CHAPTER TWO

2. BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIORS

2.1. Introduction
This chapter is about topics that you would expect to find in a biology course, but it was written to help you
understand psychology better. We will discuss only those aspects of human biology that are directly relevant to
understanding behavior; the brain and nervous system, endocrine gland, and genetic mechanisms. Without these
biological systems, psychological life could not exist. Sometimes Biological psychology is referred to as
physiological psychology or psychobiology. It studies the relationship between the mind and the body and how
one influences the other. Bio psychologists are professionals who study the ways biological structures and
body functions affect behavior. In order to understand how the brain exerts control over the different body
movements involved in simple and complex tasks, it is essential to examine the neurons and the ways in which
nerve impulses are transmitted throughout the brain and body.
2.2. Neurons:
Neurons are specialized cells that are the basic elements of the nervous system that carry massages. The most
important feature of neurons is their ability to communicate with other cells. It is estimated that about two
billion neurons exist in the brain alone and the number of neural connections within the brain to be one
quadrillion.
The structure of the neurons
In playing the piano, driving a car, or throwing a ball to the basket, different muscles are involved. The body
system sends messages to the muscles and coordinates these messages to produce successful results. Such
messages are passed through specialized cells called neurons.
a. Dendrites: They are cluster of fibers at one end of a neuron that receives messages from other neurons.
b. Axon: It is a tube like long extension from the end of a neuron that carries messages to other cells through
the neuron. The lengths of axons range from several millimeters to three feet.
c. Terminal buttons: They are small branches at the end of an axon that relay massages to other cells.
Electrical messages travel through neuron beginning with detection of messages by dendrites, continue into the
cell body (nucleus) and pass down the axon.
d. Myelin sheath: It is the axons protective coating, made of fat and protein. Its function is to prevent messages
from short circulating by insulating the axons.
In certain diseases like multiple sclerosis, the myelin sheath loses its function, exposing parts of the axon. In
this case, there will be a message disturbance between the brain and muscles and results in the inability to walk,
vision disabilities, and general muscle impairment. Chemical substances needed for the nourishment of the cell
nucleus move also in a reverse direction i.e. axons-to-cell body. When vital material is not transported to the
neuron in this reverse direction, the neuron dies from starvation and the disease amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
develops. Similarly, rabies is caused by the transmission of the rabies virus by reverse flow along the axon from
the terminal buttons.
The firing of electrical charges in a neuron follows an all –ornone law. They are either on firing or resting state.
When neurons are off or at resting state, there is one thousandth of a volt (70 milli volts). When a message
arrives, the cell wall in the neuron allows positively charged ions to rush in at rates as high as 100 million ions
per second. The sudden arrival of positive ions causes the charge to change from negative to positive in the cell.
When the charge reaches a critical level, an electrical impulse known as an action potential travels down the
axon of the neuron.
The speed at which an action potential travels along axon is determined by the axons size and the thickness of
the myelin sheath. Axons with small dendrites carry impulses at about two miles per hour; longer and thicker
ones can have average speeds of more than 225 miles per hour. Neurons also differ in their potential capacity to
fire impulses. Some neurons have the potential to fire as many as 1000 times per second. This potential depends
on the intensity of a stimulus.
Example: a strong stimulus such as a bright light or a loud sound leads to a higher rate of firing than a less
intense stimulus does.
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Conclusion: our understanding of several primary psychological processes like sensation, perception, and
learning is based on fundamental knowledge of the structure, operation and function of the neurons.
Synapse: It is the gap between two neurons through which chemical messages are communicated.
2.3. Neurotransmitters:
They are chemicals that carry messages across the synapse to the dendrites of a receiver neuron. They can be
produced in the form of chemical liquids or gases like nitric oxide. If a receiving neuron fires and an action
potential travels down the axon, it is excitory message. If the neurotransmitters chemical information prevents
or decreases the likelihood of the neuron fire, it is inhibitory message.
The integration of simultaneous messages by the dendrites depends on the number of messages. If the number
of excitory message outweighs the number of inhibitory ones, the neuron will fire. On the other hand, if the
number of inhibitory messages outweighs the excitory ones, nothing will happen. The neuron will remain in its
resting state. Effective communication across synapse becomes impossible when receptor neurons are
constantly stimulated by neurotransmitter. In this case the terminal button reabsorbs the neuro transmitter. It is
called reuptake.
The major neurotransmitters are:
1. Acetylcholine (Ach)
 It is found throughout the nervous system, and involved in our every move.
 The drug curare used by South American Indians on the tips of poisoned darts keeps Ach from reaching
receptor cells, thereby paralyzing the skeletal muscles and ultimately producing death by suffocation.
 Ach is closely related to memory capabilities.
Example: Alzheimer disease is associated with a deficiency in the production of Ach.
2. Gamma- amino butyric acid (GABA)
 It is found in the brain and spinal cord
 It is primarily an inhibitory neurotransmitter.
 It moderates activities, such as, eating and aggression.
 The poison Strychnine prevents GABA from carrying out its inhibitory role, permitting neurons to fire
wildly, thereby producing convulsions.
 Tranquilizers (e.g. Valium) and alcohol are effective because they permit GABA to operate more
effectively.
3. Dopamine (DA)
 Muscular rigidity and shaking (Parkinson’s syndrome) seems to be caused by a deficiency of dopamine in
the brain.
 Researchers have hypothesized that schizophrenia and some other severe mental disturbances are caused
by the presence of unusually high levels of dopamine.
4. Adenosine tri-phosphate (ATP)
 It is the fuel used by the body to produce energy within cells.
 Because it works very quickly, some investigators hypothesized that ATP is essential in the formation of
synapses vital to memory.
5. Endorphins
 They are a family of chemicals similar in structure to painkillers.
 They are found in large concentration in the brains of people afflicted with diseases that produce long term
severe pain.
 In addition to pain reduction, endorphins also produce euphoric feelings that joggers experience.
 The belief that patients can be relieved from pain due to acupuncture and placebos can be partly explained
by the release of endorphins.

2.4. Major parts of the brain and their relationship to behavior

2.4.1. Major parts of the brain and their function
a. The central core
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  It is similar to that found in all vertebrates
 Its function is to control eating, sleeping and breathing.
b. The reticular formation
 It is made up of groups of nerve cells that can immediately activate other parts of the brain to produce
general bodily arousal.
Example: If we are startled by a loud noise the reticular formation prompts us to respond. The reticular
formation as well allows sleeping by guarding us from disturbing background noises.
c. The cerebellum
 Its function is to enable us to walk straight and control body balance
 It constantly monitors feedback from the muscles to coordinate their placement, movement and
coordination. Drinking too much alcohol affects the activity of the cerebellum, leading the person to
stagger.
d. The thalamus
 It is a station for messages coming from the eyes, ears, and skin and communicated upward to higher
parts of the brain.
 It integrates and sorts out information from higher parts of the brain and sends to the cerebellum and
medulla.
e. The hypothalamus
 It is located just below the thalamus
 It helps to maintain a balanced internal environment
 It regulates such behaviors as eating, drinking, sexual behaviors, aggression and nurturance of off
springs. c. The cerebral cortex
 It is part of the brain that distinguishes human kind from all other animals.
 Unique function of the brain, that allows human beings to think evaluate and make complex judgments
are principally located in the cerebral cortex.
The three major areas of the cortex are:
1. The motor area
 This area is responsible for the voluntary movement of particular parts of the body
 Every portion of the motor area corresponds to a specific locale within the body.
Example: If mild electrical stimulation were applied to a particular portion of the motor area, there would
be involuntary movement in the corresponding part of the body.
2. The sensory area
 This area includes three regions corresponding to the senses.
 The somatic sensory area corresponds to touch and pressure
 The auditory corresponds to sight
 The visual area corresponds to sound. Raw sensory inputs from the eyes are transformed into
meaningful stimuli.
3. The association areas
 The association areas are generally considered to be the site for higher mental processes such as
thinking, language, memory and speech. Damage to the association areas can result in:
 Personality changes that affect the ability to make moral judgments
 Apraxia: a condition in which an individual is unable to integrate activities in a rational or logical
manner Example: a person with apraxia when asked to open a lock with a key may be unable to do so in
response to the request.
 Aphasia: problem of verbal expression
Example: speech becomes halting, laborious and often ungrammatical Difficulty in understanding others
2.4.2. Major brain scanning techniques
Important advances have been made in the study of the brain. This has been possible by using the brain
scanning technique. This helped to understand about the internal workings of the brain without surgical
operations. The technique also offers possibilities for the diagnosis and treatment of brain disease and injuries.
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The most commonly used techniques are:
a. The Electroencephalogram (EEG) technique:
 This records the electrical signals being transmitted inside the brain through electrodes placed on the
outside of the skull.
 The brain’s electrical activity is transformed into a pictorial representation of the brain.
 The use of this technique enabled the diagnosis of epilepsy and some learning difficulties.
b. The Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT) scan:
 The scan uses a computer to construct an image of the brain by combining thousands of separate x-rays.
 Its use is to show abnormalities in the structure of the brain such as swelling and enlargement.
c. The Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scan:
 It provides detailed and vivid image of brain structure and individual bundles of nerves in other parts of
the body.
d. The Position Emission Tomography (PET) scan:
 It shows bio-chemical activity within the brain at a given moment.
 The computerized devise helps to determine the more active regions of the brain at work.
2.5. Major components and functions of endocrine systems
Definition: Endocrine system is a chemical communication network that sends messages through the nervous
system via the blood stream and secretes hormones that affect body growth and functioning.
Major components of the endocrine system are:
 Pituitary glands;
 Thyroid glands;
 Adrenal glands.
Major functions of the endocrine glands are:
 Regulate metabolism and growth;
 Regulate absorption of nutrients;
 Regulate fluid balance and ion concentration;
 Regulates the body’s response to stress;
 Regulates sexual characteristics, reproduction, birth and lactation.