CETS461

PROFESSIONAL SPECIALIZED COURSE 1

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

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 BASIC SEISMOLOGY
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1. THE NATURE OF EARTHQUAKES

2. EARTHQUAKE TERMINOLOGY
A U G U S T

3. GLOBAL SEISMICITY
4. CONTINENTAL DRIFT
5. PLATE TECTONICS
6. SUBMARINE RIDGES
7. SUBMARINES TRENCHES
8. EARTHQUAKE ENERGY RELEASE
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9. SEISMIC SEA WAVES

C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E

10.FAULTS
E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

11.CREEP
12.SEISMIC WAVES
13.LOCATING THE EPICENTER

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 THE NATURE OF EARTHQUAKES
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A U G U S T

An earthquake is an oscillatory, sometimes

violent movement of the Earth’s surface that
follows a release of energy in the Earth’s crust.
This energy can be generated by a sudden
dislocation og segments of the crust, a volcanic
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eruption, or a man-made explosion.

E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

Most of the destructive earthquakes, however,

are caused by dislocations of the crust.

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 When subjected to geologic forces from plate
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tectonics, the crust initially strains (i.e., bends and

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shears) elastically.
For pure axial loading, Hooke’s law gives the stress
that accompanies this strain.
 = E (axial loading)
As rock is stressed, it stores strain energy, U. The
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elastic strain energy per unit volume for pure axial

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loading is
U = /2 (axial loading)

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When the stress exceeds the ultimate strength of the

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rocks, the rocks break and quickly move (i.e., they

“snap”)into new positions.
In the process of breaking, the strain energy is released
and seismic waves are generated.
This is the basic description of the elastic rebound
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theory of earthquake generation.

E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

Watch :
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_YLjIvJXhpg

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E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

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These waves travel from the source of the earthquake

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(known as the hypocenter or focus) to more distant

locations along the surface of and through the Earth.
The wave velocities depend on the nature of the waves
and the material through which the waves travel.
Some of the vibrations are of high enough frequency to
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be audible, while others are of very low frequency with

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periods of many seconds and thus are inaudible.

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 A new theory may explain how some earthquakes are
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triggered.
A U G U S T

Geologists know that pumping fluids into the ground

under high pressure can trigger earthquakes.
There is evidence from the gas-producing regions in
France that removing fluids from pores deep in the
earth can also trigger earthquakes.
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The theory states that the reservoir shrinks when the

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gas or oil is removed, but the rocks surrounding the

reservoir do not. This results in stresses in the earth that
later are released in an earthquake.

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 EARTHQUAKE TERMINOLOGY
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A U G U S T

The epicenter of the earthquake is the point on the

Earth’s surface directly above the focus (also known
as hypocenter)
The location of an earthquake is commonly
described by the geographic position of its epicenter
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and its focal depth.

E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

The focal depth of an earthquake is the depth from

the Earth’s surface to the focus.

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E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

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A U G U S T

Earthquakes with focal depths of less than

approximately 60km are classified as shallow
earthquakes. Very shallow earthquakes are caused by
the fracturing of brittle rock in the crust or by internal
strain energy that overcomes the friction locking
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opposite sides of a fault. California earthquakes are

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typically shallow.
E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

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Intermediate earthquakes, whose causes are not

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fully understood, have focal depths ranging from 60

to 300 kilometers.
Deep earthquakes may have focal depths of up to
700km.
The slip propagates from the epicenter along the
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fault with a velocity up to that of the outward-

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radiating seismic shear wave front about 3km/s

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until the entire affected segment is in motion.

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 GLOBAL SEISMICITY
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A U G U S T

Most earthquakes occur in areas bordering the Pacific

Ocean.
This circum-Pacific belt, nicknamed the ring of fire,
includes the Pacific coasts of North America and South
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America, the Aleutian Islands, Japan, Southeast Asia,

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and Australia
E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

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 C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E 3
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E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

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E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 CONTINENTAL DRIFT
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A U G U S T

It has been known since the early 1900s that the

continents are moving relative to one another,
movement known as continental drift.
In fact, fossilized records of past climates (the
subject of the field of paleoclimatology) indicate
that the continents have been moving slowly about
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the globe for million of years.

E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

Example: the same 300-million-year-old fossilized

deposits are found in India and in the Arctic

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A U G U S T

The theory of continental drift was reasonably established

during the 1930s but was not universally accepted.
In the 1950s, the emerging science of paleomagnetism
provided new supporting evidence of continental drift.
Many rocks, such as volcanic rock solidified from molten
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lava, contain tiny grains of magnetic minerals such as

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magnetite.

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A U G U S T

When these minerals are formed, they retain the

magnetic orientation of the Earth’s magnetic field
at the time of their formation.
The magnetic orientations of rocks suggest the
same ancient locations of the continents suggested
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by paleoclimatology and other geologic criteria.

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BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 An enormous amount of geophysical data was gathered
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during the 1950’s and 1960’s, particularly from

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oceanographic research vessels such as the Omar

Challenger.
A system of interconnecting submarine ridges, called mid-
ocean ridges, was discovered circling the Earth.
Such ridges are located approximately midway between
continents that are moving apart (e.g. between Africa and
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South America)
E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

It is now recognized that new oceanic crust is being formed

at the ridges and is added to the plates moving apart.
This is known as sea floor spreading
Watch : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rM8KrmRedSw

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
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E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 PLATE TECTONICS
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Most earthquakes are a manifestation of the

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fragmentation of the Earth’s outer shell (known as

lithosphere).
The academic field that studies plate motion is
known as plate tectonics.
There are seven very large plates, each consisting of
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both oceanic and continental portions.

E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

There are also dozens or more small plates.

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Each plate is approximately 80 to 100km thick and

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has thick and thin parts.

The thinner part deforms by elastic bending and
brittle breakage. The thicker part yields plastically.
Beneath the plate is a viscous layer on which the
entire plate slides.
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The plate themselves tend to be internally rigid,

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interacting only at the edges.

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These plates move relative to each other with steady

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velocities that approach 0.13m/a. Although plate

velocities are slow by human standards, they are
extremely rapid geologically.
For example, a motion of 0.05m/a adds up to 50km
in only 1 million years. Some plate motions have
been continuous for 100 million years.
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Depending on location, the plate can be moving

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apart, colliding slowly to build mountain ranges, or

slipping laterally past or sliding over and under one
another.

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Plate Tectonic Theory

A U G U S T

Plate tectonics, theory dealing with the dynamics

of Earth’s outer shell—the lithosphere—that
revolutionized Earth sciences by providing a
uniform context for understanding mountain-
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building processes, volcanoes, and earthquakes as

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E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

well as the evolution of Earth’s surface and

reconstructing its past continents and oceans.

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Theory of Plate Tectonics

A U G U S T

When the concept of seafloor spreading came along, scientists

recognized that it was the mechanism to explain how
continents could move around Earth’s surface. Like the
scientists before us, we will now merge the ideas of
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continental drift and seafloor spreading into the theory of

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plate tectonics.

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 The History of Plate Tectonics
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A U G U S T

Plate tectonics is a theory that was first proposed in the early 1900s
by scientist Alfred Wegener, but was not said to be true until the
1960s.

When Alfred Wegener first proposed the theory of continental drift,

he described the tectonic plates, or the continents, as puzzle
pieces fitting together. He continued to explain his theory after
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realizing the Earth's surface changing significantly over time while

noticing that continents which, at one point, were not separated,
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were. This was also noted by paleontologists when fossils of the

same species were found on different continents, now separated.
Their combined observations determined that the Earth's
lithosphere had, in fact, been moving over time.

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E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 How Plates Move
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If seafloor spreading drives the plates, what drives seafloor

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spreading? Picture two convection cells side-by-side in the mantle,

similar to the illustration in figure
1. Hot mantle from the two adjacent cells rises at the ridge axis,
creating new ocean crust.
2. The top limb of the convection cell moves horizontally away from
the ridge crest, as does the new seafloor.
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3. The outer limbs of the convection cells plunge down into the
E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

deeper mantle, dragging oceanic crust as well. This takes place at

the deep sea trenches.
4. The material sinks to the core and moves horizontally.
5. The material heats up and reaches the zone where it rises again.

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 Evidence in Support of Plate
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Tectonics
A U G U S T

1. Evidences for both See Floor Spreading and Plate tectonics are
complimentary (almost same evidences).
2. Paleomagnetic rocks are the most important evidence. The
orientation of iron grains on older rocks shows an orientation
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which points to the existence of the South Pole, once upon a

C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E

time, somewhere between the present-day Africa and Antarctica

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(Paleomagnetism).

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 Evidence in Support of Plate
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Tectonics
A U G U S T

3. Older rocks form the continents while younger rocks are

present on the ocean floor. On continents, rocks of upto 3.5
billion years old can be found while the oldest rock found on the
ocean floor is not more than 75 million years old (western part of
Pacific floor). As we move, towards ridges, still younger rocks
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appear. This points to an effective spread of sea floor (See floor

E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

spreading is almost similar to plate tectonics except that it

examines the interaction between oceanic plates only) along
oceanic ridges which are also the plate margins.

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 Evidence in Support of Plate
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Tectonics
A U G U S T

4. The normal temperature gradient on the sea floor is 9.4°C/300 m

but near the ridges it becomes higher, indicating an upwelling of
magmatic material from the mantle.
5. In trenches, where subduction has taken place (convergent
edge), the value of gravitational constant ‘g’ is less. This indicates a
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loss of material. For instance, gravity measurements around the

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Indonesian islands have indicated that large gravity anomalies are

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associated with the oceanic trench bordering Indonesia.

6. The fact that all plate boundary regions are areas of earthquake
and volcanic disturbances goes to prove the theory of plate
tectonics.

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 7 Major Tectonic Plates: The World’s
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Largest Plate Tectonics

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Pacific major plate is the largest which underlies the Pacific Ocean.
Specifically, it stretches all the way along the west coast of North
America to the east coast of Japan and Indonesia.
This plate forms most of the Pacific Ring of Fire which has some of
the most violent and catastrophic earthquakes and volcanoes on
the planet.
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And smack dab in the middle are the islands that make up Hawaii.
E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

The interior hot spot within the Pacific Plate is responsible for the
volcanic activity that occurs at the Hawaiian Islands.

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The North American major plate not only contains the continent of
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North America but also part of the Atlantic Ocean.

This plate extends all the way over the North pole and even
contains Siberia and the northern island of Japan. It also includes
Greenland, Cuba and the Bahamas.
The interior of the North American plate contains a giant granitic
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craton. It’s believed that the North American (Laurentian) craton is

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4 billion years old.

E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

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The Eurasian major plate consists of most of Europe, Russia and

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parts of Asia. This plate is sandwiched between the North American

and African Plate on the north and west sides.
The west side has a divergent boundary with the North American
plate. The south side of the Eurasian plate neighbors the Arabian,
Indian and Sunda plates.
It straddles along Iceland where it tears the country in two separate
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pieces at a rate of 2.5 cm per year. On average, the Eurasian plate

E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

moves about one-quarter to half an inch per year.

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The African plate contains the whole continent of Africa as

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well as the surrounding oceanic crust of the Atlantic Ocean.

Oddly, it looks like a larger boundary of the African continent,
itself.
The Somali Plate is positioned along the East African Rift zone.
This developing rift zone is gradually separating the east part
of the continent.
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The west side of the African major plate diverge with the
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North American plate. These divergent plate boundaries forms

the mid-oceanic ridges or rift valley.

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The Antarctic plate holds the entire continent of Antarctica

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including its surround oceanic crust. This plate is surrounded by

parts of the African, Australian, Pacific and South American
plates.
Antarctica was once grouped as part of the supercontinent
Gondwana with Australia and India. But about 100 million years
ago, Antarctica broke apart to its current location at the south
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pole.
E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

It’s estimated that the Antarctica major plate moves about 1 cm

per year.

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The Indo-Australia plate is a major plate combining the

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Australian and Indian Plate. But they are widely considered to

be two separate plates.
The Indo-Australia plate stretches from Australia to India. It
also includes the oceanic crust from the Indian Ocean. The
north-east side of the Australian plate converges with the
Pacific Plate.
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Australia, India and Antarctica were once connected as the

E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

supercontinent Gondwana. As part of the supercontinental

cycle, India drifted apart moving northwards.

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The South American plate is a major plate that includes the

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continent of South America and a large portion of ocean from

the Atlantic Ocean.
At the west side of South America, it experiences devastating
earthquakes due to the convergent plate tectonic boundaries.
But the eastern edge lies in the Atlantic Ocean at a divergent
plate boundary. Alongside the African Plate, these two plate
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boundaries pull apart from each other creating some of the

E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

youngest oceanic crust on the planet.

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BASIC SEISMOLOGY
Watch : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QDqskltCixA
 Minor plates
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A U G U S T

Carribbean Plate, Cocos Plate, Caroline Plate, Juan de Fuca

Plate, Juan Fernandez micro Plate, Iranian Plate, South
sandwich Plate, Myanmar Plate, Anatolian Plate, Nazca Plate,
Nubian Plate, Philippines Plate, Okhotsk Plate, Scotian Plate,
Eastern micro Plate, Somalian Plate, Arabian Plate, Solomon
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Plate, Fiji Plate, Bismarck Plate.

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E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

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 Rates of Plate Movement
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A U G U S T

The rate of plate movement is determined by the bands of

normal and reverse magnetic fields that parallel the mid-
oceanic ridge. The rates of plate movement have a considerable
variation. For example, while the Arctic Ridge has the slowest
rate (less than 2.5 cm/yr), the East Pacific Rise in the South
Pacific has the fastest rate (more than 15 cm/yr). An
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interesting fact is that the movement of Indian plate from

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south to equator was one of the fastest plate movements in

history.

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 Plate Boundaries
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A U G U S T

Plate boundaries are the edges where two plates meet. Most
geologic activities, including volcanoes, earthquakes, and
mountain building, take place at plate boundaries. How can two
plates move relative to each other?
Divergent plate boundaries: the two plates move away from each other.
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Convergent plate boundaries: the two plates move towards each other.
E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

Transform plate boundaries: the two plates slip past each other.

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A U G U S T

The type of plate boundary and the type of crust found on each
side of the boundary determines what sort of geologic activity will
be found there.

a. Convergent Boundaries.
When two plates meet underwater and one or both are composed
of oceanic crust. The plate which is denser is pushed underneath
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the less dense tectonic plate, which eventually melts and is

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destroyed completely.
E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

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 Ocean-Continent
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A U G U S T

When oceanic crust converges with continental crust, the

denser oceanic plate plunges beneath the continental plate.
This process, called subduction, occurs at the oceanic
trenches. The entire region is known as a subduction zone.
Subduction zones have a lot of intense earthquakes and
volcanic eruptions. The subducting plate causes melting in the
mantle. The magma rises and erupts, creating volcanoes.
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These coastal volcanic mountains are found in a line above the

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subducting plate. The volcanoes are known as a continental

arc.

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E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

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 Ocean-Ocean
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A U G U S T

When two oceanic plates converge, the older, denser plate will subduct into the
mantle. An ocean trench marks the location where the plate is pushed down into the
mantle. The line of volcanoes that grows on the upper oceanic plate is an island arc.
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E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 Continent-Continent
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A U G U S T

Continental plates are too buoyant to subduct. What happens

to continental material when it collides? Since it has nowhere
to go but up, this creates some of the world’s largest
mountains ranges. Magma cannot penetrate this thick crust
so there are no volcanoes, although the magma stays in the
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crust. Metamorphic rocks are common because of the stress

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the continental crust experiences. With enormous slabs of

crust smashing together, continent-continent collisions bring
on numerous and large earthquakes.

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 b. Divergent Boundaries.
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A U G U S T

Divergent boundaries are when two tectonic plates are moving away from
one another. This process can occur underwater or on land
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E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

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 c. Transform Plate Boundaries
2 0 2 1
A U G U S T

Transform plate boundaries are seen as transform faults, where two plates move past
each other in opposite directions. Transform faults on continents bring massive
earthquakes. California is very geologically active.
3
C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E
E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E 3
A U G U S T 2 0 2 1
E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 SUBMARINE RIDGES
2 0 2 1

Where plates are pulling apart, particularly along

A U G U S T

the system of submarine ridges, hot material from

the deeper mantle wells up to fill the gap.
Some of the mantle material appears as lava in
volcanic material. Most solidifies beneath the
surface, forming a submarine ridge.
3
C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E

The ridge is high relative to the ocean bottom

E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

because the mantle material is hot, hence, low in

density.

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 2 0 2 1

As the plates move apart, the ridge material

A U G U S T

gradually cools and contracts, and its surface sinks.

Ridges generally form step-like alterations in
height perpendicular to the direction of the plate
motion.
Strike-slip faults form parallel to the direction of
3
C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E

plate motion.
E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E 3
A U G U S T 2 0 2 1
E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 SUBMARINE TRENCHES
2 0 2 1

Where plates converge, one dips down and

A U G U S T

slides beneath the other in a process known as

subduction.
Generally, an oceanic plates slides, or subducts,
beneath a continental plate or beneath another
oceanic plate.
3
C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E

A trench is formed where the subducting plate

E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

dips down.
The sediment from the ocean floor is scraped off
against the front edge of the top plate.

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E 3
A U G U S T 2 0 2 1
E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 2 0 2 1

Far back under the top plate, inclined zones of

A U G U S T

earthquakes reach down into the mantle.

The average depth of these zones is approximately
125km, but the zones can approach 700km in
depth.
The hypocenters of earthquakes in these zones
3
C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E

indicate the trajectory of the subducted plate.

E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 A belt of volcanoes typically occurs above this
2 0 2 1
A U G U S T

earthquake zone, roughly paralleling the plate

edges.
Rock melting, which ultimately produces the
volcanoes, starts when water combined in the
crystalline structures of various minerals, or
3

otherwise trapped, is removed by the increase in

C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E
E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

pressure on the subducted plate.

The water loss lowers the net energy required to
melt the remaining rock

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 EARTHQUAKE ENERGY RELEASE
2 0 2 1

Shallow earthquakes represent sudden slippages

A U G U S T

and are accompanied by a release of elastic strain

energy stored in the rock over a long period.
It is not totally clear whether deep mantle
subduction zone earthquakes are accompanied by
3

similar elastic releases or are merely abrupt

C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E

contractions of part of the subducting plate into rock

E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

of higher density.

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 EARTHQUAKE ENERGY RELEASE
2 0 2 1
A U G U S T

Shallow earthquakes represent sudden slippages

and are accompanied by a release of elastic strain
energy stored in the rock over a long period.
It is not totally clear whether deep mantle
subduction zone earthquakes are accompanied by
3
C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E

similar elastic releases or are merely abrupt

E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

contractions of part of the subducting plate into

rock of higher density.

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 2 0 2 1

Great earthquakes occur primarily along

A U G U S T

convergent (subducting) plate boundaries.

Submerged ridges (where plates are spreading
apart) are so hot at relatively shallow depths that
the solid rock above them cannot store enough
elastic strain energy to produce great earthquakes.
3
C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E

The infrequent large earthquakes that do occur in

E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

these ridge systems are mostly on the longer strike-

slip faults.
Watch : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sTvtKUb-RsY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yNN7eDXzlMo

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E 3
A U G U S T 2 0 2 1
E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 SEISMIC SEA WAVES
2 0 2 1
A U G U S T

When the sea floor suddenly rises up during a

great earthquake, water also rises with it and then
rushes away to find a level surface.
An enormous mass of water is suddenly set in
3
C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E

motion, and a complex sloshing back and forth

E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

between continents continues for many hours.

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 The result is a train of surface-water waves, each of
2 0 2 1

which is known as a seismic sea wave, or in

A U G U S T

Japanese, a tsunami.
The most pronounced sudden changes in seafloor
depth, and hence the greatest sea waves, result from
shallow subduction-zone earthquakes.
3

As with any surface wave or surge wave, the

C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E

velocity of a tsunami depends primarily on the

E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

ocean depth.

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 In deep ocean, waves travel at about 800km/h.
2 0 2 1

The waves at sea may be an hour apart and

A U G U S T

perhaps only 0.3m in height. Combined with a

wave period of 5 to 60 minutes, they are virtually
undetectable.
As a wave approaches land, however, the wave
3

velocity decreases due to increased friction with the

C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E

increasing shallow seafloor.

E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

As the wave velocity decreases, the wave height

increases.

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 2 0 2 1

Where sea floor topography and orientation are

A U G U S T

optimal for tsunami formation the wave can form a

wall of water more than 15m in height.
Such a wave can cause enormous destruction when
it rushes onto shore.
Nearby coastal points, where the bottom
3
C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E

configuration is much different, may see the same

E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

wave pass as only a rapid surge and withdrawal of

water.

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 2 0 2 1
A U G U S T

Only normal (dip-slip) and thrust (reverse) faults

produce tsunamis.
The greater the depth of water, the larger the
energy content of tsunami
3
C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E
E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

Watch : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SlwZzbGh7Cw

Watch : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N5qwqbPWym0

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E 3
A U G U S T 2 0 2 1
E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E 3
A U G U S T 2 0 2 1
E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 FAULTS
2 0 2 1
A U G U S T

A fault is a fracture in the Earth’s crust along which

two blocks have slipped relative to each other.
One crustal block may move horizontally in one
direction while the opposite block moves
horizontally in the opposite direction.
3
C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E

Alternatively, one block may move upward while

E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

the other moves downward.

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 2 0 2 1
A U G U S T

One of the ways movement along faults can occur

is by sudden displacement, or slip, of the crust or
rock along a fault.
During the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, the
ground was displaced as much as 6.5m in
3

northern California along the San Andreas Fault.

C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E
E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 2 0 2 1

Most of the faults in California are vertical or near

A U G U S T

vertical breaks. Movement along these breaks is

predominantly horizontal in the northerly or
northwesterly directions.
With right-lateral movement, a block on the
opposite side of the fault moves to the right.
3
C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E

Conversely, the block moves to the left in a left-

E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

lateral fault. Lateral movement is produced by

strike-slip faults.

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 2 0 2 1
A U G U S T

A fault in which the movement is vertical is called

dip-slip fault.
In normal fault, the hanging wall move moves down
relative to the foot wall.
In a reverse fault, also known as a thrust fault, the
3
C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E

hanging wall moves up relative to the foot wall.

E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 2 0 2 1
A U G U S T

Read:
https://www.gns.cri.nz/Home/
Learning/Science-
Topics/Earthquakes/Earthquak
es-and-Faults/Different-types-
of-Faults

Watch:
https://www.youtube.com/wa
3
C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E

tch?v=hmX8BmD3L7k
E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E 3
A U G U S T 2 0 2 1
E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 2 0 2 1

Three faults in Cebu

A U G U S T

Based on the hazards maps, Cebu has three fault systems. Two of
which were situated in the north and south while the other is in central
part of Cebu.
The North Fault, which compromises of Bogo City and San Remegio
town, is marked in red to indicate its active while the rest of the faults
across the province are blotted in black. This is to denote that they are
potentially active.
3
C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E

The Central Cebu Fault transects the cities of Danao, Cebu, Talisay,
E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

Naga, and Toledo and the towns of Compostela, Minglanilla and

Balamban while the South Fault includes Carcar City and the towns of
Sibonga, Argao, Moalboal, Badian, Alegria, Dalaguete, Alcoy and
Boljoon.

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E 3
A U G U S T 2 0 2 1
E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 2 0 2 1

Dormant for 100 years

A U G U S T

Solidum noted that for the last 100 years there is no seismic activity in
these faults, making them potential sources for “The Big One”, a term
coined by the press in referring to tremors reaching intensity eight.
“These areas have seismic gap or big earthquake gap that when these
faults will move, they may generate a strong earthquake,” Solidum
said.
3

The longer period of time the fault has not moved, the more energy it
C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E

stores, he added.
E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

Solidum, who is also the undersecretary of the Department of Science

and Technology, said disclosing the information to the public will raise
people’s awareness to lurking dangers of disaster scenarios if they will
have a clear picture of what will happen during actual calamity.

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 2 0 2 1

“The solution to unpreparedness of people is by sharing

A U G U S T

them the proper disaster scenarios that can convince them

that they need to prepare,” he said.
The Phivolcs chief advised the public to visit
its faultfinder.philvocs.dost.gov.ph website if they want to
know more about the Philippine fault lines.
3

Also present during the press briefing were Nagiel

C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E
E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

Banacia, Cebu City Disaster Risk Reduction and

Management Office, Vier Neil Balaba of the Civil Defense
Office 7 and Edelberto Paradela of DOST Region 7.

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E 3
A U G U S T 2 0 2 1
E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 CREEP
2 0 2 1

In addition to fault slip, a second type of fault

A U G U S T

movement known as creep can occur.

Creep is characterized by continuous or intermittent
movement without noticeable earthquakes.
3
C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E
E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

Watch : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WaUup6a-IMk

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E 3
A U G U S T 2 0 2 1
E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 SEISMIC WAVES
2 0 2 1
A U G U S T

Seismic waves are of three types: compression, shear,

and surface waves.
Compression and shear waves travel from the
epicenter through the Earth’s interior to distant
points on the surface.
3
C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E

Only compression waves, however, can pass through

E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

the Earth’s molten core.

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 Because compression waves travel at great speeds and
2 0 2 1

ordinarily reach the surface first, they are known as P-

A U G U S T

waves (for primary waves). P-wave velocity is given by

3
C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E
E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

shear modulus of soil is designated by G

r stands for the mass density of soil
 = First Lame parameter or Lame moduli

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 Shear waves (also known as transverse waves do
2 0 2 1
A U G U S T

not travel as rapidly through the Earth’s crust and

mantle as do compression waves. Because they
ordinarily reach the surface later, they are known as
S-waves (for secondary waves).
3
C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E
E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

shear modulus of soil is designated by G

r stands for the mass density of soil

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 Surface waves, also known
2 0 2 1
A U G U S T

as R- waves (for Rayleigh

waves) or L-waves (for
Love waves), may or may
not form.
They arrive after the
3

primary and secondary

C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E
E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

waves.
Read : https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/340-seismic-waves

Watch : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gFU3_mZdGfY

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E 3
A U G U S T 2 0 2 1
E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 LOCATING THE EPICENTER
2 0 2 1
A U G U S T

The first indication of an earthquake will often be a

sharp “thud” signaling the arrival of the compression
wave front. This will be followed by the shear waves
and the ground roll caused by the surface waves. The
times separating the arrivals of the compression and
3

shear waves at various seismometer stations can be

C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E
E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

used to locate the epicenter’s position and depth.

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 2 0 2 1

The distance, s, from a seismometer to the epicenter

A U G U S T

can be determined from the wave velocities and the

observed time between the arrival of the compression
(P) and shear (S) waves.
3
C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E
E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 The epicenter and hypocenter correspond to the
2 0 2 1
A U G U S T

locations of the initial fault slip but do not

necessarily coincide with the center of energy
release. For small and medium earthquakes (i.e.
Richter magnitude M<6), the points of initial
fault slip and energy release are relatively close.
3

For larger earthquakes, however, hundreds of

C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E

kilometers can separate the two.

E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

Watch : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oBS7BKqHRhs

BASIC SEISMOLOGY
 C E T E 3 P R O F E S S I O N A L E L E C T I V E 3
A U G U S T 2 0 2 1
E A R T H Q U A K E E N G I N E E R I N G

BASIC SEISMOLOGY