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The Land Shall Be Deluged
in Blood
Men, like other things, have “two sides,” and often a top and a bottom
in addition.
—lunsford lane, 1842
The Land Shall Be
Deluged in Blood
A New History of the
Nat Turner Revolt
z
Patrick H. Breen
1
1
Oxford University Press is a department of the
University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective
of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide.
Oxford New York
Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi
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New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto
With offices in
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Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore
South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam
Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press
in the UK and certain other countries.
Published in the United States of America by
Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016
1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2
Printed in the United States of America
on acid-free paper
For Katie
Contents
Acknowledgments ix
Chronology of the Revolt xiii
Maps xvii
Introduction 1
1. Signs 17
2. The First Blood 37
3. To Jerusalem 57
4. Where Are the Facts? 73
5. The Coolest and Most Judicious Among Us 89
6. Long and Elaborate Arguments 107
7. Willing to Suffer the Fate That Awaits Me 139
8. Communion 155
Conclusion 165
One of the graces that comes with finishing the book is an opportunity to
thank the people who have helped me along the way. This was a project that
began in graduate school. As a result, my research trips were especially
low-budget affairs. The kind hospitality of Paul Vandegrift in Richmond,
Mark Smith and Daniel Nonte in Charlottesville, my parents in Washington,
D.C., and Emory Thomas, who went above and beyond his role as advisor
when he gave me the keys to the farm, allowed me to visit the research li-
braries where I found the materials that I have used in this study. The visits
were great trips, in part because I got to talk with my hosts about the won-
derful things that I had found in the region’s great libraries. The staffs at the
Library of Congress, the Library of Virginia, the Virginia Historical Society,
the Virginia Baptist Historical Society, the Alderman Library at the University
of Virginia, the Earl Gregg Swem Library at the College of William and
Mary, the North Carolina Department of Archives and History, the Perkins
Library at Duke University, and the Southern Historical Collection at the
University of North Carolina were unfailingly helpful as they helped me
search their collections for even the smallest piece of evidence about what was
happening in 1831. At the Virginia Baptist Historical Society, Darlene Slater
Herod was especially accommodating when she sent me copies of church
records that Randolph Scully told me I had missed on an earlier visit. The late
Winthrop Jordan kindly responded to a query of mine about sources; the
carefully considered letter was much more than I ever expected to receive
from a man I had never met. Because I have moved twice since starting my
research, I have used as my home base libraries at three different schools: the
University of Georgia, the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, and
Providence College. The help I was able to get at the University of North
Carolina, Chapel Hill was made possible by Peter Colclanis, who made sure
that I would be able to get access to the material that I needed. At Providence
x Acknowledgments
College, the interlibrary loan staff has been unbelievably easy to work with.
I would also like to thank Christiane Marie Landry, who helped digitize sec-
tions of the Southampton Court records.
As I have tried to look at the material in a new way, several people have
helped me in ways that have made The Land Shall Be Deluged in Blood better.
At the University of Georgia, Peter Hoffer and Edward Larson both made me
think not just about the evidence but also about the relationship of historians
to their readers, something that has influenced my work from the conception
of my project. Dave McGee and Jonathan Sarris were also always willing to
talk about this project in its early stages. A college, as my friends who are clas-
sicists remind me, is at its core a collegium of its professors. Providence
College’s faculty understands that the relationship of collegiality and colle-
gium is more than an etymological coincidence. The faculty in the history
department and more broadly in the college have supported this project
during lectures and lunches in ways that they will never know. I have also
gotten support from administrators at the school, including history depart-
ment chairs Connie Rousseau, Matt Dowling, and Margaret Manchester.
While at Providence College, I also had the good fortune to be invited to a
National Endowment for the Humanities Summer Institute, “Slaves, Soldiers,
Rebels: Black Resistance in the Tropical Atlantic, 1760–1888,” organized by
Ben Vinson III, Natalie Zacek, and Stewart King. The presenters, especially
Laurent Dubois, Douglas Egerton, Sylvia Frey, David Garrigus, Marjoleine
Kars, Stewart King, Franklin Knight, Jane Landers, and James Sidbury, helped
me think about slave resistance within a global framework. Zach Morgan,
Sarah Roth, Brian Sinche, Lindsey Twa, and the others at the institute helped
me process what I learned in those five weeks in Baltimore.
I am responsible for all the flaws in The Land Shall Be Deluged in Blood.
There would have been more of them if so many people had not taken time
from their work to save me from mistakes, both big and small. Earlier versions
of my work have been commented upon by Daniel Crofts, Douglas Egerton,
Melvin Patrick Ely, Robert Forbes, Kenneth Greenberg, Charles Irons,
Anthony Kaye, Peter Kolchin, Nelson Lankford, Paul Levengood, Randall
Miller, Randolph Scully, and James Sidbury. Sharon Murphy, who joined me
in the history department at Providence College, has been everything one
would want in a colleague. She has been a great sounding board when I
needed someone to listen to me work my ideas out; as a reader who has read
this book from start to finish, she has made this work better in style and sub-
stance. Douglas Egerton and James Sidbury also deserve thanks for putting
me in contact with my editor, Susan Ferber, at Oxford University Press, who
Acknowledgments xi
agreed to work with a first-time author whom she did not know. She picked
two anonymous readers whose thoughtful responses to an early version of
this leave me with one regret, that I cannot thank them by name. Ferber’s own
editorial suggestions have improved this work as well. She kept her eye
focused on what was most important. When facing a deadline, I sent her the
revisions that I had made and asked if she wanted me to rush what I had left
to do. She wrote back, “It’s fine if it takes more time. I care most about the
quality.” I could not have asked for a more farsighted perspective. I am espe-
cially indebted to two teachers who have had an enormous influence on this
project, my career, and my life. Emory Thomas has been nothing but sup-
portive of The Land Shall Be Deluged in Blood. He has assisted this project in
myriad ways and outdone any reasonable expectations a graduate student
could have for his advisor. As much as I appreciate his advice, his friendship
has given me a model that I can only hope to emulate with my own students.
It is impossible to overestimate the importance that Eugene Genovese has had
on my life. His wit, his erudition, and his Brooklyn charm are as clear in my
mind as they were the day that I, as a sophomore, first walked into a seminar
that he was teaching on the Old South. His approach to history was creative
in ways that one would expect from the foremost historian of his generation,
but even more compelling were the ways in which he showed how history was
vitally important to the present. His urgency to get history right is one of the
things that influenced my career choices, and it sustains me to this day in both
my writing and my teaching.
I would like to thank my family for their help. My parents and sisters have
always been supportive of me. My own children, Mary, Dorothy, Thomas,
Peter, and Helen, have grown up with a father who must seem to them to be
always at work on a computer. In fact, one of the reasons this project has taken
me as long as it has is that I have learned the many ways in which the challenge
of raising children is often in tension with writing books. I have learned that
one can neither read nor write while changing a diaper or driving the kids to
swim practice. Fortunately, as I have been working on this book, I have been
lucky enough to cross the paths of several women, including Ellen Schlosser,
Jen Cardulo, Emily Cass, Jessica Sweeney, April Lambert, and Mary Margaret
Donovan, who have provided such loving care for my children that I could
work without worry. My children have done little to relieve my worries, but
they buoy my spirits and daily remind me about the unpredictability of life.
My life and this book would be poorer without them.
My greatest debt in writing this book is to my wife, Katie. When we mar-
ried, neither of us could have imagined how demanding our family life would
xii Acknowledgments
be. But my wife has always been a great wife and mother. From graduate
school and the dissertation to Rhode Island and now this book, she has been
with me every step of the way. Juggling the demands of her own successful
career and our children, she has always supported my career. Perhaps her will-
ingness to help me was most clear when she was eight months pregnant with
Peter. I asked her if she would be able to balance her job, a new baby, and the
three other kids while I went to Baltimore for five weeks during the NEH
Summer Institute “Slave, Soldiers, Rebels.” She told me to apply and then
held together our household while I was away. When I returned, she treated
me as if I had done something worthwhile, never reminding me that she was
the one who made it possible. Maybe in her heart she knew that I knew that I
would not have been able to do what I had done without her. Since that sum-
mer, my debt has only grown. In gratitude and love, I dedicate this book to
you, Katie.
Chronology of the Revolt
Washington, D.C. DE L.
VIRGINIA
KENTUCKY
Richmond
Petersburg
ATLANTIC
SOUTHAMPTON Norfolk OCEAN
TENNESSEE
Raleigh
NORTH CAROLINA
W E
CAROLINA 0 50 100 mi
0 50 100 km
VIRGINIA
SURRY
N COUNTY
Ja m
es
Ri
W E ve
r
Not
S
tow
SUSSEX
ay Ri
ISLE OF
ATLAN
COUNTY
WIGHT
ver
COUNTY
Norfolk
TIC
ANNE
SOUTHAMPTON COUNTY
COUNTY NORFOLK
OCE
Belfield Jerusalem NANSEMOND COUNTY
St. Luke’s Parish COUNTY
AN
GREENSVILLE starting point
COUNTY of the revolt
Dismal
Swamp
0 10 20 km
VIRGINIA
Rebecca to Norfolk
Vaughan No
Levi (70 miles)
James
tto
Waller
way
Parker
Newit Jacob
Harris Blackhead Riv
Williams Signpost er
Nat Turner’s Cabin Cypress
Cave Pond Bridge
Pearson’s
Meherrin Mill Pond Richard
Riv Joseph Porter Peter
er Travis Edwards
to Belfield
Nathaniel
Francis Catherine
Whitehead Cross Keys
Flat Samuel
Swamp Turner
N
Tar
r
Elizabeth Creeara to Dismal Swamp
W E Turner k
(20 miles)
S
0 2 4 mi
to Murfreesboro
0 2 4 km
NORTH CAROLINA
Nat Turner’s Revolt, St. Luke’s Parish, Southampton, Virginia, August 21–23, 1831. Map by Glen Pawelski.
The Land Shall Be Deluged
in Blood
Introduction
On Sunday night, August 21, 1831, Nat Turner and four other men launched
the bloodiest slave revolt in American history. During the planning stages,
Turner had kept the conspiracy small, but once the rebels killed Joseph Travis
and his family, they quickly swept through Southampton County, Virginia,
killing whites and recruiting slaves to their ranks. At first the insurgents
caught Southampton’s whites completely by surprise. By the middle of the
day on Monday, August 22, they had killed nearly five dozen whites, including
men, women, and children. Never in American history had so many whites
died in a slave revolt. The rebels also recruited several dozen men and older
boys into their small army.
The rebels’ initial successes were short-lived. By Monday afternoon, Turner’s
army suffered its first defeat, in a battle at James Parker’s farm. The next morning,
local whites dispersed the main rebel force. Over the course of the next week,
whites captured or killed the remaining insurgents, with one exception: de-
spite an intense search for the revolt’s leader, Turner eluded his pursuers for
almost two months. In mid-October he was spotted near the starting place of
the revolt. A renewed manhunt led to his capture on October 31. The next
day, Turner’s white captors brought their prisoner to the jail in Jerusalem, the
county seat. Thomas R. Gray, a white lawyer who was involved in the defense
of other accused rebels, interviewed Nat Turner while he was awaiting trial.
Gray published these interviews in The Confessions of Nat Turner, a unique
narrative that may be the most important work on slavery written and pub-
lished in the slaveholding South. On Saturday, November 6, 1831, Turner
appeared in court, where he was charged with “conspiring to rebel and make
insurrection.” The court’s judgment was never in doubt. Nat Turner was hanged
on November 11, 1831.1
Although a hastily assembled group of local whites suppressed the revolt
quickly, its repercussions reached far beyond the borders of Southampton
County. Haunted by the visions of Nat Turner, the Virginia legislature took
up the question of emancipation. For the first time since the eighteenth
2 T he L an d Sh all Be Deluged in Blo od
century, when St. George Tucker circulated his emancipation plan, a number
of people in Virginia urged that the state legislature adopt a plan of gradual
emancipation and colonization for Virginia’s slaves. In the 1831–32 legislative
session, proslavery conservatives dominated the special committee charged to
examine “the subject of slaves, free negroes and the melancholy occurrences
growing out of the tragical massacre in Southampton.” The committee rec-
ommended that “all petitions, memorials, and resolutions which have for
their object the manumission of persons held in servitude under the existing
laws of the Commonwealth” be refused. Thomas Jefferson Randolph, Thomas
Jefferson’s nephew, then led a floor fight to overturn the recommendations
of this committee. Randolph saw the end of slavery as an eventuality. “It must
come,” he declared at the climax of one speech. The only question in Randolph’s
mind was whether emancipation would be done by legislative action “or by
the bloody scenes of Southampton and St. Domingo.” Many in the Virginia
General Assembly interpreted the recent events in Southampton differently:
Randolph’s appeal fell on deaf ears, and the legislature narrowly rejected
gradual emancipation. The topic was not to be revisited in the South before
the Civil War.2
The nascent abolitionist movement also paid close attention to the revolt.
Although most abolitionists carefully disavowed any connection to the revolt—
“I do not justify the slaves in their rebellion,” William Lloyd Garrison wrote
in a letter two weeks after the revolt—some, including Garrison, used the
revolt to validate their strategy of immediate emancipation. In an article pub-
lished shortly after the rebellion, Garrison boasted: “What we have so long
predicted,—at the peril of being stigmatized as an alarmist and declaimer,—
has commenced its fulfillment.” The claim had merit. In the inaugural issue of
the Liberator on January 1, 1831, Garrison had predicted that slavery would
lead to woe, and Nat Turner’s revolt confirmed in Garrison’s mind the pro-
phetic truth of his statements on slavery.3 In both the North and the South,
Turner’s revolt led significant figures to reject the type of gradual emancipa-
tion plans that had ended slavery in the North. In doing this, Nat Turner’s
revolt contributed to the radicalization of American politics that helped set
the United States on its course toward the Civil War.
Despite the significance of Nat Turner’s revolt as an important milestone
for a nation that was on a path toward its greatest political crisis, what hap-
pened in Southampton County has inspired relatively little scholarly atten-
tion.4 Following the publication of William Styron’s Pulitzer Prize–winning
novel, The Confessions of Nat Turner, there was a flurry of activity as scholars
debated the historical accuracy of the novel. Most of this debate was limited
Introduction 3
them anomalies in a world where most slaves looked for less dramatic ways to
improve their lives.11
While resistance historians have celebrated Nat Turner as a hero, evidence
from the revolt provides little support for the idea that historians should rely
upon resistance as the central explanation of slaves’ actions. In fact, the deci-
sions of slaves and free blacks in Southampton demonstrate that the black
community’s responses to the call to revolt were not monolithic. Some slaves
opposed the revolt, and at least a handful of slaves took up arms to defend
their masters. Most slaves did not fight on behalf of the slaveholders, but sev-
eral found other ways to help whites. Some saved their owners, including
Catherine Whitehead’s slave Hubbard, whose quick thinking saved Catherine’s
daughter Harriet from the fate that befell the rest of her family. Even among
those who joined Turner’s army, support for the revolt varied. While some
enthusiastically supported the revolt, others claimed that they had been forced
to join the rebels against their will. Some people may doubt the testimony of
slaves who claimed to have been impressed into a rebel army—although it is
worth noting that Southampton’s court accepted some of these claims—but
Nat Turner himself perceived different levels of commitment among his men.
According to the Confessions, Turner remembered placing “fifteen or twenty
of the best armed and most relied upon, in front.” The implication of Turner’s
testimony was corroborated by the testimony of Moses, one of the most im-
portant witnesses during the trials. During the trials, Moses testified that
some of the rebels were “constantly guarded by negroes with guns who were
ordered to shoot them if they attempted to escape.”12
The prominent examples of slaves who supported the rebels’ attempt to
seize power and those who supported the slaveholders’ attempt to foil the
revolt, however, made up only a small portion of Southampton’s total slave
population. The majority of slaves in Southampton did not get involved in
the revolt. Women, old slaves, and children provided little support for the
rebels, although their passivity may be attributed to the rebels’ lack of interest
in recruiting among such groups.13 Others did not have the opportunity to
join. But even among older boys and adult men who lived in the neighbor-
hood, the rebels failed to win mass support. This can be seen in the rebels’
recruiting rates. Nat Turner and the rebel army’s efforts to recruit at several of
the largest plantations in the county produced few volunteers. The rebels
recruited successfully only at a handful of plantations, notably including
places where the original members of the revolt lived. The rebels also failed to
win much spontaneous support from those slaves who had heard about the
revolt secondhand. As a result, a rebel army that traveled throughout St. Luke’s
6 T he L an d Sh all Be Deluged in Blo od
4.
MARSSIHARJOITUS.
Lattialle oli tosin tuotu läjä pehkuja, mutta kun niistä pari miestä
kahmasi alleen tukun, oli toisten tyytyminen miltei paljaaseen
permantoon. Riisuutuminen ei tietenkään tullut kysymykseen, jo
senkin vuoksi, että yöllä saattoi minä hetkenä tahansa tulla hälyytys
ja varjelkoon, ellei silloin joka mies ollut heti täydessä kunnossa.
Omasta puolestani en uskaltanut ottaa edes saappaita pois; nehän
olivat nyt likomärät, ja kun ne olivat muutenkin rinnasta ahtaat ja
kaiken lisäksi jalkani kävelystä turvonneet, en mitenkään olisi
saattanut kylliksi nopeaan kiskoa niitä arkoihin jalkoihini. Löysin
nurkasta vanhan nahan, levitin sen lattialle ja lopen väsyneenä ja
viluissani heittäysin pitkäkseni, asettaen tornisterin pääni alle ja
palttoon huolellisesti ympärilleni. Ulkona tuuli vinkui ja tohisi,
tunkeutuen hataran oven läpi kylmänä viimana suojaamme. Unta ei
vaan kuulunut. Olin kaikkeen vielä liian tottumaton, liian mukavista
oloista lähtenyt ja ennen kaikkea liikaa rasittunut. Vääntelehdin
levottomana, yskitti, hartioita pisti ja pakotti ja jalkoja kuumasi ja
särki. Olisin kernaasti tupakoinut, mutta se oli tulipalon
ehkäisemiseksi ankarasti kielletty. Mieli pyrki painumaan. Muistelin
entisiä aikoja ja aloin hiljalleen epäillä, tokko olinkaan kykenevä
sotamieheksi, tokko terveyteni voisi kestää näitä koetuksia. —
Myöhemmin yöllä, kun unta vain ei tullut, alkoi minua siinä määrin
viluttaa, että olin pakotettu nousemaan ylös. Kävelin hetken ulkona,
mutta tuuli tunkeutui siellä ytimiin saakka. Sitten älysin
mukavamman paikan: menin navettaan. Pistin tupakaksi, halailin
lämpimikseni ammuja, joita siellä olikin vain neljä ja pidin niille
liikuttavia ja lempeitä puheita kotoisista ihanuuksista. Nukkumaan
siellä ei voinut asettua, sopivan paikan puutteessa, mutta olin
sangen tyytyväinen, kun vilu ei enää niin hyristänyt ja torkuin
seisoallani tuontuostakin karvakorvaa hyväilevästi raaputtaen.
5.
SAIRAANA.
NÄHTYÄ JA TUNNETTUA.
*****
*****
*****
7.
VALMISTUKSIA.
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