CELL:

CELL- AN INTRODUCTION

A cell is the
fundamental,
structural and
functional unit of
all living
organisms.
 CELL- AN INTRODUCTION
Robert Hooke:
Discovered cell

Anton Von
Leeuwenhoek:
First observed and
described a live cell.
 CELL- AN INTRODUCTION

The invention of
Compound and
Electron
Microscopes
revealed the
structural details
of the cell.
 CELL THEORY
• Malthias Schleiden (1838) observed
that plants are composed of cells.

• Theodore Schwann (1839) reported

that cells had a thin outer layer
(plasma membrane). He also found
that plant cells have cell wall.
• He proposed a hypothesis that
Schleiden & Schwann animals and plants are composed of
cells and products of cells.
formulated the Cell Theory.
CELL THEORY
Rudolf Virchow (1855) explained that
cells divided and new cells are formed
from pre-existing cells (Omnis cellula-e
cellula). He modified the cell theory.

Statements of Cell theory:

 All living organisms are composed of
cells and products of cells.
 All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
 AN OVERVIEW OF CELL

All cells contain

• Cytoplasm: A semi-fluid matrix where
cellular activities and chemical reactions
occur. This keeps the cell in ‘living state’.
• Ribosomes: Non-membrane bound
organelles found in cytoplasm, chloroplasts,
mitochondria and on rough ER.
 AN OVERVIEW OF CELL

 Smallest cells: Mycoplasmas (0.3 µm in length)

 Largest isolated single cell: Egg of ostrich.
 Longest cells: E.g. Nerve cell.
 Size of bacteria: 3 to 5 µm.
 Human RBCs: 7.0 µm in diameter.
 AN OVERVIEW OF CELL
Based on the functions, shape of cells may be disc-like, polygonal,
columnar, cuboid, thread like, or irregular.

Cells are 2 types:

Prokaryotic cells & Eukaryotic cells
PROKARYOTIC CELLS
 PROKARYOTIC CELLS

• They have no membrane bound

nucleus and organelles.
• They include bacteria, blue-
green algae, mycoplasma & PPLO
(Pleuro Pneumonia Like
Organisms). Bacteria have 4 basic shapes:
• They are generally smaller and • Bacillus (rod like)
multiply more rapidly than the • Coccus (spherical)
eukaryotic cells.
• Vibrio (comma shaped)
• They vary in shape & size.
• Spirillum (spiral)
CELL ORGANELLES IN PROKARYOTIC CELLS

1. Cell envelope
2. Mesosome &
Chromatophores
3. Nucleoid
4. Flagella
5. Pili and Fimbriae
6. Ribosomes
7. Inclusion Bodies
 CELL ORGANELLES IN PROKARYOTIC CELLS
1. Cell Envelope
Glycocalyx

• It is a chemically complex protective

covering.
• It is made of 3 tightly bound layers:
 Glycocalyx
 Cell wall
 Plasma membrane
 CELL ORGANELLES IN PROKARYOTIC CELLS
1. Cell Envelope
Glycocalyx

Glycocalyx:
 Outer layer.
 Its composition and thickness vary
in different bacteria.
 It may be a slime layer (loose
sheath) or capsule (thick & tough).
 CELL ORGANELLES IN PROKARYOTIC CELLS
1. Cell Envelope
Glycocalyx

Cell wall:
 Middle layer.
 Seen in all prokaryotes.
 It gives shape to the cell and
provides a structural support to
prevent the bacterium from
bursting or collapsing.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN PROKARYOTIC CELLS
1. Cell Envelope
Glycocalyx

Plasma membrane:
 Inner layer.
 It is semi-permeable in nature and
interacts with the outside.
 This is structurally similar to that of
the eukaryotes.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN PROKARYOTIC CELLS
1. Cell Envelope

Based on the types of the cell

He developed
envelopes and response to Gram
Gram staining
staining, bacteria are 2 types: method
 Gram positive: They take up and
retain the gram stain.
 Gram negative: They do not retain
the gram stain.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN PROKARYOTIC CELLS
2. Mesosome & Chromatophores (Membranous structures)

Mesosome
• It is formed by the infolding of
plasma membrane.
• It includes vesicles, tubules &
lamellae.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN PROKARYOTIC CELLS
2. Mesosome & Chromatophores (Membranous structures)
Functions of Mesosome
• For cell wall formation.
• For DNA (chromosome) replication.
• For distribution of chromosomes to
daughter cells.
• For respiration and secretion
processes.
• To increase the surface area of plasma
membrane and enzymatic content.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN PROKARYOTIC CELLS
2. Mesosome & Chromatophores (Membranous structures)

Chromatophores
• These are membranous infoldings
in some prokaryotes. E.g.
cyanobacteria.
• They contain pigments.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN PROKARYOTIC CELLS
3. Nucleoid

• It is formed of non-membranous
(naked) circular genomic DNA (single
chromosome/ Genetic material) & Nucleoid
protein.
• Many bacteria have small circular
DNA (plasmid) outside the genomic
DNA. It gives some unique
phenotypic characters (e.g.
resistance to antibiotics) to bacteria.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN PROKARYOTIC CELLS
4. Flagella
• These are thin filamentous
extensions from the cell wall of
motile bacteria. Their number and
arrangement are varied in different
bacteria.
• Bacterial flagellum has 3 parts:
filament, hook & basal body.
• The filament is the longest portion Flagellum
and extends from the cell surface
to the outside.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN PROKARYOTIC CELLS
5. Pili and Fimbriae
• These are surface structures that
have no role in motility. Pili
• Pili (sing. Pilus) are elongated
tubular structures made of a special
protein (pilin).
• Fimbriae are small bristle like fibres
sprouting out of the cell. In some
bacteria, they help to attach the
bacteria to rocks in streams and to
the host tissues.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN PROKARYOTIC CELLS
6. Ribosomes

• They are associated with plasma

membrane of prokaryotes.
• They are about 15 nm by 20 nm
in size.
• They are made of two subunits -
50S and 30S units. They together
form 70S prokaryotic ribosomes.
(S= sedimentation coefficient; a
measure of density & size).
 CELL ORGANELLES IN PROKARYOTIC CELLS
6. Ribosomes

Function of Ribosomes
• Ribosomes are the site of
translation (protein synthesis).
• Several ribosomes may attach
to a single mRNA to form a
chain called polyribosomes
(polysome). Ribosomes of a
polysome translate the mRNA
into proteins.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN PROKARYOTIC CELLS
7. Inclusion Bodies

• These are non-membranous, stored

reserve material seen freely in the
cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells.
• E.g. phosphate granules,
cyanophycean granules and
glycogen granules, gas vacuoles etc.
• Gas vacuoles are found in blue
green and purple and green
photosynthetic bacteria.
EUKARYOTIC CELLS
 EUKARYOTIC CELLS

• They have well organized membrane

bound nucleus and organelles
• Presence of membranes gives clear A Protist cell A Fungal cell
compartmentalization of cytoplasm.
• They have complex locomotory &
cytoskeletal structures.
• Their genetic material is organized
into chromosomes.

A plant cell An animal cell

 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS

1. Cell membrane
2. Cell wall
3. Endomembrane system
(Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
apparatus, Lysosomes, Vacuoles)
4. Mitochondria
5. Plastids
6. Ribosomes
7. Cytoskeleton
8. Cilia and Flagella
9. Centrosome and Centrioles
10. Nucleus
11. Microbodies
 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS

1. Cell membrane
2. Cell wall
3. Endomembrane system
(Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
apparatus, Lysosomes, Vacuoles)
4. Mitochondria
5. Plastids
6. Ribosomes
7. Cytoskeleton
8. Cilia and Flagella
9. Centrosome and Centrioles
10. Nucleus
11. Microbodies
 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
1. Cell Membranes

• Chemical studies on human RBCs

show that the cell membrane is
composed of a lipid bilayer,
protein & carbohydrate.
• Lipids (mainly phosphoglycerides)
have outer polar head and inner
hydrophobic tails. So the non-
polar tail of saturated
hydrocarbons is protected from
aqueous environment.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
1. Cell Membranes

• Ratio of protein and lipid varies in

different cells. E.g. In human RBC,
membrane has 52% protein & 40% lipids.
• Based on the ease of extraction,
membrane proteins are 2 types:
 Integral proteins: Partially or totally
buried in membrane.
 Peripheral proteins: Lie on the
surface of membrane.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
1. Cell Membranes
Fluid Mosaic Model of Cell Membrane

• Proposed by Singer & Nicolson

(1972).
• According to this, the quasi-fluid
nature of lipid enables lateral
movement of proteins within the
overall bilayer.
• This ability to move within the
membrane is measured as its
fluidity.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
1. Cell Membranes

Functions:
• Transport of the molecules. The
membrane is selectively
permeable to some molecules
present on either side of it.
• Due to the fluid nature, plasma
membrane can help in cell
growth, formation of
intercellular junctions, secretion,
endocytosis, cell division etc.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
1. Cell Membranes

Types of Transport
• Passive transport
• Active transport
 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
1. Cell Membranes
Passive transport:
• Movement of molecules across the membrane
along the concentration gradient (i.e., from
higher concentration to the lower) without the
expenditure of energy.
• It is 2 types:
 Simple diffusion: Movement of neutral solutes
across the membrane.
 Osmosis: Movement of water by diffusion
across the membrane.

Polar molecules cannot pass through the non-polar lipid bilayer. So they require membrane
carrier protein for their transport (Facilitated diffusion).
 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
1. Cell Membranes

Active transport:
• Movement of molecules across the
membrane against the concentration
gradient (i.e. from lower to the higher
concentration) with the expenditure of
energy (ATP is utilized).
• E.g. Na+/K+ pump.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
2. Cell Wall

• It is a non-living rigid structure found

outer to the plasma membrane of
fungi and plants.
• Cell wall of Algae is made of cellulose,
galactans, mannans & minerals like
CaCO3.
• In other plants, it consists of cellulose,
hemicellulose, pectins & proteins.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
2. Cell Wall

• Cell wall of a young plant cell (primary wall) is

capable of growth. It gradually diminishes as the
cell matures and the secondary wall is formed
on the inner side (towards membrane).
• The middle lamella is a layer mainly of calcium
pectate. It glues the different neighbouring cells
together.
• The cell wall and middle lamellae may be
traversed by plasmodesmata which connect the
cytoplasm of neighbouring cells.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
2. Cell Wall

Functions
 It gives shape to the cell.
 It protects the cell from mechanical
damage & infection.
 It helps in cell-to-cell interaction.
 It acts as barrier to undesirable
macromolecules.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
3. Endomembrane System

• It is a group of membranous
organelles having coordinated
functions.
• They include
 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
 Golgi complex
 Lysosomes
 Vacuoles
 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
3. Endomembrane System
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

• These are a network of tiny tubular

structures scattered in the cytoplasm.
• ER divides the intracellular space into 2
compartments: luminal (inside ER) &
extra luminal (cytoplasm).
• ER is 2 types: Rough & Smooth.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
3. Endomembrane System
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
 Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER): Bear
ribosomes on their surface. RER is frequently
observed in the cells actively involved in
protein synthesis and secretion. They are
extensive and continuous with the outer
membrane of nucleus.
 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER):
Ribosomes are absent. It is the major site for
synthesis of lipid. In animal cells, lipid-like
steroidal hormones are synthesized in SER.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
3. Endomembrane System
Golgi Apparatus
• Densely stained reticular structures near nucleus.
• First observed by Camillo Golgi (1898).
• They consist of flat, disc-shaped sacs (cisternae)
of 0.5- 1.0 mm diameter. These are stacked
parallel to each other.
• Cisternae are concentrically arranged with
convex cis (forming) face and concave trans
(maturing) face. Cis & trans faces are totally
different, but interconnected.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
3. Endomembrane System
Function of Golgi apparatus
1. Secretes materials to the intra-cellular targets or
outside the cell. Materials to be packaged as
vesicles from the ER fuse with the cis face and
move towards the trans face. This is why Golgi
apparatus remains in close association with the
ER.
2. Proteins synthesized by ribosomes on the ER are
modified in the cisternae of the Golgi apparatus
before they are released from its trans face.
3. Formation of glycoproteins & glycolipids.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
3. Endomembrane System
Lysosomes

• Membrane-bound vesicular structures

formed by the process of packaging in the
Golgi apparatus.
• Lysosomal vesicles contain almost all types
of hydrolytic enzymes (hydrolases– lipases,
proteases, carbohydrases). They are active
at the acidic pH. They digest carbohydrates,
proteins, lipids and nucleic acids.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
3. Endomembrane System
Vacuoles
• These are the membrane-bound space
found in the cytoplasm.
• It contains water, sap, excretory product and
other materials not useful for the cell.
• Vacuole is bound by a single membrane
called tonoplast.
• In plant cells, the vacuoles can occupy up to
90% of the volume of the cell.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
3. Endomembrane System
Vacuoles
• In plants, tonoplast facilitates the transport of
ions and other materials against concentration
gradients into the vacuole. Hence their
concentration is higher in vacuole than in the
cytoplasm.
• In Amoeba, the contractile vacuole helps for
excretion.
• In many cells (e.g. protists), food vacuoles are
formed by engulfing the food particles.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
4. Mitochondria

• These are clearly visible only when

stained.
• Their number, shape and size per cell
are variable depending on the
physiological activity.
• It is sausage-shaped or cylindrical
having a diameter of 0.2-1.0 mm
(average 0.5 mm) and length 1.0-4.1
mm.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
4. Mitochondria

• A mitochondrion is a double
membrane-bound structure with outer
membrane and inner membrane. It
divides lumen into 2 aqueous
compartments, i.e., outer compartment
and inner compartment (matrix).
• Inner membrane forms a number of
infoldings (cristae) towards the matrix.
They increase surface area.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
4. Mitochondria
• The two membranes have their own specific
enzymes associated with the mitochondrial
function.
• Matrix possesses a circular DNA, a few RNA
molecules, ribosomes (70S) and
components for protein synthesis.
• The mitochondria divide by fission.
• Function: Mitochondria are the sites of
aerobic respiration. They produce energy in
the form of ATP. So they are called ‘power
houses’ of the cell.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
5. Plastids

• These are found in all plant

cells and in euglenoides.
• Large sized. Easily observable
under the microscope.
• They contain some pigments.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
5. Plastids

Based on the type of pigments,

plastids are 3 types:
• Chloroplasts
• Chromoplasts
• Leucoplasts
 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
5. Plastids
• Chloroplasts: Contain chlorophyll and carotenoid
pigments. They trap light energy for photosynthesis.
• Chromoplasts: Contain fat soluble carotenoid
pigments like carotene, xanthophylls etc. This gives a
yellow, orange or red colour.
• Leucoplasts: These are colourless plastids of varied
shapes and sizes with stored nutrients. They include:
• Amyloplasts: Store starch. E.g. potato.
• Elaioplasts: Store oils and fats.
• Aleuroplasts: Store proteins.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
5. Plastids
Chloroplasts
• These are double membrane bound organelles
mainly found in the mesophyll cells of the
leaves.
• These are lens-shaped, oval, spherical, discoid
or ribbon-like organelles.
• Length: 5-10 mm. Width: 2-4 mm.
• Their number varies from 1 (e.g.
Chlamydomonas, a green alga) to 20-40 per cell
in the mesophyll.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
5. Plastids
Chloroplasts
• Inner membrane of chloroplast is less
permeable.
• The space limited by the inner membrane of the
chloroplast is called the stroma. It contains a
number of organized flattened membranous
sacs called thylakoids.
• Membrane of thylakoids encloses a space called
lumen.
• Chlorophyll pigments are present in the
thylakoids.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
5. Plastids

Chloroplasts
• Thylakoids are arranged in stacks called grana or
the intergranal thylakoids.
• There are flat membranous tubules called the
stroma lamellae connecting the thylakoids of the
different grana.
• The stroma contains small, double-stranded
circular DNA molecules, ribosomes and enzymes
for the synthesis of carbohydrates and proteins.
• The ribosomes of the chloroplasts are smaller
(70S) than the cytoplasmic ribosomes (80S).
 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
6. Ribosomes

These are the non-membranous

granular structures composed of
ribonucleic acid (RNA) and proteins.

George Palade
First observed
ribosome in 1953.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
6. Ribosomes

• Eukaryotic ribosome has 2

subunits- 60S (large subunit)
and 40S (small subunit).
• They together form 80S.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
7. Cytoskeleton

• It is a network of
filamentous proteinaceous
structures present in the
cytoplasm.
• It provides mechanical
support, motility,
maintenance of the shape
of the cell etc.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
8. Cilia and Flagella

• They are hair-like outgrowths of the cell

membrane.
• Cilia: Small structures which work like
oars. Causes the movement of cell or
surrounding fluid.
• Flagella: Longer. Responsible for cell
movement. Flagella of prokaryotes and
eukaryotes are structurally different.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
8. Cilia and Flagella

• Cilium and flagellum are covered with

plasma membrane.
• Their core (axoneme) has many
microtubules running parallel to the
long axis.
• Axoneme has 9 pairs of doublets of
radially arranged peripheral
microtubules, and a pair of central
microtubules. This is called 9+2 array.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
8. Cilia and Flagella
• The central tubules are connected by
bridges and are enclosed by a central
sheath. It is connected to one of the
tubules of each peripheral doublet by a
radial spoke. Thus, there are 9 radial
spokes.
• The peripheral doublets are also
interconnected by linkers.
• Cilium and flagellum emerge from
centriole-like structure called the basal
bodies.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
9. Centrosomes and Centrioles
• Centrosome is an organelle containing two
non-membrane bound cylindrical
structures called centrioles.
• They are surrounded by pericentriolar
materials.
• The centrioles lie perpendicular to each
other. They are made up of 9 evenly
spaced peripheral fibrils of tubulin.
• Each of the peripheral fibril is a triplet. The
adjacent triplets are also linked.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
9. Centrosomes and Centrioles

• The central part of the centriole is also

proteinaceous and called the hub,
which is connected with tubules of the
peripheral triplets by radial spokes
made of protein.
• The centrioles form the basal body of
cilia or flagella, and spindle fibres that
give rise to spindle apparatus during
cell division in animal cells.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
10. Nucleus

• Nucleus was first described by Robert

Brown (1831).
• The material of the nucleus stained by
the basic dyes was given the name
chromatin by Flemming.
• Normally, a cell has only one nucleus.
Some cells have more than one. Some
mature cells lack nucleus. E.g.
mammalian RBC and sieve tube cells of
vascular plants.
Robert Brown
 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
10. Nucleus

The interphase nucleus contains

 Nuclear envelope
 Nuclear matrix (nucleoplasm)
 Chromatin
 Nucleolus
 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
10. Nucleus
Nuclear envelope
 Double layered membrane with a space
between (10 - 50 nm) called the perinuclear
space.
 It is a barrier between the materials in the
nucleus and cytoplasm.
 Outer membrane usually continuous with the
ER and also bears ribosomes on it.
 Nuclear envelope has minute pores formed by
the fusion of its two membranes. These are
the passages for the movement of RNA and
protein between nucleus and cytoplasm.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
10. Nucleus

Chromatin Chromatin
 A network of nucleoprotein fibres.
 It contains DNA and basic proteins
(histones), non-histone proteins
and RNA. Perinuclear

 During cell division, chromatins

space

condense to form chromosomes.

 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
10. Nucleus

Nucleolus
 One or more non-membranous spherical
bodies.
 It is continuous with the nucleoplasm.
 It is a site for ribosomal RNA synthesis.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
10. Nucleus

Chromosomes
• A human cell has about 2 m long DNA
distributed among its 46 (23 pairs)
chromosomes.
• Every chromosome has a primary
constriction (centromere) on the sides
of which disc shaped structures called
kinetochores are present.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
10. Nucleus
Based on the position of centromere,
chromosomes are 4 types:
 Metacentric chromosome: Middle centromere
forming two equal arms of the chromosome.
 Sub-metacentric chromosome: Centromere is
nearer to one end forming one shorter arm
and one longer arm.
 Acrocentric chromosome: Centromere is close
to its end forming one very short and one very Some chromosomes have non-staining
long arm. secondary constrictions at a constant
 Telocentric chromosome: Terminal centromere.
location. It is called satellite.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
11. Microbodies

• These are membrane bound minute

vesicles that contain various enzymes.
• Present in both plant and animal cells.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANT & ANIMAL CELLS

Plant cell Animal cell

Cell wall present Absent
Plastids are present Absent
A large central Many small
vacuole vacuoles
Centrioles are
Present
absent
 COMPARISON BETWEEN PROKARYOTIC & EUKARYOTIC CELLS

Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells

Generally smaller Larger
Genetic material is in the
In the form of nucleus
form of nucleoid
Nuclear membrane is
Present
absent
Membrane bound
Present
organelles absent
Circular DNA Linear DNA
80 S type (70 S in plastids &
Ribosomes are 70 S type
mitochondria)
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