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Howard Cam Luong · Jun Yin

Transformer-Based
Design Techniques
for Oscillators and
Frequency Dividers
Transformer-Based Design Techniques
for Oscillators and Frequency Dividers
Howard Cam Luong • Jun Yin

Transformer-Based Design
Techniques for Oscillators
and Frequency Dividers
Howard Cam Luong Jun Yin
ECE department State Key Laboratory of Analog
Hong Kong University and Mixed-Signal VLSI
of Science and Technology University of Macau
Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR Taipa, Macau, China

ISBN 978-3-319-15873-0 ISBN 978-3-319-15874-7 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-15874-7

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015946239

Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or
dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt
from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
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Preface

Voltage-controlled oscillators (VCOs) and frequency dividers are two of the key
building blocks in phase-locked loops (PLLs) and frequency synthesizers, not only
to generate clean LO signals for frequency conversion in wireless transceivers but
also to generate accurate high-frequency clock signals for wireline systems. As the
system applications continue to demand higher and higher performance in terms of
higher frequency, wider bandwidth, lower phase noise, and lower power consump-
tion, the design of these building blocks becomes more and more challenging, in
particular in aggressively scaled low-voltage CMOS processes for low cost and
high system-on-chip integration.
Many years ago, we published a book entitled “Low-Voltage CMOS RF
Frequency Synthesizers” to discuss and summarize various inductor-based design
techniques for low-voltage high-performance frequency synthesizers. The main
focus was on low-voltage and low-power designs for narrow-band applications,
in which integrated inductors play a critical role. However, due to their high-Q and
narrow-band characteristics, these design techniques have limited applications in
recently emerging multi-band multi-mode and software-defined radios. Fortu-
nately, transformer-based design techniques have recently been developed and
emerged as potential replacement of integrated inductors for more features and
even better performance. However, to the best of our knowledge, there has still been
no book aiming to introduce transformer-based low-voltage and wideband CMOS
VCOs and frequency dividers.
As continuation and complementary to our previous book and intended for
engineers, mangers, researchers, and students who are working on or interested in
CMOS radio frequency or mm-Wave integrated circuits and systems, this book
presents in-depth description and discussion of transformer-based design tech-
niques that enable CMOS oscillators and frequency dividers to achieve ultra-wide
frequency tuning range and ultra-wide frequency locking range while maintaining
state-of-the-art performance in terms of high operation frequency, low supply
voltage, good phase noise, and low power consumption. In addition to the design,
simulation, and characterization of integrated transformers for different

v
vi Preface

applications, this book will also discuss their unique characteristics and features
that enable performance improvement, such as passive coupling or multiple imped-
ance peaks, which have not been covered in any of the existing books. Finally, to
illustrate the usefulness of these transformer-based design techniques, design con-
sideration and optimization of various CMOS oscillators and frequency dividers for
different applications together with their measured performance are elaborated,
focusing on not only ultra-low supply voltage but also ultra-wide frequency tuning
range and locking range at very high frequencies.
More specifically, detailed description and discussion of the following selected
designs will be included in the book.
1. A transformer-feedback VCO (TF-VCO) features high swing and low phase
noise even at a supply voltage below the device threshold voltage. Fabricated in
a 0.18-μm CMOS process, a 1.4-GHz PMOS TF-VCO achieves an FoM of
190 at 0.35-V supply voltage, and a 3.8-GHz NMOS TF-VCO achieves an FoM
of 193 at 0.5-V supply voltage.
2. A quadrature VCO using transformer coupling (TC-QVCO) eliminates both
noise and power consumption by active coupling devices in existing QVCOs
while exhibiting all advantages in the TF-VCO. Fabricated in a 0.18-μm CMOS
process, a 17-GHz TC-QVCO achieves an FoM of 187.6 and a phase error of
1.4 at 1-V supply voltage.
3. A transformer-based dual-mode VCO achieves a wide frequency tuning range
exploiting the two impedance peaks of a transformer tank. Fabricated in a 0.13-μ
m CMOS process, the 2.7-to-4.3 GHz and 8.4-to-12.4 GHz dual-mode QVCO
achieves average FoMT of 195 and 203 in the two bands, respectively.
4. A magnetically tuned multi-mode VCO (MT-VCO) measures ultra-wide
frequency tuning range around 70 GHz by changing the coupling coefficient
of the transformer. Fabricated in a 65-nm CMOS process, the 57.1-to-90.1 GHz
MT-VCO achieves an average FoMT of 188.2 at 1-V supply.
5. Transformer-feedback injection-locked frequency dividers (TF-ILFDs) feature
quadrature outputs with enhanced output swing even with low supply and low
power. Fabricated in a 0.18-μm CMOS process, a 18.1-GHz TF-ILFD
with differential outputs achieves 21.6 % locking range when consumes
2.75–4.35 mW at 0.5-V supply, and a 17.5-GHz TF-ILFD with quadrature
outputs achieves 27.8 % locking range when consuming 11.4–13.6 mW at a
0.6-V supply.
6. A self-frequency-tracking injection-locked frequency divider (SFT-ILFD) uti-
lizing transformer to generate the injection current with frequency-dependent
phase shift to extend the locking range. Fabricated in a 65-nm CMOS process, a
62.9-GHz SFT-ILFD achieves 29 % locking range while consuming 1.9 mW at a
0.8-V supply voltage.

Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR Howard Cam Luong

Taipa, Macau, China Jun Yin
Acknowledgements

It is our great pleasure to have this opportunity to acknowledge and to express our
sincere gratitude to many people who have been directly or indirectly contributing
to this work.
We are whole-heartedly indebted and grateful to Ka-Chun Kwok, Alan
Wing-Lun Ng, Tay Hui Zheng, and Annby Sujiang Rong for their great work and
contribution on transformer-based VCOs, QVCOs, and ILFDs that play an impor-
tant part of this book.
Our special thanks go to Fred Kwok for his enthusiastic and indispensable technical
effort and support in preparing testing setup and enabling good measurements.
We would like to thank many other students in the Analog Research Laboratory
in the ECE Department of HKUST, namely Liang Wu, Shiyuan Zheng, and Charry
Yue Chao, for sharing many fruitful discussions and many sleepless nights before
project tape-out, without which it would not be possible for us to acquire good
understanding of the topic to complete this book.
Technical support and assistance by many technical officers in the ECE
Department at HKUST, in particular Siu-Fai Luk, Kenny Pang, John Law, and
Jacob Lai, are greatly appreciated.
We would also like to acknowledge valuable financial support from various
funding agencies including Hong Kong General Research Funding (GRF), Hong
Kong Innovation Technology Funding (ITF) and Macao Science and Technology
Development Fund (FDCT). Generous sponsorship and donations for university
programs and chip fabrication from Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Corpo-
ration (TSMC), MediaTek in Singapore (MSL), and Broadcom Foundation are also
highly appreciated.
Lastly, we are indebted to our family members (Kim Truong, Lilian Luong, and
Mengzhu Luo) for their constant love, support, encouragement, and patience
throughout the projects and during the writing of this book.

Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR Howard Cam Luong

Taipa, Macau, China Jun Yin

vii
Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Book Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2 Transformer Design and Characterization
in CMOS Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Transformer Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 Transformer Measurement and Characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3 Design Considerations for CMOS Voltage-Controlled
Oscillators (VCOs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.1 Basic Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.1.1 Start-Up Oscillation Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.1.2 Phase-Noise Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.1.3 LC-Tank Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.1.4 Frequency Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2 Phase-Noise Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.2.1 Linear and Time-Invariant (LTI) Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2.2 Linear and Time-Variant (LTV) Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.3 Design Insights Using the Time-Variant Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.3.1 Phase Noise in 1/f 2 Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.3.2 Phase Noise in 1/f 3 Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.3.3 Comparison of Different LC-VCO Topologies . . . . . . . . 43
3.3.4 VCO Figure of Merit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.4 Quadrature VCOs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.5 Low-Voltage CMOS VCOs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.6 Wideband CMOS VCOs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

ix
x Contents

4 Design Considerations for CMOS Frequency Dividers . . . . . . . . . . 57

4.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.2 Latch-Based Frequency Dividers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.3 Injection-Locked Frequency Dividers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.3.1 Indirect-Injection ILFDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.3.2 Direct-Injection ILFDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.3.3 Design Consideration for the LC-Tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.3.4 Phase-Noise Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.3.5 ILFD Figure of Merit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.4 Miller Frequency Dividers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5 Ultralow-Voltage VCO and QVCO Using
Transformer Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.2 Transformer-Feedback VCO (TF-VCO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5.2.1 Topology and Circuit Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5.2.2 Oscillation Frequency and Phase Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.2.3 Circuit Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.2.4 Experimental Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.3 Transformer-Coupled QVCO (TC-QVCO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.3.1 Topology and Circuit Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.3.2 Oscillation Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.3.3 IQ Imbalance and Phase Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.3.4 Circuit Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.3.5 Experimental Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6 Transformer-Based Dual-Mode VCO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6.2 Analysis of the Transformer-Based
Dual-Mode Oscillators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6.2.1 One-Port Oscillators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6.2.2 Two-Port Oscillators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
6.2.3 Comparison of One-Port
and Two-Port Oscillators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
6.3 Case Study of a Dual-Mode QVCO for SDR
Frequency Synthesizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
6.3.1 Circuit Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
6.3.2 Experimental Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Contents xi

7 Magnetically-Tuned Multimode CMOS VCO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
7.2 Transformer-Based Magnetic-Tuning Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
7.2.1 Working Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
7.2.2 Analysis of the Switched-Triple-Shielded
Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
7.3 Design and Analysis of the MT-VCO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
7.4 Experimental Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
8 Transformer-Based Injection-Locked
Frequency Divider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
8.2 Ultralow-Voltage ILFDs Using Transformer Feedback . . . . . . . . 162
8.2.1 Regenerative-ILFD Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
8.2.2 Ultralow-Voltage Regenerative ILFD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
8.2.3 Experimental Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
8.3 Self-Frequency-Tracking ILFD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
8.3.1 Locking Range Limitation of the Conventional
Direct-Injection ILFDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
8.3.2 Self-Frequency-Tracking ILFD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
8.3.3 Experimental Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
9 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Chapter 1
Introduction

1.1 Motivation

Wireless and wireline transceiver systems have greatly been benefited from the
aggressive scaling down of CMOS technology to improve their performance in
terms of speed, power, and form factor. On the other hand, the CMOS technology
scaling down also imposes great challenges to designs of radio frequency (RF) and
analog circuits mainly because the supply voltage (VDD) scales much faster than the
threshold voltage (Vth) of CMOS transistors. From Fig. 1.1, the available overdrive
voltage (VDD Vth) in 65-nm CMOS technology is reduced to around 0.5 V, which
limits the voltage headroom and significantly degrades the performance of RF and
analog circuits.
For emerging applications powered by various energy-harvesting methods, the
generated supply voltage VDD may be as low as or even lower than the device
threshold voltage Vth, which limits practical use of many conventional RF and
analog integrated circuits design techniques. Although on-chip boost converters can
be employed to increase the supply voltage, for applications with such low input
voltages and large voltage conversion ratios, their limited efficiency of around
40–75 % would cause significant power penalty [2]. Instead, exploiting RF and
analog circuit techniques that can work under supply voltage close to Vth has been
proven to be a promising solution to greatly reduce the power consumption [3].
On the other hand, emerging wireless applications utilizing much high carrier
frequencies can take advantages of the large bandwidth available to provide
services with data rate of multi-gigabit per second. For example, the IEEE
802.11ad (WiGig) standard [4] and IEEE 802.15.3c standard [5] located at
60 GHz provide available bandwidth of 9 GHz. However, design of wideband
transceivers to cover such a large bandwidth at such a high frequency becomes
quite challenging.
RF frequency synthesizers based on phase-locked loops (PLLs) to provide the
local oscillation (LO) signals for frequency conversion is one of the key building

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 1

H.C. Luong, J. Yin, Transformer-Based Design Techniques for Oscillators
and Frequency Dividers, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-15874-7_1
2 1 Introduction

VDD
5
Vth
4
Voltage [V]

0
1.4 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.35 0.25 0.18 0.13 0.09 0.065
CMOS Technology [µm]

Fig. 1.1 Scaling down of supply voltage (VDD) and threshold voltage (Vth) with the CMOS
technologies [1]

blocks in wireless transceivers. The quality of the LO signals in terms of phase

noise and spur would significantly affect the performance of the whole transceivers,
such as the receiver sensitivity and the transmitter spurious emission. For PLLs,
researches have recently focused more and more on the digital-intensive designs to
make use of aggressive scaling down in CMOS technologies [6]. In digital PLLs
(DPLLs), although there are digital substitutes for the phase-frequency detector
(PFD), loop filter, and even frequency dividers operating at several GHz, the
voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) or the digitally controlled oscillator (DCO)
still needs to be designed in the analog domain due to its high operating frequency
and stringent noise performance requirement. Similarly, at millimeter-wave
(mm-Wave) frequencies, the frequency dividers serving as prescalers also need to
be carefully designed in the analog domain for high performance in terms of
frequency, locking range, and power consumption [7].
VCOs and frequency dividers, as the two critical building blocks operating at the
highest frequencies, directly affect the output frequency range and the out-of-band
phase noise of the whole PLLs. LC-VCOs as shown in Fig. 1.2a are usually
employed in the frequency synthesizers for wireless applications since LO signals
with low out-band phase noise are required to meet the stringent blocker or spurious
emission requirement for the receiver or transmitter, respectively. For the design of
frequency divider, although current-mode logic (CML) dividers are fast enough for
applications at giga-Hz frequency range in submicron CMOS process,
injection-locked frequency dividers (ILFDs) [8, 9] with inductive tank as shown
in Fig. 1.2b and c are still a necessity at mm-Wave frequencies since they feature
higher operation frequencies with lower power consumption compared with CML
dividers [10, 11]. For LC-VCOs and LC-ILFDs based on conventional LC tanks,
their performance such as noise, operating frequency range, and driving capabilities
would degrade rapidly with the scaling down of supply voltage, which limits their
1.1 Motivation 3

Fig. 1.2 Schematic of conventional (a) LC-VCO, (b) LC-ILFD with direct injection, and (c)
LC-ILFD with indirection injection from current bias

usage as the CMOS technology is further scaled down. Even worse, for the
applications requires a supply voltage lower than the device threshold voltage
Vth, the conventional LC-VCOs and LC-ILFDs may fail to work properly since
the cross-coupled transistors cannot provide large enough negative transcon-
ductance to compensate the loss from the LC tank.
For the design of LC tanks in conventional LC-VCOs and LC-ILFDs, high tank
quality factor (Q) is preferred to suppress the noise while still maintaining low
power consumption. On the other hand, the narrowband frequency response char-
acteristics of a high-Q tank would in turn limit the operating frequency range of
LC-VCOs and the locking range of LC-ILFDs. In particular, it would impose a
critical challenge in modern RF transceivers that can support multi-standard and
multiband applications or even the software-defined radio (SDR) and cognitive
radio applications, in which ultra-wideband LOs are required. The most straight-
forward way to cover a wide frequency range is to duplicate multiple narrowband
LC VCOs and to multiplex their outputs [12, 13]. For example, in a 40-nm digital
CMOS process, two LC-VCOs (6–9 and 9–12 GHz) are needed to cover the
required 6–12 GHz frequency range with sufficient phase-noise performance for
SDR application in [14]. However, this method is not area efficient since the
monolithic inductor occupies much larger chip area than other devices and is not
scalable with CMOS technology.
To make the matter worse, the problem with insufficient tuning range of conven-
tional LC-VCOs becomes more and more acute as the oscillation frequency keeps
increasing. Since the varactor Q becomes dominantly low in the tank, the limited
varactor size degrades the frequency tuning range greatly. The typical tuning range
of LC-VCOs reported at around 60 GHz is less than 10 % [14–16], which is far from
being sufficient to cover the 9-GHz bandwidth required by IEEE 802.11ad standard
or IEEE 802.15.3c standard when taking into account process variations and inac-
curate device modeling. Similarly, high-frequency LC-ILFDs suffer from a big
4 1 Introduction

problem with insufficient frequency locking range due to their desirable high tank Q
for low power consumption and narrowband filtering. At input frequency of around
60 GHz, the typical locking range of LC-ILFDs reported is around 12 % [17, 18].
In this book, in-depth description and discussion of transformer-based design
techniques that enable CMOS VCOs and ILFDs to achieve state-of-the-art perfor-
mance in terms of low supply voltage, low-power consumption, good phase noise,
high operation frequencies, and wide frequency tuning range and locking range are
presented. To illustrate the usefulness of these transformer-based design tech-
niques, design consideration and optimization of various VCOs and dividers for
different applications together with their measured performance are discussed in
detail, focusing on not only ultra-low supply voltage but also ultrawide frequency
tuning range and locking range at high frequencies.

1.2 Book Organization

This book is organized as follows. Chapter 2 will introduce how to design, simulate,
and characterize on-chip inductors and transformers in CMOS process, including
step-by-step procedures to simulate and model the passive devices for circuit design
and to verify the model based on silicon measurement. In Chap. 3, the phase-noise
analysis and design consideration of VCOs and quadrature VCOs (QVCOs) will be
reviewed, and the performance degradation with the scaling down of VDD will be
discussed in detail. Chapter 4 introduces the principle of ILFDs and Miller dividers
and analyzes their locking range based on the phasor diagram. To demonstrate the
usefulness of the transformer-based design techniques, detailed design consider-
ations and measured results of a couple selected low-voltage high-performance
VCOs and QVCOs using transformer feedback will be presented in Chap. 5.
Chapters 6 and 7 will focus on the designs of transformer-based dual-mode or
multimode VCOs for wideband applications. In Chap. 8, design examples for
ILFDs using transformer technique to achieve either low-voltage or wide locking
range will be discussed. Finally, conclusion will be drawn in Chap. 9, from which
recommendations for future work will be made.

References

1. Packan, P. (2007, December). Device and circuit interactions. IEEE International Electron
Device Meeting Short Course: Performance Boosters for Advanced CMOS Devices.
2. Carlson, E. J., Strunz, K., & Otis, B. P. (2010). A 20 mV input boost converter with efficient
digital control for thermoelectric energy harvesting. IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits, 45,
741–750.
3. Zhang, F., Wang, K., Koo, J., Miyahara, Y., & Otis, B. (2013). A 1.6mW 300mV-supply
2.4GHz receiver with 94dBm sensitivity for energy-harvesting applications. IEEE ISSCC
Digest of Technical Papers, pp. 456–457.
References 5

4. Wireless LAN medium access control (MAC) and physical layer (PHY) specifications, amend-
ment 3: Enhancements for very high throughput in the 60 GHz band, IEEE Std 802.11adTM.
(2012). New York: IEEE.
5. Wireless medium access control (MAC) and physical layer (PHY) specifications for high rate
wireless area network, amendment 2, IEEE 802.15.3cTM. (2009). New York: IEEE.
6. Staszewski, R. B., Hung, C.-M., Maggio, K., Wallberg, J., Leipold, D., & Balsara, P. T. (2004).
All-digital phase-domain TX frequency synthesizer for bluetooth radios in 0.13μm CMOS.
IEEE ISSCC Digest of Technical Papers, pp. 272–273.
7. Wu, W., Bai, X., Staszewski, R. B., & Long, J. R. (2013). A 56.4-to-63.4GHz spurious-free
all-digital fractional-N PLL in 65nm CMOS. IEEE ISSCC Digest of Technical Papers,
pp. 352–353.
8. Rategh, H. R., Samavati, H., & Lee, T. H. (2000). A CMOS frequency synthesizer with an
injection-locked frequency divider for a 5-GHz wireless LAN receiver. IEEE Journal of Solid-
State Circuits, 35, 780–787.
9. Tiebout, M. (2004). A CMOS direct injection-locked oscillator topology as high-frequency
low-power frequency divider. IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits, 39, 1170–1174.
10. Kim, D., Kim, J., & Cho, C. (2008). A 94 GHz locking hysteresis-assisted and tunable CML
static divider in 65 nm SOI CMOS. IEEE ISSCC Digest of Technical Papers, pp. 460–461.
11. Ghilioni, A., Mazzanti, A., & Svelto, F. (2013). Analysis and design of mm-wave frequency
dividers based on dynamic latches with load modulation. IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits,
48, 1842–1850.
12. Borremans, J., Vengattaramane, K., Giannini, V., Debaillie, B., Thillo, W. V., & Craninckx,
J. (2010). A 86 MHz–12 GHz digital-intensive PLL for software-defined radios, using a
6 fJ/step TDC in 40 nm digital CMOS. IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits, 45, 2116–2129.
13. Yu, S.-A., Baeyens, Y., Weiner, J., Koc, U.-V., Rambaud, M., Liao, F.-R., et al. (2011). A
single-chip 125-MHz to 32-GHz signal source in 0.18-μm SiGe BiCMOS. IEEE Journal of
Solid-State Circuits, 46, 598–614.
14. Cao, C., & O, K. K. (2006). Millimeter-wave voltage-controlled oscillators in 0.13-μm CMOS
technology. IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits, 41(6), 1297–1304.
15. Kim, D. D., Kim, J., Plouchart, J.-O., Cho, C., Li, W., Lim, D., et al. (2007). A 70GHz
manufacturable complementary LC-VCO with 6.14GHz tuning range in 65nm SOI CMOS.
IEEE ISSCC Digest of Technical Papers, pp. 540–541.
16. Li, L., Reynaert, P., & Steyaert, M. S. J. (2009). Design and analysis of a 90 nm mm-wave
oscillator using inductive-division LC tank. IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits, 44,
1950–1958.
17. Gu, Q., Xu, Z., Huang, D., LaRocca, T., Wang, N.-Y., Hant, W., et al. (2008). A low power
V-band CMOS frequency divider with wide locking range and accurate quadrature output
phases. IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits, 43, 991–998.
18. Rong, S., Ng, A. W. L., & Luong, H. C. (2009). 0.9 mW 7 GHz and 1.6 mW 60 GHz frequency
dividers with locking-range enhancement in 0.13 μm CMOS. IEEE ISSCC Digest of Technical
Papers, pp. 96–97.
Chapter 2
Transformer Design and Characterization
in CMOS Process

2.1 Background

On-chip inductors have become essential in RF system-on-chip design and inte-

gration. As compared with off-chip inductors on the printed circuit board (PCB) or
bondwire inductors, the use of on-chip inductors prevents degradation of circuit
performance due to the loss and the parasitics from the chip interface. Moreover,
high-level integration with on-chip inductors can not only significantly reduce the
cost and the form factor but also improve the reliability of the whole wireless
systems.
Unfortunately, on-chip inductors suffer from a low quality factor Q, which
would result in performance degradation in terms of noise, gain, and power
consumption. As a consequence, modern RF CMOS processes provide one or two
thick top metal layers far above the lossy substrate to improve the quality factor Q
and the self-resonant frequency of the on-chip inductors [1, 2]. In addition, due to
its relatively narrowband characteristics, on-chip inductors may not be suitable for
wideband applications, such as multiband, multimode, or software-defined radios.
As potential replacement and improvement of on-chip inductors, integrated
transformers have recently been considered and widely used in wideband RF and
mm-Wave circuits and systems. Their main applications include (1) impedance
transformation in the impedance matching network, (2) amplification for voltage or
current signal, (3) balun for on-chip single-ended to differential or differential to
single-ended signal transformation, and (4) high-order resonant tank to obtain either
multiple narrowband or wideband frequency response of amplitude and phase for
many circuits, including LNAs, VCOs, frequency dividers, frequency
multipliers, etc.
Figure 2.1a shows the schematic symbol of an ideal N:1 transformer, where
N ¼ V1/V2 is defined as the turn ratio between the primary coil and the secondary
coil. Since an ideal transformer is passive and no energy losses occur during the
voltage and current transformation, the current ratio I2/I1 equals to N. As a result,

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 7

H.C. Luong, J. Yin, Transformer-Based Design Techniques for Oscillators
and Frequency Dividers, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-15874-7_2
8 2 Transformer Design and Characterization in CMOS Process

Fig. 2.1 Schematic symbol of (a) an ideal N : 1 transformer and (b) a transformer made of two
coupled inductors

the impedance seen from the primary coil becomes N2 times of the loading
impedance of the secondary coil.
Figure 2.1b shows a transformer made of two coupled inductors. From the
Faraday’s law of induction, the induced voltage at either coil equals to the rate of
change of the total magnetic flux going through it:



dðΦ11 þ Φ21 Þ dΦ11 dI1 dΦ21 dI2
V1 ¼  ¼   þ   ð2:1aÞ
dt dI1 dt dI2 dt



dðΦ22 þ Φ12 Þ dΦ22 dI2 dΦ12 dI1
V2 ¼  ¼   þ   ð2:1bÞ
dt dI2 dt dI1 dt

where Φ11 (Φ22) is the magnetic fluxes in the primary (secondary) coil generated by
the current I1 (I2) in itself and Φ21 (Φ12) is the magnetic fluxes in the secondary
(primary) coil generated by the current I2 (I1) in its neighboring coil. By defining the
self-inductance as L1 ¼ ðdΦ11 =dI1 Þ, L2 ¼ ðdΦ22 =dI2 Þ, the mutual inductance as
M ¼ ðdΦ12 =dI1 Þ ¼ ðdΦ21 =dI2 Þ, and applying Laplace transformation to (2.1a)
and (2.1b), V–I equations of the ideal transformer can then be expressed as
    
V1 sL1 sM I1
¼ ð2:2Þ
V2 sM sL2 I2

In the circuit analysis, the T-model as shown in Fig. 2.2 is typically employed to
represent the transformer made of coupled inductors as shown in Fig. 2.1b, which
can also be easily shown to be equivalent to (2.2). To represent the coupling
strength between the two coupled inductors, the magnetic coupling coefficient k
defined as the ratio between mutual inductance and self-inductance can be used as
below:

M
kpffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð2:3Þ
L1 L 2

According to the definition, k is an indicator of the coupling strength between the

primary and secondary coils. For ideal transformers, there is no leakage of magnetic
flux, and the coupling coefficient is unity. However, due to the poor confinement of
2.2 Transformer Layout 9

Fig. 2.2 T-model of the L1-M L2-M

i1 i2
transformer
P+ S+

P− S−

magnetic flux in integrated transformers, the coupling coefficient is always sub-

stantially smaller than one [3].
Figure 2.3 shows another equivalent circuit model of the transformer
that employs an ideal transformer. Here, the ideal transformer with a turn ratio
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
N ¼ M=L2 ¼ k L1 =L2 and the inductance k2L1 represents the coupling effect
between primary and secondary coils, while the inductance (1k2)L1 models the
leakage flux that does not contribute the magnetic coupling. It is easily proved that
the equivalent model as shown in Fig. 2.3 is mathematically the same as the
T-model. As shown in the following chapters, the proper choice of the equivalent
models can facilitate the circuit calculation.
It is worthwhile to note the meaning of the dots in the transformer symbols in
Fig. 2.1. Assuming k is always positive, the dots should be denoted in such a way
that when the currents are sent into the dotted terminals from both the primary and
secondary coils, the generated magnetic fluxes from both coils should go in the
same direction which reinforce each other [4]. Figure 2.4 shows the example to
determine the dot location based on this convention.

2.2 Transformer Layout

The common ways to realize integrated transformers are illustrated in Figs. 2.5, 2.6,
and 2.7, which offer different tradeoffs on self-inductances, magnetic coupling
coefficient, inter-coil and coil-to-substrate capacitances, self-resonant frequencies,
and chip area [5]. Here, all the layouts are based on the differential configurations
since they are commonly used in VCOs and frequency dividers with balanced
differential outputs.
Figure 2.5 shows an interleaved transformer layout. Both the primary and
secondary coils are implemented with the same metal layer. As for on-chip inductor
design considerations [2], the thick top metal layer is typically used for maximum
quality factor Q and high self-resonant frequency because it has much smaller
square resistance than other metal layers and far away from the low resistance
substrate in CMOS process. When the metal traces need to be crossed over, the
lower metal layer can be used as a bridge. Since the interleaved configuration
allows large common periphery between the primary and secondary coils, it can
10 2 Transformer Design and Characterization in CMOS Process

Fig. 2.3 Equivalent circuit (1-k2)L1

model of the transformer I1 I2
P+ S+
M : L2

k2L1

Ideal
P− S−

S+ S−

I1 i2
i1 i2

P+ S+ S− P− P+ P−

I1 I2 I1
P+ k S+ P+ S+
k

L1 L2 L1 L2

P− S− P− S−
I2

Fig. 2.4 Transformers with different coupling directions and their corresponding schematic
symbol using the dot convention

Fig. 2.5 Layout of an

interleaved transformer

P+ S+ S− P−
2.2 Transformer Layout 11

Fig. 2.6 Layout of a tapped

transformer

P+ S+ S− P−

Fig. 2.7 Layout of a a

stacked transformer: (a) top
view and (b) cross-
section view

P+ S+ P− S− Metal
b
Trace

Dielectic

Dielectic

Substrate
12 2 Transformer Design and Characterization in CMOS Process

Table 2.1 Comparison of different types of integrated transformer

Transformer structure k Self-inductance Area Self-resonant frequency
Interleaved >0.7 Medium Medium Medium
Tapped 0.3–0.7 Low Large High
Stacked ~0.9 High Small Low

provide a relatively high coupling coefficient of above 0.7 at the expense of

increased inter-coil capacitance and reduced self-inductance since the neighboring
metal traces in the same coil are separated by the metal trace from the other coil.
In a taped transformer, both the coils are also implemented in the top metal layer
shown in Fig. 2.6. Since the two coils are completely separated, the self-inductance
is maximized and the inter-coil capacitance is minimized. However, because only a
single turn in the two coils share the common periphery, the coupling coefficient k
becomes lower than that of the interleaved configuration. Depending on the space
between the two coils, the typical k of the taped transformer can vary from 0.3 to
0.7. Furthermore, the spatial separation of the two coils also results in larger
chip area.
Figure 2.7 shows a stacked transformer layout, in which the primary and
secondary coils are implemented in different metal layers. Both vertical and lateral
magnetic coupling are utilized to maximize the self-inductance and thus achieve the
best area efficiency. Since the dielectric thickness is much smaller than the minimal
space between the two neighboring top metal traces, the magnetic coupling is
enhanced compared with that of the interleaved configuration. As an example, in
a 65-nm CMOS process, the dielectric thickness is smaller than 1 μm, while the
minimal space of the top metal is around 2 μm. Consequently, the coupling
coefficient can be close to 0.9 if the metal traces in different layers are perfectly
aligned. On the other hand, the inter-coil capacitance increases due to the reduced
space between the two coils. In addition, the capacitance from the secondary coil to
the substrate also increases since it is implemented in the lower metal layer closer to
the substrate. It follows that stacked transformers usually have the lowest self-
resonant frequency. The performances of different types of integrated transformers
are summarized and compared in Table 2.1.

2.3 Transformer Measurement and Characterization

Basic considerations and guidelines for design, simulation, layout, and character-
ization of integrated transformers are mostly the same as those for on-chip induc-
tors, which have been well described in many references [2, 3] and will not be
repeated here. In the following section, only critical differences unique for inte-
grated transformers are summarized and highlighted.
As illustrated in Fig. 2.8, a typical design and characterization flow of integrated
transformers is summarized as below:
2.3 Transformer Measurement and Characterization 13

Fig. 2.8 Design and

characterization flow of Start
integrated transformers

Electrical
Step 1:
Parameters

Fast
Step 2:
Simulation

Step 3: Accurate
Simulation

Step 4: Model Fitting

Simulation Unsatisfied
Results Circuit
Calibration Simultion
Satisfied
Testing
Step 5:
Structure

Step 6: Measurement

Unmatched Compared
with the
Simulation

Matched

End

Step 1: Obtain the required electrical parameters of the transformer such as self-
inductance, quality factor, and coupling coefficient from either calculation or
simulation of the targeted transformer using equivalent circuit models.
Step 2: At the beginning, the physical parameters of the transformer can be
quickly estimated and optimized for a given transformer structure by using a fast
simulator such as ASITIC [6]. In the optimization, different layout configurations
can be considered, from which the physical parameters such as the number of turns,
the diameter, metal width, and metal space can be adjusted. Since fast simulators
usually overestimate the quality factor Q, the relative trend of the quality factor
from different parameter combinations is more useful than its absolute value as a
quick reference for optimization.
14 2 Transformer Design and Characterization in CMOS Process

Step 3: After obtaining the physical parameters from a fast simulation, the
transformer can be further simulated by using more accurate electromagnetic
(EM) simulator such as the ADS Momentum [7] or HFSS [8]. Usually the simula-
tion results are in the formats of S parameters. To compare with the design goals,
the simulated S-parameter data need to be converted into the Z-parameters using
the following equations [9]:

ð1 þ S11 Þð1  S22 Þ þ S12 S21

Z11 ¼ Z0 ð2:4aÞ
ð1  S11 Þð1  S22 Þ  S12 S21
2S12
Z12 ¼ Z0 ð2:4bÞ
ð1  S11 Þð1  S22 Þ  S12 S21
2S21
Z21 ¼ Z0 ð2:4cÞ
ð1  S11 Þð1  S22 Þ  S12 S21
ð1  S11 Þð1 þ S22 Þ þ S12 S21
Z22 ¼ Z0 ð2:4dÞ
ð1  S11 Þð1  S22 Þ  S12 S21

where Z0 is impedance of the ports used in the simulation. With the Z-parameters,
the following equations can be employed to obtain the electrical parameters of the
transformer:

ImðZ11 Þ ImðZ22 Þ
L1 ¼ and L2 ¼ ð2:5aÞ
ω ω
ImðZ11 Þ ImðZ22 Þ
Q1 ¼ and Q2 ¼ ð2:5bÞ
ReðZ11 Þ ReðZ22 Þ
ImðZ21 Þ
k ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð2:5cÞ
ImðZ11 Þ  ImðZ22 Þ

where ω ¼ 2πf. At this stage, the physical parameters can be further fine-tuned to
obtain the optimized design that can best satisfy the requirements.
Step 4: After the physical parameters of the transformer are fixed, the lumped
model as shown in Fig. 2.9 can be used for circuit simulation. This lumped model is
based on the wideband inductor model from [10], which merges the π models from
[11] and [12] and the substrate-coupled model from [13]. Here, the self-inductance
and the ohmic loss are modeled by components L1/L2 and r1/r2, while the parasitic
capacitance and the resistive loss of the substrate are modeled by Cox1/Cox2, Csub1/
Csub2, and Rsub1/Rsub2. The magnetic coupling and capacitive coupling between the
two coils are modeled by k and CC, respectively, and the capacitive coupling
between the metal traces in the same coil is modeled by Cm1/Cm2. The substrate-
coupled network made of Led1/Led2 and Red1/Red2 models the substrate losses due to
the eddy current which is increased with frequency. The model parameters are
extracted from and fitted to the simulated S-parameter data by using optimizer and
fitting tools. Simulations can be used to ensure that the frequency response of the
2.3 Transformer Measurement and Characterization 15

Csub2 Rsub2 2Csub2 Rsub2/2 Rsub2 Csub2

Red2/2 Led2/2 Led2/2 Red2/2

Cox2 2Cox2 Cox2

ked2 ked2
S+ S−
R2/2 L2/2 L2/2 R2/2

Cm2
CC k k CC
Cm1

R1/2 L1/2 L1/2 R1/2

P+ P−
Cox1 ked1 2Cox1 ked1 Cox1

Red1/2 Led1/2 Led1/2 Red1/2

Csub1 Rsub1 2Csub1 Rsub1/2 Rsub1 Csub1

Fig. 2.9 A wideband transformer model for parameter extraction and circuit simulation

model can match well the EM simulation results over a wide frequency range. The
transformer model can then be directly used in the time-domain or frequency-
domain transistor-level simulation, which enables complete evaluation of the
circuit performance. In practice, several iterations with the whole procedure
repeated may be necessary to fine-tune the physical and electrical parameters of
the transformers until the circuit specifications are satisfactorily met.
Step 5: The transformer testing structure as shown in Fig. 2.10a and its
de-embedded structures as shown in Figs. 2.11a and 2.12a can be laid out and
fabricated for measurement, characterization, and comparison with the simulation
results. The de-embedded open and short structures are employed for de-embedding
purpose to eliminate the impacts from the testing PADs and the parasitic metal
traces connecting between the transformer core and the testing PADs. For simplic-
ity, the single-ended testing structures with one port of the primary and secondary
coils being directly connected to the ground plane are considered here. If a 4-port
network analyzer is available, the fully differential testing structures can be
constructed in a similar way. The de-embedding principles and procedures in
Step 6 can also be applied to the differential testing structures.
16 2 Transformer Design and Characterization in CMOS Process

a b

Y3

DUT Port1 Port2

Z1 Z2

Y1 DUT Y2
G

G
Z3 Z4
Port1

Port2
S

Ground Plane
G

Fig. 2.10 (a) Layout and (b) equivalent circuit of the transformer testing structure

a b
Y3
G

Port1 Port2
Z1 Z2
Port1

Port2
S

Y1 Y2

Ground Plane
Z3 Z4
G

Fig. 2.11 (a) Layout and (b) equivalent circuit of the open de-embedded structure

a b
Y3
G

Port1 Port2
Z1 Z2
Port1

Port2
S

Y1 Y2

Ground Plane
Z3 Z4
G

Fig. 2.12 (a) Layout and (b) equivalent circuit of the short de-embedded structure

Step 6: Using a 2-port network analyzer, the S-parameter of the transformer

testing structure (Sraw) in Fig. 2.10a and the de-embedded structures (Sopen and
Sshort) in Figs. 2.11a and 2.12a can be obtained by on-chip probing. The
S-parameters (Sraw, Sopen, and Sshort) can be further converted to the Y-parameters
(Yraw, Yopen, and Yshort) by using the following equations [9]:
2.3 Transformer Measurement and Characterization 17

1 ð1  S11 Þð1 þ S22 Þ þ S12 S21

Y11 ¼  ð2:6aÞ
Z0 ð1 þ S11 Þð1 þ S22 Þ  S12 S21
1 2S12
Y12 ¼  ð2:6bÞ
Z0 ð1 þ S11 Þð1 þ S22 Þ  S12 S21
1 2S21
Y21 ¼  ð2:6cÞ
Z0 ð1 þ S11 Þð1 þ S22 Þ  S12 S21
1 ð1 þ S11 Þð1  S22 Þ þ S12 S21
Y22 ¼  ð2:6dÞ
Z0 ð1 þ S11 Þð1 þ S22 Þ  S12 S21

Using the Y-parameters, the following de-embedding procedures can be applied to

obtain the corresponding electrical parameters of the transformer:
1. Extraction of the parasitic parameters Z1 to Z4. According to the equivalent
circuits for the open/short de-embedded structures as shown in Figs. 2.11b and
2.12b, the parasitic parameters Z1 to Z4 can be extracted by subtracting Yopen
from Yshort to obtain YDE1 first:
YDE1 ¼ Yshort  Yopen ð2:7Þ

and then converting YDE1 to ZDE1. So ZDE1 only contains the information of
parasitic parameters Z1 to Z4.
2. Open de-embedding for measurement data of the transformer testing structure.
According to the equivalent circuits for the transformer testing structure and the
open de-embedded structures as shown in Figs. 2.10b and 2.11b, the effect of
parasitic parameters Y1 to Y3 can be removed by subtracting Yopen from Yraw:
YDE2 ¼ Yraw  Yopen ð2:8Þ

3. Short de-embedding for measurement data of the transformer testing structure.

After converting YDE2 to ZDE2, the effect of parasitic parameters Z1 to Z4 can be
removed by subtracting ZDE1 from ZDE2:
ZDUT ¼ ZDE2  ZDE1 ð2:9Þ

Here, ZDUT represents the impedance of the transformer core after

de-embedding. By applying (2.5a–2.5c), the measured self-inductance, quality
factor, and coupling coefficient for the transformer core can be obtained.
Step 7: Finally, the measured electrical parameters are compared with the EM
simulation results. If the results are not satisfactory, the transformer design would
need to be modified by going back to Step 3, starting from the EM simulation of the
modified design. The differences between the simulation and measurement results
of the transformer can also be utilized to correlate the difference in the measured
circuit performance for further optimization.
In the transformer layout in Fig. 2.10a, the primary and secondary ports are
located on the same side. If the two ports of the transformer need to be placed on the
different sides, the layouts of the testing structures also need to be changed to those
as shown in Fig. 2.13.
18 2 Transformer Design and Characterization in CMOS Process

Fig. 2.13 Layout of testing a

structures for the
transformer with two ports

G
G
on different sides: (a) the
transformer testing

Port2
Port1
structure, (b) the open

S
S
de-embedded structure, and
(c) the short de-embedded DUT
structure

G
G
Ground Plane

G
G

Port2
Port1

S
S

G
G

Ground Plane

c
G
G

Port2
Port1

S
S

G
G

Ground Plane
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appearance of Boston, and then, dropping the flowers and hat to the
floor, sprung forward.
“Oh, sir, you here! Have you any news?”
She paused in some confusion.
“You needn’t go on,” said Boston, “I never keep a lady waiting. I
have a letter for you.”
Theresa put out her hand quickly.
“It must be from him!”
“Yes, it’s from him. Your father tried hard to find it. He would give
me both Jerusalem and Jericho if he knew I had it. You see I
calculated on being searched, and hid the paper.”
“You did?”
“Yes, I did. Have you got such a thing as a knife around here?
Thank you, Katrine. What a famous little house-keeper you’ll make,
having every thing so handy about you! Take hold of my old cap and
help me.”
A few moments’ work about the lining of the old hat which the
hawker had worn revealed a letter, which he took and handed to
Theresa. She turned away to the window, and read it hastily. A
shade passed over her fine face as she read.
“Is he well?” she asked, turning to Boston, who was engaged in a
flirtation with Katrine.
“Oh, yes, ma’am. You see he is out of spirits on your account, and
that runs him down some. But he is hearty. Just send him a cheery
word, and all will be well in the twinkling of an eye.”
“I am going to my room now, and shall write an answer to this.
You must remain until I come back. I shall not be long.”
She hurried away quickly, leaving Boston with Katrine—and they
sat down by the casement. They quarreled, and “made up” again,
several times, before Theresa appeared with an answer to the note.
“I have a little to say to you. Your father took me to-day, and
made me confess that I had a message to you.”
“Oh dear! You did not show him that letter?”
“Not a bit of it. But I told him that the message was verbal, and
gave him one of my own making up. Sounded natural enough.
Faithful unto death, and that sort of stuff. You understand.”
“And did not Willie send any such message to me?”
“A thousand; but I couldn’t think of half he said, if I were to spend
a week in meditation on the subject. You will take them all for
granted.”
“I fancy that Willie had better change his messenger,” said
Theresa, with a pout. “I am sure he might do better.”
“I am sorry to say that I think you are wrong,” replied Boston,
coolly stroking his beard. “There ain’t another man in the five
provinces that would do for you what I’ve done, time and again.”
“I am sorry I said that, Boston,” said Theresa, relenting quickly. “I
know you are faithful and true, but you ought to remember. Was my
father very angry?”
 “Very particularly angry,” replied Boston. “Looked as if he wanted
to eat all the tribe of Yankees, beginning with me.”
“Was he angry at me?”
“I calculate he was. I don’t want no one to be angrier with me, I
guess. He was awful mad.”
“Then you had better go away. But first open your pack and let
me get what I need. We have waited a long time for you.”
“That’s because you can trust me. You know that, though I will
beat Dutch men sometimes, I never try to beat women.”
“What a twister,” cried Katrine.
“Now don’t you put in at all, Katrine. I won’t have it. Let me trade
with Miss Theresa in my own way. You know I won’t try to cheat
her.”
“But you do some women.”
“In trade I might. You stop talking, or the dress I am going to sell
you will fall to pieces in washing.”
The girl was bending over the pack when the commandant
entered. He looked a little angry when he saw the peddler.
“Don’t attempt to ply your trade here, sir. Go elsewhere.”
“Why, squire, as to that, the way I look at it is this: You gave me
two days to trade, and you didn’t say where I should go in particular.
You didn’t buy any thing, and I thought your daughter might want a
few traps.”
“Where do you intend to pass the night?”
“I don’t know. But surely some one will be glad to entertain me,
and take some of my wares in consideration. I’ve picked up a good
many furs since I came out here, and they are getting heavy. I can’t
travel far in a day.”
“You should have a horse,” said Theresa, looking up from the
pack, which she was turning over after a woman’s fashion.
 “I did have one when I came, but old Paul Swedlepipe wouldn’t
take ‘no’ for an answer, but would have him.”
“I’ll wager my commission that he paid for the horse,” said Van
Curter, with a laugh. “How much did he give you?”
“Seventy-five guilders. I look upon it in the light of a praiseworthy
action—giving that hoss away.”
“Giving it away! S’death, man, I have a dozen horses, and you
may have the best of them for seventy-five guilders.”
“I’ll take a look into your stable before I go away,” said Boston. “In
the mean time, I’ve got something I want you to look at.” He
tumbled over the wares and took out a pair of heavy spurs. “Now
look at that,” he cried, in a tone of exultant admiration. “Did you
ever, in your born days, see sech a pair of spurs as that? No you
didn’t, so you needn’t say it. I don’t say that they are the best pair
of spurs in the Colonies, but I put it to you, squire, can you put your
finger upon a pair as good, anywhere? If you can, I should be proud
to know it.”
Van Curter took up the spurs and looked at them closely.
“Now tell me,” said he, “where is the cheat in this pair of spurs. I
take it for granted that there is such a thing about it, since a Yankee
brought them. Is it in the price, or in the articles themselves?”
“Oh, as to that,” replied Boston, with an air of injured innocence,
“I don’t say any thing. You will have it that there is a cheat in every
thing I offer for sale; but, if there is one there, you can’t find it.”
Van Curter laughed again.
“Come now,” he said, “I am willing to take the spurs, and at your
price, too, if you will tell me just where the cheat is to be?”
“You will take them any way?”
“Yes.”
“Then I’ll tell you; or, rather, it won’t be necessary to tell you any
more than the price.”
 “And what is the price?”
“Forty guilders.”
“Hein!” shouted Van Curter, breaking into Dutch. “Do you mean,
seriously and gravely, to ask me forty guilders for a pair of spurs not
worth ten?”
“You wanted to know where the cheat was—in the spurs or the
price. You’ve got it. It’s in the price.”
“Der tuyvel! Hold; here is your money. And now take away your
pack, or you will ruin my house. Go quickly.”
“I was thinking to wait,” said Boston, coolly buttoning up the cash
in his breeches-pocket, “until the lady has made her selections; she
don’t seem to have finished.”
“Make your purchases quickly, Theresa, and come with me. I wish
to speak with you. Do not delay.”
Theresa gathered up her purchases and demanded the price. He
gave such a moderate one, even for him, that Van Curter was
astonished, and made no attempt to make the price less.
“You have some conscience yet, Bainbridge,” he said. “Here is
your money. Come, Theresa.”
The girl followed him from the room, casting a glance back at the
peddler, who had stooped over his pack, and was throwing out
various articles, at the bidding of Katrine.
“Do you know what I will bring from Boston when I come again?”
said he.
“No,” said Katrine, with a smile. “What?”
“A ring and a minister.”
“What for?” asked Katrine, in sublime unconsciousness.
“If you don’t know now you will know then,” was the answer.
“You’d better have this dress made up against that time.” With this
he kissed her again, arranged his pack, and left the house, making
his way back to the house of Paul Swedlepipe.
 CHAPTER IV.
BOSTON “SHEATS” THE LEAN DUTCHMAN,
AND TURNS UP IN HIS REAL CHARACTER.

Boston found Paul Swedlepipe exercising the horse which he had

so lately bought from him. Beyond a strong desire to get his hind
feet higher than his head when hard pressed, and a tendency to roll
upon his rider when spurred, Paul had no fault to find with his
purchase. He found that the little beast really possessed great
powers of endurance, and was tolerably swift. The truth of the
matter was, Boston had purchased the pony for his own use, and
not to sell. The pleasant little fiction on his part, in regard to his
having been purchased for Mynheer Ten Eyck, was made up on the
spur of the moment, to induce Swedlepipe to buy, for Boston never
missed any opportunity for a trade.
Not being cheated so badly as he expected, Swedlepipe was in
good humor, and received the peddler with a smile, even while he
restrained an attempt to kick on the part of the Narragansett.
“Ah-ha! Boston. Dat you, eh? Dis pretty goot hoss; glad dat you
not sheat me too mooch dis time. You come for dem guilders, eh?”
“Not yet, mynheer. You see I’ve been pesky busy sense I left you.
But I’ll keep my word. There comes Ten Eyck now.”
“Yaw, dat is goot. Let me stant by vile you sheat him.”
“I am only going to begin to-day. To-morrow I will finish,” replied
Boston.
The ancestor of that famous race, the Ten Eyck’s of our country,
rode up at this moment. It may be well to mention that this man
and Swedlepipe were hereditary foes, and lost no opportunity for
inflicting loss upon each other. Ten Eyck had rather the best of the
encounter, as he had heard the story of the horse sold to Swedlepipe
a few months before, which had caused the quarrel between the
peddler and Swedlepipe.
In person, the two Dutchmen were at variance. Swedlepipe was
short and stout; Ten Eyck was tall and lank. Swedlepipe’s hair was
black; Ten Eyck’s was yellow, nearly approaching to red.
Swedlepipe’s voice was pitched in a high treble; Ten Eyck had a
deep, resounding bass. In an encounter with cudgels, the battle
would have been to the strong, in the person of Swedlepipe. The
acute Ten Eyck knew this right well, and likewise knew that he had
the advantage in the use of harsh words and taunts. He had been
especially hard upon poor Paul in the matter of the horse-trade.
The steed which Ten Eyck himself bestrode would not have been
selected as an object of admiration upon Broadway or Rotten Row.
In spite of the food which his master crammed into him, he would
not grow fat. His bones protruded in a highly objectionable manner.
His head was nearly double the size of that of any ordinary horse,
and his neck being very long, he found it extremely difficult to hold it
up. In consequence, a line drawn from the ears to the tail would
have touched the back at every point. Boston hailed the appearance
of this remarkable beast with a yell of delight.
“Oh, Lord! What a hoss—what a hoss!”
Swedlepipe joined at once in the cry.
“Whose hoss you laughing at, you Yankee? Dat hoss you sell to
Swedlepipe a little worse, I guess.”
“I calculate you are wrong there, Mister Longshanks. Why, I know
that hoss you are riding. He is forty years old. Some say that he was
brought over in the Mayflower; some say not. A man like you
oughtn’t to ride such a horse. Look at Mynheer Swedlepipe, and see
what a hoss he rides! I s’pose you have heard how I sold the other
one to him. That was all a mistake, and I have made it all right.
Haven’t I, Mynheer Swedlepipe?”
 “Yaw;” said Paul. “Dat ish goot now; dat vash bad hoss, dis ish
goot von.”
Ten Eyck looked at the prancing pony with infinite disgust. Such
was the nature of the two men, that one could not bear to have the
other possess any thing which he could not get. Every prance of the
Narragansett, every shake of his long tail, went to the tall man’s very
heart. As for Swedlepipe, his face fairly beamed with exultation, and
he stuttered in his joy, when he attempted to speak.
“The fact is, Mynheer Ten Eyck,” said Boston, “you don’t know
who to buy a horse of, and you get cheated. Now I will tell you, in
confidence, that there are several men in Windsor who would not
hesitate to cheat you, upon any occasion. But, I have a character to
lose; I must deal in a good article. If I sell you bad goods or a bad
hoss, you will not buy of me again. Do you see?”
Ten Eyck saw.
“Very good, then. If you had bought a horse from me, it would
have been a good one, if you paid me a good price. Of course you
wouldn’t expect a very good horse for a very poor price. That’s plain
enough, is it not?”
“You got long tongue, Boston,” said Ten Eyck. “Have you got a
hoss to sell?”
“I can’t rightly say that I have a hoss just now. But I know where
I can put my hand upon one within five hours.”
“Steal him?”
“You say that again, and I’ll drive your long legs four feet into the
ground,” cried Boston, turning upon the Dutchman in sudden wrath.
“Hark ye, sir. I am a plain man, and I speak plain language. In the
way of trade I’ll get as much out of a man for as little in return, as
any man in the five colonies. But, I won’t take ‘thief’ from any man.
So look out.”
Ten Eyck almost fell from his horse in fear, and hastened to
disclaim any personal allusion in his question.
 “All right. Now I’ll answer your question. This hoss is where I can
get him easily. All you have got to do is to ride home, and come
again about five this evening to Paul Swedlepipe’s. You can see the
hoss there.”
Turning up his nose at Paul Swedlepipe, and applying his heels to
the sides of the remarkable courser he bestrode, Ten Eyck rode
away, bobbing up and down in his saddle like a dancing-Jack.
“Now, Paul,” said Boston, “I want your help. Where is this hoss I
sold you the other day?”
“Out in de bush.”
“Send for him.”
“What you want of him?”
“Never you mind; he is mine, and I want him. And mind, I also
want the teeth and tail I sold with him. Them I must have.”
Paul called to one of his boys, and sent him after the horse, while
he himself produced the tail and teeth which he had carefully
preserved. The boy returned in about an hour, during which Paul and
the hawker imbibed large quantities of apple-jack, not strong
enough, however, to unsettle their ideas. When the boy appeared,
Boston took the bridle of the horse, and led him away, closely
followed by Swedlepipe.
Reaching an open glade in the forest, the peddler stopped, and
tethered the horse to a swaying limb. He then took from his pack a
keen lancet, with which he made a small incision in the skin under
the shoulder of the beast. In this slit he inserted a quill, and begun
to blow. Those accustomed to the management of a horse know the
effect of this. In a few moments Paul, who stood looking on in open-
mouthed wonder, did not know the horse, who seemed to grow fat
under the hands of the skillful jockey.
After he had blown the animal up to a wholesome plumpness,
Boston nicely and tightly sewed up the small incision. Then taking
from his pack a small vial, he filled a large gourd which he had
brought from the house with water from the spring, and poured into
it the contents of the vial. The water at once assumed a greenish
hue. With this mixture he now washed the horse thoroughly in every
part, keeping him carefully in the shade. This done, he led him out
into the sunlight, and, to the intense astonishment of Paul
Swedlepipe, by some chemical action of the sun upon the mixture,
the horse changed at once from a dirty white to a delicate shade of
brown. Raising his hands upward, as if calling witnesses to his
astonishment, the Dutchman cried:
“Der tuyvel is upon earth. You ish der tuyvel!”
“No, Paul. A lineal descendant of the old fellow, though. Do you
think I could sell that horse to Ten Eyck?”
“Yaw. He is so goot changed he would sheat me again. I never
puys nottings from you no more.”
“He must stand in the sun for a couple of hours, to let the color
fasten, and then we will take him up to the house. Now let me put
you up to a wrinkle. When Ten Eyck comes for the horse, I want you
to bid against him.”
“Vat ish dat?”
“If he offers forty guilders for him, you must offer fifty.”
“For dat hoss? I no wants dat hoss.”
“You needn’t have him. Of course Ten Eyck will bid sixty. You will
then say seventy.”
“Yaw, put I ton’t vant dat hoss.”
“I tell you I only want you to bid, and when I think he has offered
enough, I shall wink to you, and you must stop bidding.”
“Put I needn’t have te hoss, eh?”
“No, you blockhead! Do as I tell you, if you want him to buy the
horse.”
 All this while, however, the Yankee was at work putting on the
alien tail and putting in the ejected teeth, which, instead of being
tied in, as Paul had said, were, in truth wired together with a skill
which a modern dentist might have envied. It must have cost Boston
time and patience to have produced such a double row of horse-
incisors and molars; but he accomplished the task quite to his
satisfaction—“good enough to deceive a dumb Dutchman,” he
ejaculated.
It took some time to drum into Swedlepipe’s head that he was
only required to make Peter Funk bids against the destined victim.
Boston knew full well that if he sold Ten Eyck he would make a
powerful enemy, as the tall man was high in power in the House of
Good Hope. But, the events which he knew were on the march
made him careless of consequences. Ten Eyck came at the
appointed time, and found the two seated amicably over some long
pipes and a goodly measure of apple-jack.
“Vere is dat hoss?” he said.
“Outside,” said Boston. “Let’s go out and see him. Oh, by the way,
since you were here my friend Swedlepipe has seen this horse and
has taken a fancy to it. I am afraid he will bid against you.”
“You promised him to me.”
“I promised to show you a hoss, and I will keep my word. Come,
mynheer, let us go together.”
The horse was now tied in a little inclosure at the back of the
house, whither the party now wended their way. Boston’s jockey-
training had not been in vain, and it was really a handsome beast to
look at!
“Now, den,” said Ten Eyck, taking out a plethoric purse, “vat you
ask for dat hoss?”
“I don’t set any price for him,” replied Boston. “What do you think
he is worth.”
“I gif’s you vifty guilders.”
 “What do you say, Mynheer Swedlepipe? Shall I let it go for that? I
leave it entirely to you.”
“No,” said Paul. “I gif’s sixty.”
“You try to git dat hoss, pudding-head,” cried the other; “I gif’s
seventy guilders.”
It is needless to follow the course of the trade—to give the words
which passed between the bidders—how Paul, forgetting that he was
only bidding in jest, refused to stop when Boston winked at him, but
bid higher! Affairs trembled in the balance. Ten Eyck looked at the
horse and his rival, and swore in his inmost soul to have the beast, if
it took every guilder from his purse. He bid higher, and while he
cogitated, Boston had winked Paul into submission.
“One hundred and fifty guilders,” said Boston. “It’s a good pile.
You don’t go any higher, Mynheer Swedlepipe?”
“Nein,” said Paul.
“Then you may have him, Ten Eyck. It’s as good a sell as you ever
heard on, I guess.”
The last named individual counted out the money, bestrode the
transformed beast, and rode away to his home, while Paul, falling
prostrate upon the earth, hugged himself, and shouted with laughter.
Boston, chinking the money in his purse, uttered a satisfied chuckle,
and went his way.
The hawker did not stay in the settlement, though the sun was
low in the forest, and the Indians were thick as the deer, and bloody
as the panther. Once in the woods, and out of sight of the village, he
deftly hid his pack beside a fallen tree, drew out a beautiful gun
from its place of concealment, and assumed an active, erect
attitude, much unlike the slouching gait which had marked his
course in the village. He cast a keen glance about him, and begun to
load his piece before he set forward on the trail. This done, he
tightened his belt, took a hasty glance at the sky, and buried himself
in the woods.
 The forest path along which he journeyed was tangled, and
covered by fallen leaves, in which his feet fell with a slight rustle. At
times the deer started up from a thicket, and went crashing away. At
others the brown bear went lumbering over the path, casting a surly
glance over her shoulder at the strange intruder upon her native
woods. The warning rattle of the venomous snake sounded in his
ear; the howl of a distant panther was heard. Such were the sights
and sounds of a Connecticut forest, in those early times.
The change in the man who trod the forest path was wonderful.
No longer the peddler keen for a trade, and seeing only the main
chance, but a sharp, vigilant woodman, ready for any emergency
which might arise.
As he passed through a thick part of the woods, a confused sound
came to his ears, as of a struggle among the dry leaves. Dashing
aside the branches, with a hasty step he broke into an open place in
the forest, and looked in upon a strange scene.
The glade was not empty. Two men lay upon the ground, engaged
in a struggle for life or death. Their quick, panting breaths came to
Boston’s ears. Drawing his knife, he rushed forward, shouting:
“Hold your hands! He who strikes another stroke will have me to
fight.”
The two men rose slowly and sullenly to their feet, casting looks
of hate at each other. One, however, recognizing Boston, extended a
hand, giving him a cheerful welcome.
“But what means this, William Barlow? How is it that I find you
brawling like a boy with a stranger, when you have weighty affairs to
attend to? By my faith, I did not look for this at your hands!”
The person he addressed was young, and clad in the uniform of
the early Connecticut soldiery. His form was erect, and his bearing
that of a soldier. He bent down his eyes, wonderful as it may seem,
at the words of the peddler.
 “You are right, Boston, in saying that I had no right to quarrel. But
it was forced upon me against my will. Yonder man will tell you that
this quarrel is none of my seeking.”
The person of whom he spoke had stood upon his guard, drawing
his sword, and expecting to fight both men when they had done
with their conference. He, too, had the erect bearing of the soldier,
and his dress was that of captain of the soldiers at Manhattan. His
face was a study. Seen in repose, it was beautiful, for a man. But
now, with his anger fresh upon him, it seemed the face of a fiend.
This was Joseph Van Zandt, captain in the army of the governor at
New Netherlands, a brave soldier, but an unscrupulous foe.
“If it will aid you,” said he, “I do not hesitate to say that I forced
this quarrel upon Lieutenant Barlow.”
“So sure as my name is Boston Bainbridge,” said that worthy, “I
could give you no worse punishment than to leave you in the hands
of Willie Barlow. I have not the least doubt he would give a good
account of you. But, it may not be. How came this quarrel about?”
“I met him here,” said Barlow, “and he talked in a friendly tone at
first; but when I gave my name he drew upon me with the utmost
fury.”
“Why was this, sir?” asked Boston, turning to the captain. “Can
not men meet in the forest, but they must fight like dogs?”
“Ask me no questions. I do not recognize your right to do so. It is
enough for me to know that the name of the man who stands by
your side is so hateful to me that I am his enemy to the death.”
“You are over bold, sir,” said Boston, setting his teeth hard. “What
hope have you, if we two set upon you together.”
“The hope of a man and a soldier,” replied Captain Van Zandt,
quickly. “I may fall, or I may conquer. Set on!”
“I did not say we would attack you. We are peaceful men, and do
not pick quarrels with every man whose name does not suit us.”
 “Let him ask me why I hate the name he bears,” replied the other,
“and I will tell him. That is, if he cares to know.”
“If you choose to tell,” said Willie, “I should like to hear; for, by my
faith, I never offended you in the slightest degree.”
“I will tell you. Because you took advantage of your position as
ambassador from the Plymouth Colony, and tried to win away from
me my affianced wife, Theresa Van Curter.”
Willie took a forward step, and addressed the young man boldly:
“I am glad you have spoken,” said he. “We now understand each
other. While I fought with you a few moments since, I was angry at
myself, because I fought with a man with whom I had no quarrel. I
am best pleased that you have told me what cause we have to be
bad friends. And yet, I can not feel that it is necessary to fight. Let
the one who can win the heart of Theresa Van Curter take her for a
wife, and let the other do as best he may. If you win her, I shall bid
you God-speed. If I win, you may do the same. Is not this the nobler
way?”
“Such sickly philosophy may do for you Englishmen,” answered the
other, coldly. “As for me, I am not of such blood. I love Theresa. She
has been a guide to me through life—my leading star. I will not lose
her now, when the time has come when she was promised to me.
Will you give her up?”
“Not I. If I have any place in her heart, I would not yield it for any
living man.”
“Be it so then. We are enemies from this hour. When we fight
again it shall be where no man can come between. Do you intend to
detain me, sir? I do not know your name.”
“Not at all. Go your way and leave us to go ours,” said Boston.
The captain turned hastily away, for it was now quite dark in the
forest, and made his way to the river-side, where he expected to
meet a party from the House of Good Hope, sent to meet him by
Van Curter. The two men, being left alone in the forest, did not
remain in the place where they stood, but hastened away to the
river-side, by a different route. Here they entered one of the
limestone caves, found on the river’s bank. The peddler lighted a
pine torch. Then the two sat down to talk.
 CHAPTER V.
BOSTON AS A MISCHIEF-MAKER.

Theresa had met the young Englishman on an embassay to

Manhattan, as Captain Van Zandt had said. Their love had been a
plant of quick growth, and her father learned too late that her heart
was given to Willie. She had been betrothed in youth to young Van
Zandt, the son of an old comrade in arms. Hence the knowledge
made the fiery colonel particularly angry. In his rage, Van Curter had
sent a messenger to Joseph, desiring his presence at Good Hope.
Every thing being remarkably quiet in the Manhattan settlement, just
then, the captain readily obtained leave of absence. While on his
way to the House of Good Hope, by the river, he met the young
lieutenant, who was evidently waiting for somebody, on the river’s
bank. Retiring as the boat-load of Manhattaners approached, Barlow
was followed into the forest by the captain. Not being a man to run
from a Manhattaner, Barlow paused, and, as we have seen, closed in
mortal combat.
It was the desire of Van Curter to hurry on the marriage by every
means in his power. But, at present, his whole attention was turned
to a project for driving the English from Windsor. He saw, with
increasing fear, that the domineering Yankees were spreading more
and more through the country, and that, unless checked by some
means, they would soon possess the whole country. The
transactions carried on by our English ancestors, of which the
dealings of Boston Bainbridge was a fair type, were enough to drive
that well-intentioned people stark mad. No wonder, therefore, that
they concocted a plan for the possession of Windsor, on the river
above Good Hope.
Captain Holmes had set up this post, as has been suggested, in
direct opposition to the wishes of Van Curter. The dialogue which
passed between them as the English sloop passed up the stream,
was so characteristic of the two men, that we repeat it:
“Where would you go?” cried Van Curter.
“Up the river, to trade,” replied Holmes.
“Strike and stay!” shouted the commandant, “or I will fire into
you.”
“Fire and be hanged,” returned Holmes. “The river is mine as
much as your own.”
Van Curter thought better of it, and did not fire. The sloop passed
up the stream, and founded the post which afterward awakened the
Dutchman’s ire to such an extent.
It was night when Joseph Van Zandt arrived at Good Hope, and he
went at once to the cabin of Van Curter. He had not retired, but sat
alone at a table, by a flaring lamp, writing a dispatch to the
governor. He started up in great joy at the sight of the captain, and
held out both hands to him.
“Sit thee down, lad. Thou art welcome. How go things in the
Manhattoes?”
“Very fairly. Can you say as much of this colony?”
“No. The Yankees advance step by step, and the time is not far off
when we shall be driven entirely away, unless we do something
ourselves. But, I have a plan in my mind, Joseph—I have a plan;
and, faith, it is a good one. How long have you been on the way?”
“Four days. I should have been here ere now, but my horse got
his foot into a stocking on the road, and broke it. I was forced to
shoot it and take to the sound and river.”
“That is bad; but I think we can supply you. Ten Eyck bragged to-
day, in the council, that he had the best horse in the colony. It ought
to be, if he paid the price he says he did, which is a hundred and
fifty guilders. You ought to have seen Paul Swedlepipe’s face while
Ten Eyck told about that horse.”
 “What? Do they keep up the old feud yet?”
“Stronger than ever, my dear Joseph. But, what puzzled me most
was, that Paul seemed to work hard to refrain from laughing, when
he ought to have felt more like crying. It looked suspicious to me.”
“Has any one else seen the horse?”
“Yes—several of the council. And they all agree that it is a good
beast. Most wonderful of all, he was sold by a Yankee. Swedlepipe
bid as high as a hundred and forty guilders before he would give up.
But that a Yankee should sell a good horse! Who ever heard of such
a thing?”
Joseph laughed at this, but he was not so far from Good Hope as
not to know that Yankees did not sell good wares.
“We will see this wonderful beast to-morrow, and if he is any thing
like what he is reported, I shall want him. Whom think you I met in
the forest?”
“I could not guess.”
“You will hardly believe it. A man whom I never saw but once in
my life, and whom I hate, for all that, with all my soul.”
“Who may that be?”
“William Barlow.”
Colonel Van Curter leaped to his feet. “I swear by the bones of my
father, that if Boston Bainbridge dares to show his face again in
Good Hope, I will crop his ears off close to his head, and turn him
off.”
“Boston Bainbridge!”
“Ay.”
“That is the very man who came between us. You must know,
then, that I followed this man Barlow into the woods, and soon had
him at bay, curse him! We were down upon the earth, tearing at
each other’s throats, so closely grappled that we could not use our
swords, when this man rushed in and parted us, swearing to strike
the one who made another stroke—a daring, resolute fellow, I saw
at a glance.”
“You astonish me. It can not be the man I mean. The Bainbridge I
knew is a sneaking dog of a hawker, who has made more mischief in
Good Hope than any ten men I know. But he is a pitiful wretch, who
will do almost any thing for money.”
“This man was as determined-looking a fellow as I ever saw in my
life, I am certain; and looked as if a fight was meat and drink to him.
And what is more, your friend Barlow deferred to him as to a
superior.”
“It can not be that there are two. The fellow showed some spirit
to-day, and all the information I got out of him did not amount to
much. You may be right; it may be the hawker—confound him! But I
am at a loss. Did he have his pack?”
“No. He was armed, though, with musket, knife and pistols, and
looked an ugly customer.”
“Let it pass. As to the Boston Bainbridge who is known to me, we
shall have something to say to each other when we next meet. If it
is the one who is known to you, we may have something else to say
to him. You say you quarreled with Barlow.”
“Yes. The very name of the fellow aroused me to rage. I struck
him with my open hand in the face—and we fought. This Bainbridge
came between; but it is a quarrel to the death. In the first burst, he
spoke quite angrily to Barlow, as one who had a right to do it, and
the young man appeared ashamed.”
“What can it mean?” said Van Curter, uneasily. “This fills me with
doubts and fears which I can not fathom. Did you leave them
together?”
“Yes, in the forest, a league or more from Good Hope.”
“It must be Bainbridge,” mused Van Curter. “He is the sworn friend
of Barlow; and yet, the new character you give him is so utterly
unlike the one he has borne, that I can’t understand it at all.”
“Let us speak of something else. Does Theresa know of my
coming?”
“No; I thought it would be a pleasant surprise for her.”
Van Zandt set his teeth hard at the words, for he realized, only too
painfully, that any thing like love for him was now foreign to the
heart of Theresa. The old soldier knew that he was angry, and wisely
allowed him his own time to answer. When the captain had
controlled himself sufficiently to speak, he said:
“I have my fears upon the subject—I am afraid I shall never get
my own. You have promised me the hand of Theresa; I have waited
for it long years; but I have always feared that something would
come between me and the promise. It has come.”
“Do you fear this Barlow?” asked the other, in some contempt.
“Have you not an honored name—a name second to none in our
own land? Have you not the most handsome face in the seven
colonies? Bah!”
“You are old, Colonel Van Curter, and you do not know a woman’s
heart, after all. I tell you that I have made woman a study; they
claim to be influenced by personal beauty in man; but, put them to
the test, and you will find that, after all, the most beautiful women
make a choice of men who, though plain in person, are the only
ones who can find the road to their hearts.”
“In truth, you may be right; but you may be the one who has the
key to Theresa’s heart. You shall be, by heaven!”
“Would you force her to marry me against her inclination?”
“I would keep my word to your father, even if I had to use force.”
“I would not have her upon such terms,” said the young man.
“She must be mine entirely, heart and hand; if it can not be so, I
renounce her hand, and apply myself to the task of taking worthy
vengeance upon the man who has dared to step in between me and
the love of the woman I prize highest. I know him, I thank God. He
can not escape me. Where is Theresa?”
“She has retired.”
“There will be a meeting, I am sure, between her and this Yankee.
We must watch.”
“This is the work of Bainbridge; he has gone between them,
carried letter after letter, and been the means of making her fancy
stronger; he, too, has something which will draw him back to this
place.”
“What is that?”
“Katrine.”
“Bah!”
“She is a beauty not to be despised, and her family is good—she is
first cousin to Theresa.”
“Right, I forgot; but I have not seen her for years. Do you know
that in coming up the river, I fancied I was followed by a canoe part
of the way.”
“Indians?”
“I do not know.”
“Never mind; come nearer, and I will tell you my secret plans
about Windsor and the English, whom I am determined to baffle and
defeat.”
The men drew close together, and looked over the paper. As they
did so a face rose slowly into view on the other side of the room,
peering in at the open lattice. It was the face of Boston Bainbridge.
“You are sure no one listens?” asked Joseph.
“Ay; my men know better than to listen at the windows or doors
of Jacob Van Curter; I would string them up to a swaying limb, or
give them forty stripes, save one.”
 “I thought I heard a sound, a moment since.”
“The girls, perhaps; open that door, and look into the kitchen.”
Joseph rose and opened the door; the kitchen was empty; the fire
burned low upon the hearth, and the rays danced upon the dishes in
the dresser.
“You heard the wind,” said Van Curter; “it is rising fast. It will rain
to-night.”
“I am glad I got in safe before the storm. Hark to that.”
The wind was rising with a sullen and fast-increasing roar; in a
few moments the rain begun to fall. Joseph stirred the fire with a
feeling of enjoyment, and the two drew up to the table.
“You remember this Captain Holmes—my curse upon his head—
who would not pause when I told him to strike and stay?” said Van
Curter.
“I remember him well.”
“He commands this post at Windsor; if any thing would make me
long to take the post more than another, it would be the fact that I
hate him. To him we may trace the entrance of these Yankees into
our midst.”
“Did you not invite them to settle?”
“Yes, fool that I was to do it; but I did not know them then as I do
now. I would as soon have let in fiends from the pit.”
“Then they are not to blame for hanging on to their possessions.
You should not have asked them here.”
“They have learned to despise us, because we are so easily taken
in. They are right in that; a greater set of dunderheads than those
under my command never congregated before. If it were not for two
or three of my officers, my blockheads would have their teeth drawn
in the night, and never know it.”
 “What slander upon such men as the worthy Paul Swedlepipe and
Mynheer Ten Eyck.”
“There you have a specimen. What can a man do who must be
guided, in a manner, by the advice of such men as those? It is
enough to make one give up in despair.”
“But they will fight, if it is necessary.”
“Yes; it is their only redeeming quality. They are too thick-headed
to appreciate the danger. But to my plan. I shall march out with forty
men in the night, and get near enough to Windsor to attack them
early in the morning. We will take the fellows prisoners and send
them to the nearest English post.”
“Very good; how many men can the English muster?”
“Not over twenty, and those we will take by surprise.”
“Captain Holmes is there.”
“Yes. His brother is next in command, and Barlow next. I should
not care to fight them if they are on their guard.”
“I never heard of this brother of Holmes’.”
“He has never been in Good Hope; I do not know that I have seen
him. He is represented as a man under forty, active, vigilant and
acute—a man formed by nature for a life in the woods.”
“You describe such a man as I take this very Bainbridge to be.”
“You are mistaken; I know the man well; he may have taken the
attitude of a brave man because they were two to one; but, in
reality, he is one of the most egregious cowards upon the face of the
earth.”
“This is pleasant news to come to a man’s ears,” muttered the
peddler, lying perdu beneath the shelter of the eaves. “They say
listeners never hear any good of themselves, and I am not inclined
to doubt it; but go on—go on, the time will come to settle yet, and I
will give you back that coward in your teeth. Phew! how the rain
comes down.”
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