Domain Archaea

1. Structure and Function

 Methanobacterium – Rod-shaped, anaerobic archaea that produce methane as a metabolic
byproduct (methanogenesis). Found in environments like deep-sea hydrothermal vents,
wetlands, and the guts of ruminants (e.g., cows, sheep). They play a key role in carbon cycling by
breaking down organic material in oxygen-free environments.

 Halobacterium – Extreme halophile (salt-loving), contains bacteriorhodopsin, a light-sensitive

pigment that helps it generate ATP. It thrives in environments such as the Dead Sea and salt
evaporation ponds. It can tolerate high salt concentrations by maintaining a high intracellular
potassium concentration to prevent dehydration.

 Thermoplasma – Lacks a cell wall, making it more flexible in shape. It thrives in acidic and high-
temperature environments (such as coal refuse piles and acidic hot springs). Its ability to survive
without a cell wall is due to a unique lipid monolayer membrane that provides stability.

 Sulfolobus – Thermoacidophilic, meaning it thrives in both high temperatures (70–80°C) and

acidic conditions (pH 2–3). It uses sulfur compounds as an energy source through oxidation,
playing a role in sulfur cycling in volcanic and hydrothermal environments.

2. Evolutionary Relationships
 Archaea share similarities with both bacteria and eukaryotes but are more closely related to
eukaryotes at the genetic and biochemical levels.

 Unlike bacteria, archaea have ether-linked lipids in their cell membranes, which provide stability
in extreme environments.

 Their unique enzymes allow them to function under conditions that would denature proteins in
other organisms, such as extreme heat or acidity.

3. Ecological Relationships
 Methanobacterium – Found in wetlands (swamps, bogs), digestive tracts of animals (cows,
termites), and deep-sea vents, where they contribute to methane production and carbon
cycling.

 Halobacterium – Essential in hypersaline environments, contributes to microbial mats and salt

crusts, and helps maintain ecosystem balance.

 Thermoplasma – Breaks down complex organic material, recycling nutrients in hot, acidic
environments.

 Sulfolobus – Recycles sulfur by oxidizing it, which influences nutrient availability in volcanic
environments.
Domain Bacteria
1. Structure and Function
 Agrobacterium – Gram-negative, rod-shaped, naturally infects plants and transfers genes into plant cells
using a plasmid (Ti plasmid). This makes it a useful tool in genetic engineering to introduce beneficial traits
into crops.

 Anabaena – Photosynthetic cyanobacterium that forms chains of cells (filamentous). It has specialized
nitrogen-fixing cells called heterocysts, which convert atmospheric nitrogen into a usable form for plants
in aquatic environments.

 Bacillus – Rod-shaped, forms highly resistant endospores that allow it to survive harsh conditions such as
drought and heat. Some species are used in food fermentation, while others cause diseases (e.g., Bacillus
anthracis, which causes anthrax).

 Escherichia (E. coli) – Facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped, found in the intestines of humans and animals.
Some strains aid digestion and produce vitamins (e.g., vitamin K), while pathogenic strains cause food
poisoning (e.g., E. coli O157:H7).

 Rhizobium – Forms symbiotic relationships with legumes, living inside root nodules where it fixes
atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia, which plants use for growth.

 Salmonella – Rod-shaped, motile bacteria that cause diseases such as food poisoning and typhoid fever. It
spreads through contaminated food and water, and some strains are resistant to antibiotics.

 Streptomyces – Filamentous, soil-dwelling bacteria that produce antibiotics such as streptomycin,

tetracycline, and erythromycin. It plays a vital role in decomposing organic matter in soil ecosystems.

2. Evolutionary Relationships
 Bacteria are among the earliest life forms, with fossil evidence dating back over 3.5 billion years.

 Cyanobacteria (like Anabaena) played a crucial role in the Great Oxygenation Event, which led to the
formation of Earth's oxygen-rich atmosphere.

 Many bacteria have co-evolved with plants and animals, forming mutualistic and pathogenic relationships.

3. Ecological Relationships
 Agrobacterium – Used in biotechnology to introduce beneficial traits into crops (e.g., pest resistance,
drought tolerance).

 Anabaena – Forms symbiotic relationships with aquatic plants, provides nitrogen for ecosystems, and
supports primary productivity.

 Bacillus – Some species are beneficial probiotics, while others are pathogens or decomposers.

 E. coli – Essential for gut health but also a major cause of foodborne illness.

 Rhizobium – Enhances soil fertility and reduces the need for chemical fertilizers.

 Salmonella – A major foodborne pathogen with outbreaks linked to poultry eggs and contaminated water.

 Streptomyces – Plays a critical role in producing antibiotics and breaking down organic material in soil.
Domain Eukarya
Kingdom Protista
1. Structure and Function
 Rhodophyta (Red Algae) – Chondrus
o Contains phycoerythrin, allowing it to photosynthesize in deeper waters.
o Used in food products like agar and carrageenan, which stabilize dairy products
and cosmetics.
 Phaeophyta (Brown Algae) – Sargassum
o Large seaweed with air bladders for buoyancy, forming floating ecosystems.
o Provides habitat for marine life, including fish and sea turtles.
 Bacillariophyta (Diatoms) – Navicula
o Has a silica-based shell, contributing to sediment formation.
o Produces 20–30% of Earth's oxygen, essential for marine food webs.
 Euglenophyta – Euglena
o Moves via flagella, switches between photosynthesis and heterotrophic
feeding.
o Indicator species for water pollution.
 Chlorophyta (Green Algae)
o Chlamydomonas – Small, motile, adapts to different light conditions.
o Spirogyra – Forms slimy green mats, oxygenates water bodies.
o Chlorella – High in protein, used in biofuel and health supplements.
o Ulothrix – Thrives in cold environments, reproduces through spores.
 Rhizopoda (Amoebas) – Amoeba
o Uses pseudopodia for movement and engulfing food.
o Important decomposer in aquatic ecosystems.
 Zoomastigophora (Flagellates) – Trypanosoma
o Causes African sleeping sickness, transmitted by tsetse flies.
 Apicomplexa (Sporozoans) – Plasmodium
 o Causes malaria, requires both mosquito and human hosts.
 Ciliophora (Ciliates) – Paramecium
o Moves with cilia, has specialized feeding structures.

Kingdom Fungi
1. Structure and Function
 Zygomycota – Mucor
o Decomposes organic matter, forms zygospores during reproduction.
 Ascomycota (Sac Fungi)
o Claviceps – Produces ergot toxins, used in medicine (e.g., LSD precursors).
o Penicillium – Source of penicillin, used in cheese-making.
o Saccharomyces – Ferments sugars, vital for brewing and baking.
 Basidiomycota – Agaricus
o Includes edible mushrooms, plays a role in decomposing wood.

Kingdom plantae
1. Structure and Function
Non-Vascular Plants (No true roots, stems, or leaves, reproduces via spores)
 Bryophyta (Polytrichum, Sphagnum) – Mosses, absorb water directly from the environment,
help in soil formation.

 Hepatophyta (Marchantia) – Liverworts, flat, leaf-like body, grows in moist habitats.

Early Vascular Plants (Have stems but no seeds)

 Rhynophyta (Rhynia) – Extinct, one of the first vascular plants, simple branching stems.

 Lycopodiophyta (Lycopodium) – Club mosses, small, spore-producing plants.

 Equisetophyta (Equisetum) – Horsetails, have jointed stems with silica, grow in wet areas.

 Polypodiophyta (Pteridium) – Ferns, reproduce via spores, have fronds and underground stems
(rhizomes).

Gymnosperms (Seed plants without flowers, mostly cones)

  Ginkgophyta (Ginkgo) – Only one species (Ginkgo biloba), fan-shaped leaves, resistant to
pollution.

 Pinophyta (Pinus) – Conifers, needle-like leaves, produce cones, adapted to dry conditions.

 Cycadophyta (Cycas) – Palm-like plants, produce large cones, ancient group of seed plants.

Angiosperms (Flowering plants, seeds enclosed in fruit)

 Magnoliophyta (Flowering plants)
o Magnoliopsida (Dicots - broad leaves, branching veins)
 Magnoliaceae (Magnolia) – Large flowers, early-evolving flowering plants.

 Ranunculaceae (Ranunculus, Pulsatilla) – Buttercups, medicinal plants.

 Rosaceae (Rosa, Malus, Prunus) – Roses, apples (Malus), cherries (Prunus).

 Fabaceae (Pisum) – Legumes, fix nitrogen, includes peas.

 Oleaceae (Syringa) – Lilacs, aromatic flowers.

 Fagaceae (Quercus) – Oaks, strong wood, produces acorns.

 Cactaceae (Opuntia) – Cacti, adapted to arid environments.

 Brassicaceae (Brassica) – Mustard family, includes cabbage and broccoli.

 Lamiaceae (Lamium) – Mint family, aromatic herbs.

 Solanaceae (Solanum) – Includes potatoes, tomatoes, and eggplants.

 Asteraceae (Helianthus) – Sunflowers, daisies, composite flower heads.

o Liliopsida (Monocots - narrow leaves, parallel veins)

 Liliaceae (Lilium, Allium) – Lilies (Lilium), onions/garlic (Allium).

 Orchidaceae (Orchis) – Orchids, highly diverse flowers.

 Poaceae (Zea, Triticum, Bambusa) – Grasses, includes corn (Zea), wheat

(Triticum), bamboo (Bambusa).

 Arecaceae (Cocos) – Palms, includes coconut trees.

  Araceae (Monstera) – Tropical plants, large perforated leaves.

2. Evolutionary Relationships
 Early plants (mosses, liverworts) evolved before vascular plants.

 Ferns and horsetails were dominant in ancient forests.

 Gymnosperms like Ginkgo and Pinus came before flowering plants.

 Angiosperms (flowering plants) are the most diverse and evolved group.

3. Ecological Relationships
 Non-vascular plants – Help retain moisture in ecosystems, support soil formation.

 Ferns and horsetails – Prevent soil erosion, provide habitat.

 Gymnosperms – Form forests, provide oxygen, timber, and shelter.

 Angiosperms – Most important for food, medicine, and ecological balance.

Kingdom Animalia
1. Structure and Function – Simple Animals (No Backbone - Invertebrates)
 P. Porifera (Sponges) – Euspongia

o Sessile, porous body, filter feeders in aquatic environments.

 P. Cnidaria (Jellyfish, Corals, Anemones)

o C. Hydrozoa – Hydra: Simple freshwater organism with tentacles.

o C. Scyphozoa – Aurelia: True jellyfish with pulsating movement.

o C. Anthozoa – Corallium: Coral species that build reefs.

 P. Platyhelminthes (Flatworms)

o C. Turbellaria – Polycellis: Free-living flatworm.

o C. Trematoda – Fasciola: Liver fluke, parasitic.

o C. Cestoda – Taenia: Tapeworm, absorbs nutrients in host intestines.

 P. Nematoda (Roundworms) – Ascaris, Trichinella

 o Parasitic worms, can cause infections in humans and animals.

 P. Mollusca (Mollusks)

o C. Gastropoda – Helix, Arion: Snails and slugs, use a muscular foot for movement.

o C. Bivalvia – Ostrea, Mytilus: Oysters and mussels, filter feeders with two shells.

o C. Cephalopoda – Sepia, Octopus: Squid and octopuses, highly intelligent, use jet
propulsion.

 P. Annelida (Segmented Worms)

o C. Polychaeta – Nereis: Marine worms with bristles.

o C. Oligochaeta – Lumbricus: Earthworms, help with soil aeration.

o C. Hirudinea – Hirudo: Leeches, some are used in medicine.

 P. Arthropoda (Largest Animal Phylum)

o SP. Crustacea – Astacus, Daphnia, Cyclops: Crayfish, water fleas, planktonic organisms.

o SP. Chelicerata – Euscorpius, Araneus, Ixodes: Scorpions, spiders, ticks.

o SP. Myriapoda – Scolopendra (centipedes), Julus (millipedes).

o SP. Hexapoda – C. Insecta (Insects): Diverse group, includes butterflies, flies, beetles,
ants, etc.

 P. Echinodermata (Spiny-skinned marine animals)

o C. Asteroidea – Asterias: Starfish, regenerates limbs.

o C. Echinoidea – Echinus: Sea urchins, spiny shells.

o C. Holothuroidea – Holothuria: Sea cucumbers, filter feeders.

2. Vertebrates (P. Chordata - Animals with a Backbone)

Simple Vertebrates

 SP. Urochordata – Ascidia: Tunicates, filter-feeding marine organisms.

 SP. Cephalochordata – Branchiostoma: Lancelets, primitive fish-like animals.

Jawless and Cartilaginous Fish

 SC. Agnatha – Petromyzon: Lampreys, jawless fish with sucker mouths.

 C. Chondrichthyes – Scyliorhinus, Carcharodon: Sharks and rays, cartilaginous skeletons.

Bony Fish
  SC. Actinopterygii – Acipenser, Clupea, Salmo, Carassius, Muraena: Sturgeons, herring, salmon,
carp, moray eels.

 SC. Sarcopterygii – Lepidosiren, Latimeria: Lungfish and coelacanths, thought to be ancestors of

amphibians.

Amphibians (Moist-skinned, lay eggs in water)

 O. Caudata – Salamandra: Salamanders, have tails.

 O. Anura – Rana, Bufo: Frogs and toads, adapted for jumping.

Reptiles (Cold-blooded, scaly, lay eggs on land)

 O. Testudinata – Testudo: Tortoises, slow-moving, long-lived.

 O. Crocodylia – Crocodylus: Crocodiles, powerful jaws, semi-aquatic.

 O. Squamata – Lacerta, Vipera: Lizards and snakes, some venomous.

Birds (Aves - Feathers, beaks, lay eggs)

 O. Struthioniformes – Struthio: Ostriches, large flightless birds.

 O. Sphenisciformes – Spheniscus: Penguins, adapted for swimming.

 O. Ciconiiformes – Ciconia: Storks, long legs for wading.

 O. Anseriformes – Anser: Ducks and geese, waterfowl.

 O. Falconiformes – Falco: Falcons, birds of prey.

 O. Galliformes – Gallus: Chickens and pheasants.

 O. Columbiformes – Columba: Pigeons and doves.

 O. Strigiformes – Strix: Owls, nocturnal hunters.

 O. Piciformes – Dryocopus: Woodpeckers, strong beaks for drilling.

 O. Passeriformes – Parus, Passer: Songbirds, most diverse bird order.

Mammals (Warm-blooded, hair, milk production)

 O. Monotremata – Ornithorhynchus: Platypus, lays eggs.

 O. Marsupialia – Macropus: Kangaroos, carry young in pouches.

 O. Insectivora – Erinaceus, Talpa: Hedgehogs, moles.

 O. Chiroptera – Myotis: Bats, only flying mammals.

 O. Rodentia – Mus, Rattus: Mice, rats, gnawing mammals.

 O. Carnivora – Ursus, Canis, Felis: Bears, dogs, cats, predators.

  O. Proboscidea – Elephas: Elephants, largest land mammals.

 O. Perissodactyla – Equus: Horses, odd-toed hoofed mammals.

 O. Artiodactyla – Sus, Bos: Pigs, cows, even-toed hoofed mammals.

 O. Cetacea – Delphinus: Dolphins, intelligent marine mammals.

 O. Primates – Cebus, Macaca, Hylobates, Pan, Gorilla, Pongo, Homo: Monkeys, apes, humans.

3. Evolutionary Relationships
 Invertebrates evolved first, followed by simple vertebrates like fish.

 Amphibians evolved from fish and led to reptiles, which later gave rise to birds and mammals.

 Mammals and birds are warm-blooded, an advanced trait for survival.

4. Ecological Roles
 Sponges & Corals – Filter water, build reef ecosystems.

 Insects – Pollinators, decomposers, disease carriers.

 Birds & Mammals – Control populations, spread seeds, important in food chains.