear)

CHAPTER5:

CONFLI
CTANDCONFLI
CTMANAGEMENTI
NEDUCATI
ONAL
ORGANI
ZATI
ONS

Confl
ictisastat
eofdiscordcausedbyt heactualorpercei
ved
opposit
ionofneeds,val
uesandi nter
estsbetweenpeople
worki
ngt oget
her.Iti
sanat ural
disagreementresul
ti
ngf r
om
i
ndivi
dualsorgroupsthatdi
f f
erinatt
it
udes,beli
efs,
valuesor
needs.

For
msofConf
li
ctsi
nEducat
ionalOr
gani
zat
ions
1.Goalconf
li
ct:
Whenonepersonoronegroupof
peopl
eseeksadif
fer
entout
comefr
om ot
hers.

2.Cogniti
veconf
li
ct:
Whenapersonagrouphol
dsi
deas
thatconfl
i
ctwit
hthosehel
dbyother
.

3.Affecti
veconf
li
ct:
Whenoneperson’sorgroup’semot
ions,
feeli
ngsoratt
it
udesar
eincompati
blewit
hot hers.

4.Behav
iour
alconfl
i
ct:
Whereoneper sonorgr
oupbehav
es
i
nawayt hatot
hersfi
ndunaccept
able.

CausesofConf
li
ctsi
nEducat
ional
Organi
zat
ions

1.Resources:Competi
ngforl
imit
edresour
cesinan
organi
zati
oncanleadtoconfl
i
ctsbetweenoramongst
aff
member s.

2.Inf
ormat
ion:Newinf
ormat
ionwhichchal
lengesoldideas,
contr
adi
ctor
yinf
ormati
on,
misi
nformati
onandi ncomplete
i
nformat
ion

3. Speci
fi
cPr
obl
emsorissues:Thesecanbebot hsi
mpl
e
andcompl
exi
nnat
ure:Attheirsi
mplest
,theyare
26
 mi sunder
standingsthatcanbecorr
ect
edveryeasi
ly.At
theirmorecompl ex,
theycouldst
em fr
om deepl
yheld
viewswhichat eam membermaybeunpr eparedto
concedegr ound.

4. Personalant
agonism:Personali
tyclashesand
antagoni
sm t owards anindivi
dual.e.
g.Thiscan
precedeanappointmenttheindiv
idual.

5. Defensi
veness:Confl
i
ctoftencausespeopl
etobe
defensi
ve;t
heytrytoprot
ectwhateveri
simport
antt
o
them.

6. PoorCommuni cation:Whenteam member ’

s
underst
andingofissuesisuncl
eartheyoft
enfeel
i
nsecure,andthatcanleadtoconfl
ict
.Freemovementof
i
nformati
onhelpst ocreat
eamor eopencultur
e.

7. Aclosedcul
tur
e–Peoplecanoft
enfeelthr
eatenedwhi
ch,
i
nturn,canl
eadtoani
ncreasedr
iskofconf
li
ct.

8.Str
ess:Stressandconfli
ctgohandi nhand.Thepr essur
e
atworkthatprovokestressandconf l
icti
ncludet he
workpl
ace(t heworki
ngenv ironmentandphy sical
condi
ti
ons) ;t
henatur
eoft hej ob-workload,involvement
i
ndecision-making;r
olesandr esponsibi
li
ti
es; boundari
es;
andrel
ationships–bothwor kingandper sonal ’
9. Polar
izat
ion–Team memberswi l
lseeksupportf
rom
other
sintheteam t
ohelpthem pressthei
rcaseor
opposechange,l
eadingt
oconfli
ct.

Negat
iveEf
fect
sofConf
li
cts

 Confl
i
ctsi
nv olv
est r
essandanxietyandoftenproduce
negat
ivei
nterpersonalat
ti
tudesandpercepti
ons;

 I
tmayalsocausephysi
cali
njur
yandthesoci
alcl
i
mat
e
wi
thi
ntheorgani
zat
iontodeter
ior
ate;

 I
tof
tendev
elopsi
ntohost
il
it
ywhi
chcausespeopl
eto
27
 wi
thdr
aw phy
sical
l
yandpsy
chol
ogi
cal
l
y.

 Leadtooutr
ighthost
il
eoraggr
essi
vebehav
ioursuchas
proper
tydamage.

Posi
ti
veEf
fect
sofConf
li
cts

 Bui
l
dssel
f-
conf
idence:

 Hel
pst
odev
elopasser
ti
vepr
inci
ples:

 I
mpr
ovest
atusandr
espect
:

 Encour
agesr
ecogni
ti
on:

 Hel
pst
ocl
eart
heai
r
Resol
vi
ngConf
li
ctsi
nEducat
ional
Organi
zat
ions

 Av
oidance(
lowconcer
nforsel
fandot
her
s)

 Compromise(
int
ermedi
atei
nconcer
nforsel
fandot
her
s):
Col
labor
ati
on(wi
n-wi
n)

 Conf
ront
ati
on:

 Forci
ng/Dominati
ng(hi
ghconcer
nforsel
fandl
ow
concernforother
s)

 Accommodat
ion
TRY:

 Di
scussfivebarr
ierstoschool-
communi
tyrel
ati
onsi
n
Ghana.Supportyourdiscussi
onswi
thr
elev
antexampl
es.

 Asal eader,howwoul
dyouef
fect
ivel
yboostthemorale
ofyoursubor di
nat
est
oensur
ejobsati
sfact
ionandhigh
producti
vit
y?

28
 CHAPTER6:

DECI
SION-
MAKI
NGI
NEDUCATI
ONALORGANI
ZATI
ONS

Whatisdecisi
on-
making?-Adeci
sionisachoicebet
weentwoor
morealter
nati
vesandari
sesi
naninfini
tenumberofsit
uat
ions,
fr
om theresol
uti
onofaprobl
em t
ot heimplement
ati
onofa
cour
seofact i
on.
Ki
ndsofDeci
sions

 Routi
ne–Mostdeci
sionsfalli
ntothi
scategorybecause
theyar
edeci
sionst
hatoftenrecurandtheprovencourse
ofacti
onhasbeendeter
mi nedoverti
me.

 Emer gency–thesearedeci
sionsthattendtobewit
hout
precedent.Youaregi
vennotimet orehearse–youmake
thedecisiononthespotaseventsunfold.

 Strat
egi
c–Byf art
hemosti mportant,t
hesedecisi
ons
i
nv ol
vestr
ategicchoicesandar ecompl exsi
ncethey
i
nv ol
vedecisi
onsrelati
ngtoai msandobj ecti
veswhich
thenneedtobeconv er
tedintoreali
sti
cplans.

 Operati
onal–operat
ionaldeci
sionsr
equi
requi
te
sensit
ivehandl
ingsi
ncetheytendtobeday-
to-
dayones,
e.g.Managingpeopl
e,ti
meandspace.

Si
mon(1960)i
dent
if
iedtwoty
pesofdeci
sions:Pr
ogr
ammedand
Unpr
ogr
ammeddecisions.

 ProgrammedDecisionsar
emadei nr
outi
ne,repet
iti
ve,
well
-str
uct
uredsi
tuati
onswithpredet
ermineddecisi
on
rul
esorprocedur
eforhandli
ngthem.

 UnprogrammedDeci onsar
si euniquedecisi
onsthat
requi
rea'cust
om made'sol
uti
on.Theyareoutofthe
ordi
naryandcannotbeeasi
lydel
egated.Therei
sno'cut
anddr i
edsoluti
on'

29
Decision-makingPr ocess:canber egardedasthecognit
ive
processr esul
tingintheselectionofacour seofact
ionamong
severalalter
nativescenari
os.Ev erydecisi
onmakingprocess
producesaf i
nalchoice.Thef oll
owingstepsmaybeconsi der
ed
i
nanat tempttomakeadeci sion.

St
age Whatdoesi
tinv
olv
e?

St
age1– Havi
ngrecognisedt
heneedfor
adeci
sion,speci
fyt
heaim or
Def
inethepur
poseoft
he obj
ecti
ve,i.
ewhatexact
lyhas
act
ion tobedecided?

St
age2– Collectandorganizedata,
checkf actsandopinions,
Col
l
ectt
hei
nfor
mat
ion. i
dent i
fypossiblecauses,and
establi
sht i
meconst r
aintsand
othercrit
eria,
i.
e.What
i
nfor mationdoIneedt ohelp
me?

St
age3– Listpossi
blecoursesofacti
on
andgenerateideas,i
.e.What
Li
stt
heopt
ionsav
ail
abl
e arethealt
ernati
vesthatIhave
tochoosefrom?

St
age4– Listtheprosandcons,
exami netheconsequences,
Choosebet
weent
he measur eagainstcri
teri
a,tri
al
opt
ions andt estagai
nsttheor i
ginal
objectiv
e,andselectthebest ,
i
.e.Whatal t
ernati
veisthe
best?

St
age5-Conv
ertt
he Takeact
iont
ocar
ryoutt
he
30
 choi
ce deci
sion,moni
tort
hedecisi
on
andreviewi
tsi
mpact.i.
e.What
i
ntoact
ion acti
onneedstobetaken?

Char
act
eri
sti
csofgooddeci
sions:
They

 Of
ferr
eal
i
sti
cexpect
ati
ons;

 Al
l
owf
orf
lexi
bil
i
tyandmodi
fi
cat
ion;

 Ar
econsi
stentwi
thy
ourgoal
sandv
alues;
an

 Rel
atedi
rect
lyt
othepr
obl
em.
Char
act
eri
sti
csofbaddeci
sions

 Baddeci
sionsar
eof
tenmadewheny
ou:

 Don’
tanal
yseal
lther
elev
anti
nfor
mat
ion;

 Feelr
ushedi
ntomaki
ngadeci
sion;

 Makeadeci
sionf
orsomebodyel
se;

 Don’
thav
econt
rolov
ert
hepr
ocess;
and

 Ar
enotcl
earaboutwhyy
ouneedt
omaket
hatdeci
sion.

CHAPTER7:

ORGANI
ZATI
ONALORSCHOOLCLI
MATE

Aschoolcl
imateis‘
asetofinternalchar
act
erist
icsthat
di
sti
ngui
shoneschoolfr
om anot herandinf
luencethebehav
iour
ofpeopl
einit
’.HoyandMiskel(1987)
Aschool
cli
mat
eist
hemel
i
eu,
atmospher
e,f
eel
,toneort
he

31
i
nter
nalquali
tyofanor
gani
zat
ion,especi
all
yasexperi
encedby
i
tsmember sandnoti
cedbyvi
sit
orstotheorgani
zat
ion.Tagui
ri
andLit
win(1968)
Organizat
ionalCult
urevsOrganizat
ionalCli
mat e:Schoolcl
i
mate
ref
ersmost lyt
otheschool'
seffectsonst udents,whieschool
l
cul
turerefersmoretothewayt eachersandot herstaf
fmembers
worktogetherintheorgani
zati
on.

Positi
veschool cli
matevsNegativeSchoolCli
mate:
Aposi t
ive
schoolclimateexistswhenall
studentsfeel
comfort
able,wanted,
val
ued, accept
ed, andsecur
edinanenv i
ronmentwheretheycan
i
nteractwithcaringpeoplet
heytrust
.

32
Conv
ersel
y,negat
ivef
eeli
ngssuchasconcer
n,f
ear,
frust
rati
on,
andl
oneli
nesswouldnegati
vel
yaff
ectl
earni
ngandbehaviour
.

Det
ermi
nant
sofSchool
Cli
mat
e

 Theschoolsi
zeandst
ruct
ure;

 Leader
shi
pst
yleempl
oyedbet
hemanager

 Decisi
on-maki
ngpracti
ces–thedegr
eet owhichstudent
s,
teacher
s,andstaf
fcontr
ibut
etodeci
sion-makingatthe
school;

 Concer
nforempl
oyees;

 Equi
tabl
eandf
airt
reat
mentofst
udent
sbyt
eacher
sand
st
aff
;

 Qual
it
yofinter
personalr
elat
ionshi
psbet
weenandamong
st
udents,
teacher
s,andstaff
;

 Communi
cat
ionst
rat
egi
es;

 Saf
etyandcomf
ort
;

 Resour
ceav
ail
abi
l
ity
;and

 Moni
tor
ingst
udentpr
ogr
essandpr
ompt
lyr
epor
ti
ng
r
esul
tst
ostudent
sandparent
s.
Ki
ndsofSchool
Cli
mat
e(PACCOF)

 OpenClimate:
Thisdepictsasit
uati
onwhichhasrelati
vel
y
moreopenness.Theleaderandteacher
saregenuinein
t
heirbehavi
ourandnothingishi
ddenfrom t
hestaf
f .

 AutonomousCl imate:Theheadmast ergivesal

most
completef r
eedom t oteacherstopr ovi
dethei
rown
str
ucture-
for-
int
eracti
onsot hattheycanfi
ndway swi
thi
n
thegroupofsatisfyi
ngthei
rsocialneeds.

 Cont
rol
l
edCl
i
mat
e:I
smar
kedbyemphasi
son

33
 achievementattheexpenseofsat
isf
acti
onofsoci
al
needs.Thereareafewgenui
ne,
warmrelat
ionsamong
teachersbutsoci
al.

 Fami li
arCli
mat e:Themainfeatureofthiscl
imateisthe
obviouslyfriendlymannerofbot htheleaderandthe
teachers.Soci alneedssati
sfacti
onisextremelyhi
ghwhi l
e
l
ittl
eisdonef orthegroupactivi
ti
estobedi rect
edtowar ds
goal achievement .Astheleaderdoesnotwantt odisrupt
the'big,happyf amily'
he/sheisafrai
dt omakechanges.

 Pater
nalCli
mat e:Thisexist
sinschoolswher etheheadi s,
ontheaverage,olderthanthest af
fmember s.He/sheis
every
whereatonce-checki ng, monit
ori
ngandt ell
ing
peoplehowthingsshoul dbedonebutst i
llnothi
ngseems
togetdone.Studentstendtol ooktotheleaderforvi
rtuall
y
every
thi
nganddi scipl
inesuffers.

 ClosedCli
mate:Thisdepictsasituationinwhi chthegr oup
member sgetl
it
tlesati
sfactionwithrespecttoei thertask-
achiev
ementorsocialneeds.Thel eaderisineffecti
vein
dir
ecti
ngtheacti
vit
iesoft eacher
s; atthesamet i
me
he/sheisnoti
ncli
nedtol ookoutf ortheirpersonalwel f
are.

I
mpor
tanceofSchool
orOr
gani
zat
ional
Cli
mat
e

 Therecouldbehi ghergrades,engagement,at
tendancear
e
oft
enexperiencedi ntheschool;expect
ati
onsand
aspi
rati
ons,asenseofschol ast
iccompetence,andfewer
schoolsuspensions.

 Afewerbehavi
ouralandemot
ionalpr
obl
emscoul
dbe
exper
iencedi
ntheschool;

 St
udent
swi
l
lhav
ehi
ghersel
f-
est
eem andsel
f-
concept
;

 Ther
ecouldbelessanxi
ety
,depr
essi
onandl
onel
i
ness
amongthestudent
s;

 Ther
ecoul
dbel
esssubst
anceabuseamongst
udent
s;and

 St
aff
’sj
obsat
isf
act
ioni
ncr
eases.
34
 Howt
oImpr
oveaSchool
Cli
mat
e

 Acli
mateofaschoolcanbeimprovedi
fparent
aland
communit
yinv
olvementinthemanagementandaffai
rsof
thei
nst
it
uti
onisi
ncreased.

 Theuseofv
iol
ence-
prev
ent
ionandconf
li
ct-
resol
uti
on-
cur
ri
cul
a

 Pr
event
ionofact
sofbul
l
ying.

 I
mplement
ationofcharactereducat
ionorthepromoti
onof
f
undamental
mor alv
aluesi nchi
ldr
enisanotherst
rat
egy
t
hatcanbeemployedtoi mproveaclimat
eofaschool

 Teacher
sandheadteacherst
reat
ingst
udent
sfai
rl
y,
equal
lyandwi
threspect;

 Pr
ovi
sionofasaf
eenv
ironmentf
orst
affandst
udent
s

 Per
sonal
iz
ati
on thr
oughhonour
ingmost
-i
mpr
oved
st
udent
s,andblockschedul
i
ng

CHAPTER8:

SCHOOL-
COMMUNI
TYRELATI
ONSHI
P

Aschoolisaninsti
tut
iondesi
gnedforthet
eachi
ngofst
udent
s(or
"
pupil
s")underthedir
ecti
onofteacher
s.

Acommuni tycanref
ertoausuall
ysmall,soci
aluni
tofanysi
ze
thatshar
escommonv al
ues.Acommuni t
ycanbeagr oupof
peopleli
vi
nginaspecifi
cgeogr
aphical
locati
onandunifi
edbya
commoni nter
est
.

Relat
ionshi
prefer
stowhatt
heschool
andt hev ar
iousagenci
esin
thecommuni t
yhavetodowit
heachother
,ort hewayinwhichthe
schoolandthecommunit
ystandst
oeachot her

Ty
pesofSchool
Communi
tyRel
ati
ons

35
 Theschoolasacl osedsyst
em:Theschoolandthe
communityexistasseparat
eenti
ti
es.Eachofthem
perfor
msdiff
erentfunct
ionsandhardl
yint
erf
eresineach
other’
saf
fai
rs.

 Theint
erpr
etati
onsyst
em:Theschoolheadandotherstaf
f
memberscommuni cat
ewi t
hthecommunityonthe
school
’
sactivi
ti
es,
programmes,andneedaspi
rati
ons.

 Thecooperati
vesystem:Theschoolandthecommuni ty
workcoll
aborati
vel
y.Theysharei
nfor
mat i
on,
discussthe
school
’
sact i
vit
ies,
andtheschool
fulf
il
stheneedsofthe
community.

 Also,
theschoolpart
ici
patesi
ntheacti
vi
ti
esofthe
communi t
y,andthecommuni t
y,ont
heotherhand,
support
stheschoolindiv
erseways.

Whyisiti
mpor
tantf
ort
heschool
andt
hecommuni
tyt
orel
ate
cont
inual
l
y?

 Students’
achievement
:Whenpar
ent
sr el
atecl
osel
ytothe
school,st
udentsand,f
ort
hatmat
ter
,theorgani
zat
ional
perfor
mancecanbeenhanced.

 Polit
icalsupport:Schoolsthatworkhand-i
n-handwiththei
r
communi ti
esgainpolit
icalsupportfr
om such
communi ti
es.Thisisbecauset hecommuni t
ies
under st
andandsy mpathisetheschoolspoli
cies,
objectiv
es,programmes, activi
ti
es–t hecommuni ti
es
ensuret hatthesearefulf
ill
ed.

 Av oi
danceofconfli
cts:Effecti
vecoll
aborat
ionbetweenthe
school andthecommuni tyenablesgooddecisionstobe
taken.Absenceofdialogue, cl
osedrel
ati
onshipand
misinterpr
etat
ionofi
ssuesl eadt oconf
li
ct.

 Positi
vechi
lddevel
opment:Al
thoughtheschoolhasa
fundamentalr
esponsi
bil
i
tyofdevel
opingoreducati
ngt he
chil
d,par
entshaveimport
antr
olestoplayi
n
supplementi
ngathomewhatt heschoolwi
llbeprovi
ding
36
 thechi
l
d.Col
l
aborat
ionbet
weentheschool
andt
he
communit
yenabl
esthechi
ld’
sneedstobemetf
ull
y.

 Dissemi nat
ionofi
nformati
on:Thecommuni t
ymustbe
keptinformedofthechangesthatar et
aki
ngplaceinthe
school.Struct
ureofeducat
ion,content
sofcoursestaught
atvariousschool/
inst
it
uti
onall
ev el
s,et
c.

 Fulfi
lmentorperpet
uationofsoci
etalculture:Asoci
ety
establi
shesaschoolsot hati
tcoul
df ulf
ilthesoci
ety’
s
goals,val
ues,norms,beli
efsandaspirat
ions.Aschoolthat
i
gnor esit
scommuni tyisli
kel
ytogoast ray,andoperat
ein
vacuum.

Bar
ri
erst
oSchool
-communi
tyRel
ati
on

 Lackofr
ecogni
ti
onoft
hecommuni
ty:

 Teacherpr
ofessi
onal
i
sm:

 Communi
tyi
nter
fer
ence:

 I
ncompat
ibi
l
ityoft
heschoolandt
hehome:

 Lackoft
ime:

 Uncer
tai
ntyabouti
nfor
mat
ion:

 Lackoff
ocus:
MeansofReachi
ngt
heCommuni
ty

 Gi
vi
nginf
ormati
onandl
ett
erstost
udent
sandpupi
l
sfor
t
hem t
ogivet
othei
rpar
ents;

 Pr
ovi
sionofschool
magazi
nes;

 School
sandcol
l
egesr
epor
ts;

 I
nvi
ti
ngthecommunitymember
stoat
tendspeci
alev
ent
s
or
gani
sedbytheschool
;and

 Thr
oughpar
ent
s’gr
oupssuchast
hePTA.
,theSMC,
etc.
37
 CHAPTERNI
NE

COMMUNI
CATI
ONI
NEDUCATI
ONALORGANI
ZATI
ONS

Communi cati
onrefer
stothemeansbywhichweexchange
i
nformati
on.Communi cat
ioncanei
therbet
hroughwr
iti
ng,
pi
ctures,
signs,orv
erbalmeans.
Channelsofcommuni cat
ion: Channel sofcommuni cati
onrefert
o
thevari
ousway sbywhichi nfor
mat ionisdissemi nated.Therear
e
manypeopl ewecommuni catewithi nandout si
det heschool.The
schoolheadcommuni cateswi t
hhi s/herteachers,thepupil
s,
parent
sandeducationalaut hor
it
ies.Teacher sandpupi lsalso
communi cate.

Thef ol
lowingchannelsofcommuni cat
ionar eusedint
heschool:
Noticeboards,let
ters,morningassemblies,speechandpri
ze
givi
ngday ,di
ninghallcl
, assroom,school j
ournal
,communicati
ve
records,er
t minalreports,
etc.Communi catoncanbev
i ert
ical
,
l
ateralordiagonal.

 Verti
calcommuni
cati
on:Theupwardchannelst
hrough
whichinfor
mat
ionfl
ows–f r
om posi
ti
ontot hebase.(
The
pr
incipal
)

 Lateralcommunicat
ion:occursbetweenpeopl
ewho
operateatthesameorsi mil
arlev
els.(
Themostfr
equent
)

 Diagonalcommunicati
on:Communi cat
iont
hatcut sacross
aformalchainofcommand.Ther earenoobviouslineof
authori
tythr
oughwhichami ddle-managermayr equirea
servi
cetobeperformed.I
treli
esheav il
yonreservoirsof
cooperati
onandgood-wil
lnurturedbywayoff ri
endly
greeti
ngsorbri
efchatwithcoll
eagues.
Pr
ocessofcommuni
cat
ion:

 Di
scer
ningt
hemessagebyt
hesender
.

 Encodi
ngt
hemessagei
nappr
opr
iat
elanguage.
38
  Sel
ect
ingt
hecommuni
cat
ionmedi
um.

 Under
standi
ngt
hemessage.

 I
nter
prett
hemessagecompr
ehensi
vel
y.

 Theneedf
orf
eedback.
Wri
tt
encommunicat
ioni
nor
gani
zat
i l
on:et
ter
s,memor
anda,
r
eport
s,summar
ies,
GROUPDI
SCUSSI
ON

TRY:Howimportanti
scommunicat
iont
otheday
-to-
day
runni
ngofschoolasanor
gani
zati
on?

SOLVEDPASTQUESTI
ONS(
2013/
2014)

1.Whichofthefol
lowi
ngcannotbeconsi
der
edasa
det
erminantofaschoolcl
i
mate?(st
udent
s’safet
yand
comfor
t,resour
cesavai
l
able,
concer
nforemployees,
none
oft
heabov e)

2. (
Fami l
i
ar,contr
oll
ed,
pater
nal,
autonomous)cl
imateis
character
izedbyobvi
ousfri pofbot
endshi htheleaderand
his/
herstaff.

3.Aprocessofsoci
alinfl
uenceinwhichonepersoncan
enl
istt
heaidsupportofother
sintheaccomplishmentofa
commont aski
sreferr
edtoas( admini
str
ati
on,educat
ional
l
eadershi
p,l
eader
ship,management )

4.WhenApl ans,accountsforandcontr
olsthefinancesofan
organi
zati
on,he/sheis(f
orecast
ing,
project
ing,budget
ing,
accounti
ng)

5. Lowmor al
eandcooperati
onamongwor ker
si sa
weaknessoft
he(lai
ssez-
faireleader
shi
pstyle,democrat
ic
l
eadershi
psty
le,
autocrat
icleadershi
pstyl
e,anef f
ect
ive
l
eadershi
psty
le)

39
6.Whichoft
hef
oll
owi snotanassumpt
ngi ionoft
het
heor
y
X?
a.Nat
ural
l
y,humanbei
ngsdi
sli
kewor
k

b.i
nher
ent
ly,
humanbei
ngsr
esi
stchange

c. nat
ural
l
yandav
eragehumanbei
ngi
sindol
ent

d.humanbei
ngsseekandacceptr
esponsi
bil
i
ty

7.Allt
hefollowi
ngarecharacteri
stcsofgooddeci
i sions,
except(
theyofferreal
i
sti
cexpectati
ons,t
heyrel
atedir
ect
ly
totheproblem,al
lowforfl
exibi
li
tyandmodif
icat
ions,t
hey
arepopularamongwor ker
s)

8.Delegati
ngatasktosubordi
nat
ehelpstoacti
vat
eallt
he
fol
lowingexcept(
improveempl
oyeemor al
e,r
educestr
ess,
bri
ngingcooperat
ionandteamwork,
fost
eri
ng
accountabi
li
ty)

9.Whenoneper sonoronegroupofpeopl eseeksadiff

erent
outcomefrom ot
hers,
thereis(goalconfl
i
ct,af
fect
ive
confl
ict
,cogni
ti
veconfl
ict
,int
ra-conf
li
ct)

10.Self
-awarenessandconcernwithpersonalgr
owthand
developmentare(soci
alneeds,
self
-actual
i
sati
on,est
eem
needs,safet
yneeds)

11.Oneoftheseisnotanaspectofstaf
fi
ng.(
adv
ert
isi
ng,
i
nter
viewi
ng,placement
,budget
ing)

12.Whichofthefoll
owi
ngtheori
estakesintoconsi
derat
ion
j
obex t
ensionsandper
formanceappraisal
?(Theor
yX,
Theor
yY, Theor
yZ,TheoryXandY)

13.Aself-
actuali
sedper
son’
si ncl
udeal
loft
hef
oll
owi
ng
except(wisdom,j
ust
ice,
truth,
money)

14.Anoutsider’
sunderstandi
ngoft herol
eofthehead-
teacher
i
sdescribedas( r
oleprescri
pti
on,rol
edescri
pti
on,r
ole
expect
ation,r
olepercepti
on)

40
15.Oneoft hef
oll
owingisnotascr
ibedtobethe‘
Fat
herof
Scient
if
icManagement’
?(HenriFayol
,Lut
herGul
i
ck,
Freder
ickTayl
or,
Bernard)

16.Oneoft hefol
lowingi
snotawayofi nvol
vi
ngstudentsin
therunningofschool
?( TheCommitt
eeSystem,
Suggestionbox,Theprefect
oral
syst
em,Parent
-Teacher
Associati
on)

17.Whichofthefol
lowi
ngpersonal
it
iesdefi
nedtheworkof
chi
efexecut
iveasperf
ormingsevenfunct
ionswitht
he
acr
onym POSDCORD?( El
tonMay o,MaryParker
,Lut
her
Gul
ick,
DouglasMcGregor)

18.Decentrali
zati
onineducat iondeliv
eryinGhanabenef i
cial
because( i
tpromot esgoodschool -communi tyr
elat
ionshi
p,
i
tmakest eacherslesseffecti
vebecauseofl ocal
communi t
yleadershipinschool aff
air
s,itst
if
lesthe
creati
vi
tyandi mitati
venessoft heteachers,
non-
perfor
mi ngteachersaresanct i
onedbyl ocalcommuni t
y
l
eadership)

19.Aschool canreachit
scommuni t
ythroughallt
hefol
lowing
except(organi
zati
onofspeci
alevent
,schoolmagazines,
parent
-t
eacherassociat
ionmeeti
ngs,alloft
heabove)

20.Todelegat
emeans.
.(t
ogiv
eal l
responsibil
it
youtto
subordi
nat
es,
toempowerall
subordinatestoperfor
ma
task,
tosometi
mesgiv
epartofresponsibil
i
tiesto
subordi
nat
es,
togi
veposi
ti
onst osubordinates)

2012/
2013

1.I
tisimportanttohaveleadershi
pineveryorganizat
ion
because(everyor
ganizati
onhast ohaveleaders,
organi
zat
ionswhichhav eleader
s,pathsoforganisati
ons
arepavedbyleaders,onl
yleaderscanmakeor ganizati
on)

41
2.Evenwhenaconnect edacti
onofanor gani
zati
onisin
pl
ace,ther
eissti
llt
heneedf orleadershi
pbecause(the
peoplecangetdist
ri
buted,t
hereistheneedf or
coordi
nati
onofindiv
idualef
forts,l
eadersensuredi
scipl
i
ne,
organi
zati
onsneedrespectthroughtheirl
eaders)

3.Event hougheducat
ional
leadershipmaygiv
estatus,i
tis
fundament al
l
yandet y
mologicall
yabout(
support
,visi
on,
mission,serv
ice)

4.Eff
ect
ivel
eader
shi
poughttobri
dgethegapbetweenwhat
i
sand(whatwas,whatoughtt
obe,whatisnot
,whatcan
be)

5.Amaj orcharacteri
sti
cofeducat i
onaladmini
str
atorsin
Ghanaist hatthey(arevotedintopower,
aregraduatesof
uni
versit
ies,supportthegovernmentinpower,havenot
hadformal tr
aininginleader
ship)

6.Educati
onalleadershipinGhanaof tenfacescasesoftr
ial
anderrorbecause( governmentinterf
erencei
st oomuch,
ther
eislackoff i
nancialsupport,
mostschool headshave
notbeentrai
nedi nthef i
eld,
leadersareborn,notmade)

7.Schoolsareimportantfornati
onbuil
dingbecause(when
moneyi si
nvestedtherebetterr
esult
sarederiv
ed,those
tr
ainedcontr
ibutetonationbuil
ding,
schoolsheadsare
nati
onali
sti
c,poli
ti
ciansexpectschoolstobepatri
oti
c)

8.Themainf
uncti
onsofl
eader
sinanyor
gani
zat
ionar
e(f
ive,
si
x,sev
en,
ten)

9.Thefunct
ionsoft
heor
gani
zat
ionall
eaderasweknow
them wer
ecreat
edby(
Tayl
or,
Urwick,Fay
ol,
Gul
ick)

10.Themai nconcernforthefunct
ional
knownas“ st
aff
ing”
concernswhichdimensionoftheorgani
zat
ion?(l
eaders,
faci
l
iti
es,f
inance,worker
s)

11.Thebestl
eader
shi
pstyl
eis(
aut
ocr
ati
c,democr
ati
c,l
aissez
-
fai
re,
noneoftheabov
e)

42
12.Whi
chofthefuncti
onsoftheeducati
onaladmini
strat
oris
t
hestar
ti
ngpoint?(st
aff
ing,
recr
uit
ing,r
eport
ing,
planning)

13.Oneoftheseisnotanaspectofstaf
fi
ng:
(adv
ert
isi
ng,
i
nter
viewi
ng,budgeti
ng,
trai
ning)

14.Aschoolheadwhodoesnotinvolvehis/
herstaffi
n
decisi
on-
makingandshowsnoconcer nabouttheirwel
far
e
i
s( aut
ocr
ati
c,democr
ati
c,l
aissez
-fai
re,pat
ernali
sti
c)

15.Whi chofthefunct
ionsoft
heor
gani
zat
ionalheadrequir
es
effecti
vecommuni cat
iont
hemost
?(pl
anning,budget
ing,
reporti
ng,st
affi
ng)

16.(Poorcommuni cati
on, Semanticprobl
em,Diff
eri
ng
percept
ion,Misi
nterpretati
on)happenswhenweuse
wordsorphrasest hatar eabovetheunder
standi
ngof
thoseatthereceiv
ingend.

17.Whenahead- teachersetsprocedur
esandregulat
ions
whichpr ovi
degui del
inesteacher
scanfol
low,he/sheis
l
ikel
yt ocreate(acont r
oll
ed,anopen,anaut
onomous, a
f
ami l
iar)cl
imat eintheschool.

18.(Fami
li
ar,Aut
onomous, Pater
nal,Cl
osed)cl
i
mat edepict
sa
sit
uat
ioninwhichthegroupmember sgetli
tt
lesati
sfact
ion
withr
espectt
ot hei
rtaskachiev
ementorsocialneeds.

19.Whichofthef
ollowi
ngpersonali
ti
esi
scredi
tedfor
‘
Div
isionofWork’asapr
incipl
eofadmini
str
ative
management?(MaryFol
et,Elt
onMayo,HenriFayol
,Lut
her
Gul
ick)

20.Whichoft hefol
lowingisnotanef
fectofaheal
thyschool
cl
imate?(lesssubstanceabuseamongstudent
s,less
anxiet
yamongst af
f,l
owself-
est
eem amongstaffand
students,
lesssecurit
y)

21.Allt
hefoll
owingarehygienefactorsofmoti
vat
ionexcept
(worki
ngconditi
ons,j
obsecurity
, matchi
ngt
askswith
employee’
sinter
est,
salaryandbenef i
t)

43
22.Judi
cioususeofmeanst oaccompli
shanendi n
educationalorgani
zat
ionsi
sknownas( management,
l
eadership,educati
onalmanagement,educat
ional
administrat
ion)

23.Ahead-teacherwhoi sinf
luencedby‘Theor
yX’
managementphi l
osophyexhibi
tsallt
hefol
lowing
behavi
oursexcept( i
nvolv
ingstaffi
ndecisi
on-making,
cl
osesuper vi
sion,aut
ocrati
cstyl
eofleadershi
p,
di
srespecti
ngst aff
)

24.Bodypost
ureandfacial
expressi
onsar eexamplesof
(wr
it
tencommunicati
on,non-ver
bal communicati
on,
ver
bal
communicat
ion,
vert
icalcommuni cati
on)

25.Allthef ol
lowingarepurposesofdownwar d
communi cati
onexcept( f
ordiscussi
ngofpar t
icularj
ob-
rel
atedpr oblems,forspecif
ictaskdi
rect
ivesorj ob
i
nstruct i
on,fori
nformati
onaboutt herat
ionaleofaj ob,
for
i
nfor mat i
onaboutorganizati
onalpol
ici
es,proceduresand
practices)

26.(Diagonal
,Horizont
al,
Infor
mal,
Upward)communi
cat
ion
takesplaceamongwor ker
softhesamelev
eli
nan
organizat
ion.

27.Whichoft hefol
l
owingisnotabarr
iert
oeffecti
ve
communi cati
onineducati
onal
inst
it
uti
ons?(di
ffering
percept
ions,l
ackofbasiccommunicat
ionskil
l
s, semant
ic,
noneoft heabove)

28.Aschool cl
imatecoul
dbei mpr ovedthroughall
the
fol
lowingstr
ategi
esexcept(increasedparentand
communi tyi
nvolv
ement,preventionofactsofbull
ying,
provi
sionofasafeenvir
onmentf orst
affandstudents,
employ i
ngautocr
ati
cleadershipstyl
e)

29.Todelegat
emeans(t
ogiveal
lresponsibil
it
iesoutto
subor
dinat
es,
tosometi
mesgivepartofr esponsi
bil
i
tiest
o
subor
dinat
es,
toempowerall
subordinatestoperfor
m)

30.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngper
sonal
i
tiesi
sassoci
atedwi
th
44
 Theor
yZ?(Elt
onMay
o,Ly
ndal
lUr
wick,
Freder
ickTay
lor
,
Wil
li
am G.Ouchi
)

31.Oneoft hef ol
l
owingassumpt i
onsisrel
atedt
ot he‘Theory
X’managementphi losophy.(
peoplebynatur
edesi r
et o
achiev
e, peoplebynatur
elackint
egri
ty,
peoplebynat ure
acceptresponsibi
li
ty,
peoplebynaturewanttheir
organi
zat i
onstosucceed)

32.Allt
hefol
lowingstat
ementsaretr
ueabout‘Theor
yZ’
except(
non-speci
ali
sedcar
eerpath,r
apideval
uat
ionand
promoti
on,j
obsecurity
,col
l
ecti
veresponsi
bil
it
y)

33.Oneoft hefollowi snott

ngi r
ueaboutY.(peopl
ework
towardsprogressandwelcomechange,peopleare
general
lybrightandwouldwanttowork,coer
cioni
s
necessaryonlyinsomecases,theaver
agepersonseeks
responsibi
l
ityifcondi
ti
onsaref
avour
able)

34.Oneoft hef ol
lowingisanimplicati
onofTheor yXf or
l
eadershippr act
iceinschools.(consider
ingallworker
sas
responsibleandmat ure,
practi
ceofdecent ral
izat
ionin
administrati
on,ri
gidpatt
ernofcont rolofst
affand
students,concernforemployeewel fare)

35.Leader
shi
pis………………………………

a.theabi
lit
ytoformulate,pl
an,
createef
fici
ent
organi
zati
onalstr
uctureandoverseeday-
to-
day
operat
ions

b.theabi
li
tyt
oinf
luenceagr
oupt
owar
dachi
evement
ofspeci
fi
cgoal
s

c. at
rai
tshar
edbyal
lmanager
s

d.ani
nher
it
edt
rai
t

36.I
ftrai
ttheor
iesofleader
shiparecorr
ect,
thenl
eader
sar
e
(
trai
ned,bor
n,self
-confi
dent,
visi
onari
es)

37.The(
pat
h-goal
theor
y,Fi
edl
er’
scont
ingentmodel
,l
eader
-

45
 memberexchangetheory,manageri
algri
d)proposesthat
eff
ecti
vegr
oupperformancedependsont hepropermat ch
betweent
heleader
’sstyl
eandt hedegreetowhichthe
si
tuati
ongi
vescontrol
totheleader,

38.Thetypeofleaderwhoi nspir
esfol
lowerstotranscend
thei
rownself-
interestsfort
hegreatergoodofthe
organi
zati
onisref er
redtoas(tr
ansiti
onal
,chari
smat i
c,
i
ntegri
ty-
based,t
r ansf0r
matonal)l
eader.

39.Whichoft hefol
lowingisnotgenerall
ytrueabout
chari
smaticleadershi
p?(att
enti
ont odetai
l,behavi
ourt
hat
i
soutoft heordinary,
abil
it
ytoarti
culatevisi
on,sel
f-
confi
dence)

40.Legit
imat epoweri sbasedont hesubordinate’
spercepti
on
thatthel eaderhast herightt
oexer ci
seinfl
uencebecause
ofthel eader’
s( experti
seofknowl edge,
personal
charact eri
sti
csandper sonalit
y,r
oleorpositi
onwithinthe
organizat i
on,abil
it
yt opunishorreward)

2011/
2012

1.Whichofthefoll
owingistechni
call
ychargedwi t
hthe
dail
ydet
ail
edresponsibi
li
tiesofanorganizat
ion?
(l
eader
,administ
rat
or,manager,superi
or)

2. “
Thegreatmantheory
”isal
socal
led(
behav
iour
al
t
heor
y,theor
yZ,
t r
aitt
heor
y,t
heor
yX)

3.Whattypeoft heoryunderli
estheleadershipstyle
whichbeli
evest hatdecisi
onsshouldbecol lect
ive;
t
hereshouldbedel egationofpower ,
andr espectforal
l
.
(
ideography,democr at
ic,aut
ocrat
ic,l
aissez-fai
re)

4.Whichoftypeofpoweroperatesont heanxi
eti
esand
f
earsofindiv
idual
sinanorganizat
ion?(coer
civ
epower,
l
egalpower,rewar
dpower,expertpower)

5.Theacronym POSDCORBwascoinedoutoft
hework
ofoneofthefoll
owi
ng(Henr
iFay
ol,MaxWeb,Lut
her
Guli
ck,
Abraham Maslow)
46
6.Whichtheoryisoft
enr eferr
edtoas“man–t he-
machine”?(cl
assi
calor gani
zati
onapproach, human
rel
ati
onsapproach,behav i
ouralappr
oach,theoryof
organi
zati
onalapproach)

7.Thet erm TQM i

neducati
onadmi ni
str
ati
onstandsf
or
(teacherquotameeti
ngs,t
eacherquali
tymanagement
,
totalqual
itymanagement,t
otal
qualit
ymaint
enance)

8.Aself
-act
ual
isedper
son’sneedsincl
udealloft
he
f
oll
owingexcept(
knowledge,t
rut
h, j
ust
ice,
money)

9.Oneoft hefoll
owingisnottrueofthetheoryY.(
the
averagepersonseeksresponsibi
li
tyifcondi
ti
onsare
favourabl
e,peopleworktowardsprogressand
welcomechange, peoplearegeneral
lybri
ghtandwould
wantt owork,coerci
onisnecessaryonlyinsome
cases)

10.Theinnerstr
engt
hthatenablesapersontocarryout
hi
s/herwishesorbel
iefsi
nspiteofthepossibl
e
di
sapprovalofot
hersiscal
led(aut
hori
ty,
force,power
,
l
eadershi
p)

11.Whichl eadershipst
yleemphasizesinst
ituti
onal needs
andinsiststhatsubordinat
esconformtor oles
expectedoft hem evenattheexpenseofi ndiv
idual
convenience?( democrati
c,i
deography,
nomot heti
c,
autocr
at i
c)

12.Asanadmi ni
str
ati
veheadofaschool,
oneoft he
fol
lowingisnotyourdut
y.(
pupi
lpersonnel
,staff
personnel,
school-
communit
yrel
ati
onships,cult
ureand
familyneeds)

13.Asetofinter
nal char
acteri
sti
csthatmakesoneschool
di
ffer
entfr
om anot herandinfl
uencesthebehaviourof
peopl
einitisknownas( or
ganizat
ionalcul
tur
e,school
cl
imate,
themi l
ieu,schoolcul
ture)

14.Allt
hefoll
owingstat
ement saretr
ueaboutdel
egat
ion
except(
ital
lowstheleadertoconcent
rat
eonthehigh-
47
 l
ev elt
asks,i
tencouragescooperati
onandt eamwor k,
it
i
sawayoft rai
ninganddevelopi
ngst af
fforhigher
responsi
bil
i
ties,
itdoesnotallowtheleadertoretai
n
accountabi
li
ty)

15.I
ncommuni cat
ion,(encoding,
decodi
ng, noise,a
dynamicsystem)r efer
stoany t
hingt
hatdi srupt
sor
di
stor
tsfi
lt
er sorinterf
ereswiththei
ntendedmessage.

16.Whi chofthefollowingst at
ement sisuntrueaboutan
effecti
veleader?(usesappr opriat
etechniquest o
mot iv
atestaffinordertogett hebestoutoft hem,
ensuresf r
ee-f
lowofi nformat i
onwi t
hinthe
organizati
on,his/herl
eader shi
pst yl
eisaf unctionof
thesituati
oninwhi chhe/ shefindshim/hersel f
,pays
mor eattenti
ont ostaffthanorganizati
onal goals)

17.Whenoneper sonorgroup’semotions,feel
ingsor
att
it
udesareincompatibl
ewithothers,whattypeof
confl
icti
sbeingexperi
enced?(behaviourconfl
ict
,goal
confl
ict,
cognit
iveconf
li
ct,
affect
iveconfli
ct)

18.Whenal eadercent
ral
isespowerandaut hori
tyin
managementanddoesnoti nvol
v ei
ndi
vidualworker
s
i
ndeci si
on-makingprocess,he/sheissaidtobe
employ i
ng( democrat
icsty
le,autocr
ati
c,aff
il
iat
ive,
l
aissez-f
aire)sty
le.

19.Whichofthefol
lowi
ngpersonal
it
iesi
sassoci
atedwit
h
Theor
yZ?( El
tonMayo,
Frederi
ckTayl
or,Ly
ndallUr
wick,
Wil
li
am G.Ouchi)

20.Allt
hef oll
owingstatementsaretrueaboutTheoryZ
except(jobsecuri
ty,rapi
devaluat
ionandpromotion,
non-special
izedcareerpath,
coll
ecti
veresponsi
bil
it
y)

SECTI
ON‘
B’QUESTI
ONS

(
2013/
2014-Lasty
ear
)
1. Cr
it
ical
lyfi
vebarr
ier
stoeffect
ivedel
egat
ioni
nbasi
c
i
nst
itut
ionsinGhana.
(Ref
ertopages21-22)
48
2. Howdiff
erenti
smanagementfr
om management?Outl
i
ne
themanagementf
unct
ionsofanadmi
nist
rat
or..
(Ref
erto
page3-
4)
3. Howi mport
anti
scommuni cat
iont
otheday-t
o-dayr
unni
ng
ofschoolasanorgani
zat
ion?.
(Ref
ertopage33)
4. “Acli
mat ethatpr
evail
sineducati
onalinstit
uti
onsinGhana
canbeat tr
ibut
edsolel
ytotheleadershi
poft heschool
head”.Howf ardoyouagreewiththisstatement?Discuss
thi
sstatementusinganyfiv
erelevantpoints.(
Referto
page29-30)
(
2012/
2013–Twoy
ear
sago)
1. Invol
vi
ngst udentleadersinthemanagementof
educati
onalinsti
tutionshasoftenbeenr esi
stedbysome
heads.From yourr eadi
ngsandcl assdiscussions,what
wouldbey ourstandont her
oleofst udentl
eader shipi
n
thedevel
opmentandl i
feofanAf ri
canUniversit
y?( Ref
ert
o
pages )
2. St
ateanddiscussanyfi
veimport
anceofcommuni
cat
ion
i
neducati
onalorgani
zat
ions.(
Ref
ertopage33)
3. I
ny ourcapaci
tyastheheadofaneducat i
onali
nst
it
uti
on,
outl
ineanddiscussfi
vewaysofpr omoti
ngahealt
hy
rel
ationshi
pbetweentheschoolandthecommunity.(
Ref
er
topages30)
(
2011/
2012–Thr
eey
ear
sago)
1. Wi t
hrelev
antexampl
esfrom aneducat
ionalcontext,
discussfi
veadmini
str
ati
veduti
esofaheadt eacher.(Ref
er
topage3)
2. Discussfi
vebarr
ierstoschool-
communi
tyrel
ati
onsi
n
Ghana.Supportyourdiscussi
onswi
thr
elev
antexampl
es.
(Refert
opage33)
3. Asal eader
,howwoul
dy oueff
ect
ivelyboostthemoral
eof
yoursubordi
nat
estoensurej
obsatisfact
ionandhi
gh
49
 pr
oduct
ivi
ty?(
Ref
ert
opage21)
(
2010/
2011–Foury
ear
sago)
1. Agoodnumberofschol ar
sofEducati
onalAdmi ni
strat
ion
andManagementhav esuggest
edthatforadministr
atorto
beeff
ecti
ve,t
heyneedt ocommunicat
eef f
ecti
vely.Asa
basi
cschoolheadteacher,
stat
eandexplainfi
veway sy ou
caneff
ecti
vel
ycommuni catewit
hyourstaff
.(Referto
page)
2. AsaMuni ci
palDirectorofEducat
ioninchar
geofHuman
Resour
ce,explai
nt herelev
anceofAbraham Masl
ow’s
Pyrami
dtoy ourschoolheadsintheirt
asksaseducat
ional
admini
str
ators.(
Ref ertopage12)
3. ***
Inwhatwayscandecent
ral
i
zati
onenhanceef
fect
ive
admini
str
ati
onofGhanai
anschool
s?(Ref
ertopage)
4. Whati
sstaf
fi
ng?Di scussfi
veef
fecti
veway
sy ouwil
luse
t
oachi
eveeffect
ivenessandeff
ici
encyi
nstaf
fing?(
Refer
t
opage4)

Cel
lnumber
:0241240787

Emai
l
:manuel
nyameky
e@gmai
l
.com

50