Jordan University of Science and Technology

GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION
SYSTEMS I (URP361)

College of Architecture and Design

Department of City Planning and Design

Eng.Deema Al-Shboul 2024/2025 Eng. Deema A. Al-Shboul 1

 Jordan University of Science and Technology
Related to Lecture #2
Learning Objectives:
 Define developable surface and geographical projections.

Eng.Deema Al-Shboul 2024/2025 2

 Geographic Projection

Map Projection is a systematic

rendering of locations from the
curved earth surface onto a
flat map surface

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Developable Surfaces
• A surface that can be made flat by cutting along a certain line and unrolling it.
• Geographical projections are done using developable surface.
• Two commonly used developable surfaces are a cylinder and a cone.

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Types of Map Projections
1. By developable surface used
• Planar
• Cylindrical
• Conical

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Types of Map Projections
1. By Developable Surface Used
• Planar
• Cylindrical
• Conical

2. By Placement of Surface
• Tangential
• Secant

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Types of Map Projections
1. By Developable Surface Used
• Planar
• Cylindrical
• Conical

2. By Placement of Surface
• Tangential
• Secant

3. By Orientation of Surface
• Equatorial
• Transverse
• Oblique
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Types of Map Projections
4. By Distortion

• Conformal/Orthomorphic • Preserve SHAPE

• Equidistant • Preserve SCALE

• Azimuthal • Preserve DIRECTION

• Equal-area • Preserve AREA

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Common GIS Projections
Lambert Conformal Conic Projection Transverse Mercator Projection

• Cone-Secant • Cylinder-Tangent-Transverse

Eng.Deema Al-Shboul 2024/2025 9

 Jordan University of Science and Technology
Lecture #3
Learning Objectives:
 Describe representation of world with spatial data model.
 Explain vector data model and differentiate various vector features.
 Explain raster data model and spatial resolution.
 Compare raster and vector data models.
 List and define nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio data types.
Eng.Deema Al-Shboul 2024/2025 10
 Jordan University of Science and Technology

Learning Objectives:
 Describe representation of world with spatial data model.
 Explain vector data model and differentiate various vector features.
 Explain raster data model and spatial resolution.
 Compare raster and vector data models.
 List and define nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio data types.
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 Spatial Data Model
Spatial Data Spatial Data Model
• Data with location • Simplified view of a physical entity
• Intersection of streets • A point with name
• Boundary of region • A polygon with a name
• Path of River • A polyline with a name
• Elevation • A point with number (meters)
• Temperature • A point with number (F˚)

Model
• A model is a representation of an object.
• It is not the actual object.
• It is not a duplicate of the object.
• It is not exact.
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 Location of Data: Geographical Coordinates
A geographical coordinate system uses a three dimensional sphere/ellipse surface to
define locations on the earth surface.

• Small regions are approximately flat and

are referenced with Cartesian coordinates
with length measurements (X,Y).

• Large regions have curvature and can be

referenced with spherical coordinates
with angular measurements.

• Angels are expressed with degree-minute-

second (DMS) and decimal-degree (DD)
units. Eng.Deema Al-Shboul 2024/2025 13
Spatial Data Model
Spatial data models capture: Geometry (the location of data), Attribute (characteristics), and
Topology (structure of data in space).
Geometry
Geometry
• Point
• Location
• Line
• Grid size
• Polygon
• Cell shape
Attribute
Attribute
• Land cover
• Land cover
Topology
Topology
• Adjacency
• Grid order Raster Model Vector Model
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Eng.Deema Al-Shboul 2024/2025 15
 Jordan University of Science and Technology

Learning Objectives:
 Describe representation of world with spatial data model.
 Explain vector data model and differentiate various vector features.
 Explain raster data model and spatial resolution.
 Compare raster and vector data models.
 List and define nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio data types.
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Feature Representation
Vector vs. Raster
To work in a GIS environment, real-world observations (objects or events that can be
recorded in 2D or 3D space) need to be reduced to spatial entities. These spatial entities
can be represented in a GIS as a vector data model or a raster data model.

Vector and raster representations of a river feature

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Vector
• Real world is represented by vector i.e., directed line segments.
• A vector is directed line segment. It vector is stored in a computer by start coordinates (x1,y1) and
end coordinates (x2,y2).
• Direction implies order, i.e., it goes from A to B.
• Vector features can be decomposed into Four different geometric primitives: points, polylines,
polygons and TINs (Triangulated irregular network).

B: (x2,y2)

A: (x1,y1)
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Vector Data Model
In a vector data model, the geometrical information of physical entities is represented
using vectors. For example, a rectangle can be represented with four vectors, road
curve can be represented by many vectors, and a manhole with zero length vector.

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Vector Features
There are three types of vector features:
1. Point: A vector of zero length start and end points are the same.
2. Polyline: Many points connected to each other with vectors.
3. Polygon: A polyline whose start and end points are the same

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 Vector_ Point
A point is composed of one coordinate pair (x,y) representing a specific
location in a coordinate system.
Points are the most basic geometric primitives having no length or area.

By definition a point can’t be “seen” since it has no

area; but this is not practical if such primitives are
to be mapped. So points on a map are represented Three point objects defined by their X
and Y coordinate values.
using symbols that have both area and shape (e.g.
circle, square, plus signs).

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 Vector_ Polyline
A polyline is composed of a sequence of two or more
coordinate pairs called vertices. A vertex is defined by
coordinate pairs, just like a point, but what differentiates a
vertex from a point is its explicitly defined relationship with
neighboring vertices.
A vertex is connected to at least one other vertex.
And like a point, a line is symbolized using shapes that have a
color, width and style (e.g. solid, dashed, dotted, etc…).
Roads and rivers are commonly stored as polylines in a GIS.

A simple polyline object defined by connected vertices

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 Vector_ Polygon
A polygon is composed of three or more line segments whose
starting and ending coordinate pairs are the same.
1. Polygons represent both length (i.e. the perimeter of the
area) and area.
2. They also embody the idea of an inside and an outside; in
fact, the area that a polygon encloses is explicitly defined in a
GIS environment. If it isn’t, then you are working with a
polyline feature

A simple polygon object defined by an area enclo

connected vertices.
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 Examples of Vector Features
1. Points: water hydrant, stream Points

gage, accident location.

Polygons
2. Polylines: street, river, track of
hurricane. Polylines

3. Polygons: campus boundary,

building footprint, lake shore.

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 Vector Attribute Data
Points

Polylines

Polygons
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Vector Data File Formats
Despite what its name may imply, a “single” shapefile is actually composed of at least three files, and
as many as eight. Each file that makes up a “shapefile” has a common filename but different extension
types.
The list of files that define a “shapefile” are shown in the following table. Note that each file has a
specific role in defining a shapefile.

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File Geodatabase
A file geodatabase is a relational database storage format. It’s a far more complex
data structure than the shapefile and consists of a .gdb folder housing dozens of files.
Its An example of the contents of a geodatabase is shown in the following figure.

Sample content of an ArcGIS file geodatabase

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 Vector Feature Classes in GIS
Point, Polyline, and Polygon are saved in:
Geodatabase eg. USA_Data.gbd:
• Contains multiple features for same area, projection, and coordinate system.
• Proprietary format.

Shpefile eg. LasVegas_Boundary.shp and LasVegas_Streets.shp

• Contains a single feature.
• Open source format

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 Jordan University of Science and Technology

Learning Objectives:
 Describe representation of world with spatial data model.
 Explain vector data model and differentiate various vector features.
 Explain raster data model and spatial resolution.
 Compare raster and vector data models.
 List and define nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio data types.
Eng.Deema Al-Shboul 2024/2025 29
 Raster Data Model (Matrix)
• Real world is represented by uniform grid
pattern.
• The grid data is stored in a computer as a
matrix of pixels (picture element).
• Each cell (column, row) coordinates
correspond to (longitude, latitude) on the
ground.

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 Raster Data Model
In a raster data model, the geometrical information of physical entities is represented
using a matrix. For examples, a the rasteres (matrices) representing surface land use and
elevation

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 Spatial Resolution
Raster Data
• Spatial resolution in the size of ground
grid cell represented by a pixel in the
raster (matrix) data.

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Example: Spatial Resolution of Raster Data
• Digital elevation Model (DEM) data at three spatial resolutions.
• Small cell size (28km) is higher resolution and has greater surface details.

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 Pure Pixels vs Mixed Pixels (Mixels)
Consider Land Cover raster model data with two
classes: land and water:
• Cell A is a pure pixel (land)
• Cells B, C, and D are mixed pixels.
• Mixels are assigned a value based on majority class
• Therefore, B is water, C and D are land.
• Reducing pixel size (i.e., increasing spatial resolution) will
reduce mixels.

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Raster Attribute Data

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 Raster

A raster data model uses an array of cells, or pixels, to

represent real-world objects. Raster datasets are commonly
used for representing and managing imagery, surface
temperatures, digital elevation models, and numerous
other entities.

A simple raster object defined by a 10x10

array of cells or pixels.

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Raster
Also note that a raster data structure is square or rectangular. So, if the features in
a raster do not cover the full square or rectangular extent, their pixel values will be
set to no data values (e.g. NULL or NoData).

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 Raster Data File Formats
• Imagine
The Imagine file format was originally created by an image processing
software company called ERDAS. This file format consists of a single .img
file. This is a simpler file format than the vector shapefile. It is sometimes
accompanied by an .xml file which usually stores metadata information
about the raster layer.

• GeoTiff
A popular public domain raster data format is the GeoTIFF format. If
maximum portability and platform independence is important, this file
format may be a good choice.
Eng.Deema Al-Shboul 2024/2025 38
 Jordan University of Science and Technology

Learning Objectives:
 Describe representation of world with spatial data model.
 Explain vector data model and differentiate various vector features.
 Explain raster data model and spatial resolution.
 Compare raster and vector data models.
 List and define nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio data types.
Eng.Deema Al-Shboul 2024/2025 39
Vector vs. Raster

Eng.Deema Al-Shboul 2024/2025 40

Conversion between Vector and Raster

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 Jordan University of Science and Technology

Learning Objectives:
 Describe representation of world with spatial data model.
 Explain vector data model and differentiate various vector features.
 Explain raster data model and spatial resolution.
 Compare raster and vector data models.
 List and define nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio data types.
Eng.Deema Al-Shboul 2024/2025 42
 Vector Attribute Data
Points

Polylines

Polygons
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Raster Attribute Data

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 Non-Spatial Data in GIS
Data

Made of words: Made of numbers:

Eye color, gender, blood Categorical Numerical Age, weight, number of
type children

Interval/ Ratio/
Nominal Ordinal
Discrete Continuous

Data has NO hierarchy Data has hierarchy Finite options Infinite options
Blood type, eye color Pain severity, satisfaction
Eng.Deema Al-Shboul Number
2024/2025 of children Age, weight, blood 45
rating, mood pressure
 Non-Spatial Data in GIS
Attributes = non-spatial characteristics associated with spatial data.

• Nominal = A unique identifier or unique type.

Categorical • Ordinal = Ranked data.

• Interval = Difference between numbers is

Numeric significant, but no fixed non-arbitrary zero point.
• Ratio = Difference between numbers is significant,
and there is a fixed non-arbitrary zero value.
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Variable/Data Types
1. Gender (Women, Men)
Nominal 2. JOBS (teacher, doctor, dentist)
Categorical 3. Ethnicity (Asian, European)
Qualitative Ordinal 1. First, Second, Third
2. Letter grades (A+, A, A-, B+)
3. Economic status (Low, Medium,
height)
1. The number of students in the
Discrete class
Numerical 2. {1,2,3,…}
Quantitative 3. Number of pets
Continuous
1. The height of children (1.41 m)
2. The speed of the car
3. Weights (105.3 kg, 73.5 kg)
Example
Mid-Term Exam

Quantitative Qualitative

90%, 97.5%, 68%, … and so on A+, B, C-, … and so on