IUHSS

PARAPPUR, Malappuram

. CELL: THE UNIT OF LIFE

 A cell is the structural and functional unit of all living organisms 2. Mesosome & Chromatophores
Historical Perspective  Mesosome are infolding of plasma membrane.
1683- Anton Von Leeuwenhoek (Dutch Merchant): First observed
and described a live cell (like sperm, bacteria, RBC etc.).
1838- Matthias Schleiden (German Botanist) observed that all plants
are composed of different kinds of cells.
1839- Theodore Schwann (British Zoologist) reported that
 animals are composed of cells
 All cells had a thin outer layer (plasma membrane). Functions of mesosome:-
 Plant cells have cell wall. o Cell wall formation.
1855- Rudolf Virchow (German Physiologist) modified the 2nd o DNA replication and distribution of chromosomes to daughter cells.
postulate by stating that new cells arise from pre-existing cells. o Help in respiration and secretion processes.
o Increase the surface area of the membrane and enzymatic content.
Cell theory  Chromatophores are membranous infoldings containing pigments
It states that:- in some prokaryotes (e.g. cyanobacteria).
(i) All living organisms are composed of cells and products of cells.
(ii) Cells arise from the division of pre-existing cell. 3. Nucleoid & Plasmids
 Nucleoid is naked circular genomic DNA.
DIVERSITY OF CELL  Plasmid: Small circular DNA outside the genomic DNA seen in
Cells differ in size, shape and activities. some prokaryotes.
Smallest cells: Mycoplasmas (0.3 μm in length) Function: Provide resistance from antibiotics to bacteria.
Largest single cell: Egg of an ostrich (15x 8 cm).
Longest cells: Nerve cell (upto 90cm). 4. Flagella
 These are thin filamentous extensions from the cell wall of motile
Cells are 2 types: Prokaryotic cells & Eukaryotic cells. bacteria.
 Flagellum is made of 3 parts –Filament, hook, basal body.
PROKARYOTIC CELLS
The prokaryotes are single celled organisms without true nucleus
and membrane bound organelles.
 They are represented by bacteria, blue-green algae, mycoplasma /
PPLO (Pleuro Pneumonia Like Organisms).

5. Pili & Fimbriae

These are surface structures that have no role in motility.
 The pili are elongated tubular structures.
 The fimbriae are small bristle like fibres sprouting out of the cell.
Function: Help to attach the bacteria to rocks in streams or the
host tissues.
6. Prokaryotic ribosomes
 These are the non-membranous granular structures composed of
A typical prokaryotic cell RNA and proteins.
 They are made of two subunits - 50S and 30S units. They together
Cell organelles in prokaryotic cells form 70S.
All cells contain a semi-fluid matrix called cytoplasm. It is the main (S= Svedberg’s unit of sedimentation coefficient).
area of cellular activities.  5 or more ribosomes may attach to a single mRNA to form a chain
1. Cell Envelope called polyribosomes (polysome).
 It is a protective covering made of 3 layers- Function: Protein synthesis (translation).
a) Glycocalyx: Outer layer. It differs in composition and thickness
among different bacteria. It may be
- a slime layer (loose sheath) or
- a capsule (thick & tough).
b) Cell wall: Middle layer. It gives shape to the cell.
c) Plasma membrane: Innermost semi-permeable membrane.

Gram staining 7. Inclusion Bodies

Based on the response to the gram stain (it is because of the  These are non-membranous, stored reserve material seen freely in
peculiarity of the cell envelope), bacteria are divided into two- the cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells.
A. Gram positive: They take up the stain E.g. phosphate granules, cyanophycean granules, glycogen granules,
B. Gram negative: They do not retain the gram stain gas vacuoles

BIOLOGY Instant Notes-for HSS LiVE.IN, by: Minhad. M. Muhiyudeen, #- 9846 29 22 27

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 2. Cell Wall
EUKARYOTIC CELLS  It is a non-living rigid structure found outer to the plasma
 They have well organized membrane bound nucleus and membrane of fungi and plants.
organelles. In algae - cellulose, galactans, mannans and
 Eukaryotes include protists, plants, animals and fungi. Composition of CaCO3.
Differences between Plant and animal cells of cell wall In higher plants - cellulose, hemicellulose,
pectins and proteins.
Plant Cell Animal Cell
 Young plant cell have primary wall.
Enclosed in a cell wall Surrounded by extra
It gradually diminishes as the cell matures and the secondary wall
cellular matrix
is formed on the inner side (towards membrane) of the cell.
Plastids are present Absent
 The middle lamella is a layer mainly of calcium pectate which
A large central vacuole Many small vacuole
glues the different neighbouring cells together.
Centrioles are absent Present The cell wall and middle lamellae may be traversed by
Cell organelles in eukaryotic cells plasmodesmata which connect the cytoplasm of neighbouring cells.
1. Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane)
 It is a thin semi-permeable membrane enveloping protoplasm.
 Fluid mosaic model explain the structure of cell membrane:
o Proposed by Singer & Nicolson (1972).
o A/c to this model, the cell membrane is a semi-fluid structure made
up of 2 layers of lipids and the protein molecules. The semi-fluid
nature of lipid enables lateral movement of proteins within the
overall bilayer (fluidity).
Lipids
Functions:
- The lipid component of the membrane consists of phosphoglycerides.
a. It gives shape to the cell.
- The lipids are arranged within the membrane with the outer polar
b. It protects the cell from mechanical damage & infection.
head and the inner non-polar tails.
c. It helps in cell-to-cell interaction.
Proteins d. It acts as barrier to undesirable macromolecules.
Membrane proteins are 2 types:
- Peripheral proteins: Lie on the surface of membrane. 3. Endomembrane System
- Integral proteins: Partially or totally buried in membrane. It is a group of membranous organelles having coordinated
functions.
Functions:  They include endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi complex,
Transport of the molecules. lysosomes and vacuoles.
Help in cell growth and cell division
(i) Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
Help in formation of intercellular junctions
 These are a network of tiny tubular structures scattered in the
Help in secretion
cytoplasm.
Help in endocytosis (engulfing food or foreign particles),
 ER divides the intracellular space into 2 compartments: luminal
Types of Membrane Transport (inside ER) & extra luminal (cytoplasm).
1. Passive transport: It is the movement of molecules across the
Endoplasmic reticulum is 2 types:
membrane along the concentration gradient (i.e., from higher
concentration to the lower) without the expenditure of energy. It is Rough ER Smooth ER
3 types:-  Bear ribosome on their surface.  ER without ribosome.
a. Osmosis: It is the movement of water across the membrane.  Function: Protein synthesis  Function: Synthesis of lipid
b. Simple diffusion: It is the movement of neutral solutes across the and secretion. & steroidal hormones.
membrane.
c. Facilitated diffusion: It is the movement of polar solutes across
the membrane with the help of a carrier protein.
2. Active transport: It is the movement of ions or molecules across
the membrane against the concentration gradient (i.e. from lower to
the higher concentration) with the expenditure of energy (ATP is
utilized). E.g. Na+/K+ pump.

(ii) Golgi apparatus

 It is a cluster of reticular structures associated with ER.
 First observed by Camillo Golgi.
 They consist of flat, disc-shaped sacs (cisternae).
 Cisternae are concentrically arranged with convex cis (forming)
face and concave trans (maturing) face.

BIOLOGY Instant Notes-for HSS LiVE.IN, by: Minhad. M. Muhiyudeen, #- 9846 29 22 27

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 Functions: small circular DNA molecules, ribosomes (70S) and enzymes for
 Packaging materials, to be delivered either to the intra-cellular the synthesis of carbohydrates and proteins.
targets or secreted outside the cell.  Stroma contains a number of organized flattened membranous
Mechanism: Materials to be packaged from the ER fuse with the sacs called thylakoids. Chlorophyll pigments are present in the
cis face, move towards the trans face and pinched off as secretory thylakoids
vescicle. This is why the Golgi apparatus remains in close  Membrane of thylakoids encloses a space called lumen.
association with the ER.  Thylakoids are arranged in stacks called grana.
 Produce glycoproteins and glycolipids.  There are flat membranous tubules called the stroma lamellae
connecting the thylakoids of the different grana.
(iii) Lysosomes
 These are membrane bound vesicles filled with hydrolytic 6. Eukaryotic ribosomes
enzymes.  It is first observed by George Palade (1953).
Enzymes Activity  It is found in the cytoplasm, chloroplasts, mitochondria and on
a. lipases - digest lipids ER.
b. proteases - digest proteins  It has 2 subunits- 60S (large subunit) and 40S (small subunit).
c. carbohydrases - digest carbohydrates They together form 80S.
d. nucleases - digest nucleic acids 7. Cytoskeleton
 It is a system of protein filaments present in the cytoplasm.
(iv) Vacuoles
 Function: It provides mechanical support, motility, maintenance
 These are the membrane-bound (tonoplast) space found in the
of the shape of the cell etc.
cytoplasm.
Functions: 8. Cilia (cili= eye lash) & Flagella (= little whip)
a. Sap vacuoles in plants, store water, sap, excretory product and  They are hair-like outgrowths of the cell membrane.
other materials not useful for the cell.  Cilia are small structures causing the movement of either the cell
b. Contractile vacuole in Amoeba helps in excretion or the surrounding fluid.
c. Food vacuoles in protists, engulf the food particles and digest it  Flagella are comparatively longer and responsible for cell
movement.
4. Mitochondria

 A mitochondrion is a double membrane-bound structure with the

outer membrane and the inner membrane. It divides lumen into 2
aqueous compartments, i.e., the outer compartment and the inner
compartment (matrix).
 Inner membrane forms a number of infoldings (cristae) towards
the matrix.
Structure:-
 Matrix possesses a circular DNA, RNA molecules, ribosomes  Cilium and flagellum are covered with plasma membrane.
(70S) and components for protein synthesis.  Their core (axoneme) possesses a number of microtubules
Function: Produce energy in the form of ATP. running parallel.
5. Plastids The axoneme usually has 9 pairs of doublets of radially arranged
Plastids are found in all plant cells and in euglenoides. peripheral microtubules, and a pair of singlets microtubules
located at centre. This is known as 9+2 array.
Plastid  The central tubules are connected by bridges and are also enclosed
by a central sheath, which is connected to one of the tubules of
Chloroplast Chromoplast Leucoplast each peripheral doublet by a radial spoke. Thus, there are nine
Contain Contain pigments Colourless radial spokes. The peripheral doublets are interconnected by
chlorophyll and like carotene, plastids. linkers.
carotenoid xanthophylls etc. Function: Stores  Both the cilium and flagellum emerge from centriole-like
pigments. Function: Gives nutrients structure called the basal bodies.
Function: Trap yellow-red colour
light for to plant parts 9. Centrosome and Centrioles
photosynthesis  Centrosome is an organelle, seen in animal cells, usually
containing 2 non-membrane bound cylindrical structures called
Amyloplasts: Elaioplasts: Aleuroplasts: centrioles.
Store starch Store oils Store
 They are surrounded by pericentriolar materials.
and fats proteins.
 The centrioles lie perpendicular to each other. They are made up
Chloroplasts: of 9 evenly spaced peripheral fibrils of tubulin. Each of the
 These are double membrane bound organelles mainly found in the peripheral fibril is a triplet. The adjacent triplets are also linked.
mesophyll cells of the leaves.  The central part of the centriole is proteinaceous and called the
 The space limited by the inner membrane of the chloroplast is hub, which is connected with tubules of the peripheral triplets by
filled with a colloidal substance called the stroma. It contains radial spokes made of protein.
BIOLOGY Instant Notes-for HSS LiVE.IN, by: Minhad. M. Muhiyudeen, #- 9846 29 22 27
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 Functions:- Based on the position of the centromere, chromosomes are 4
- Form the basal body of cilia or flagella, types.
- Form spindle fibres during cell division.
Types Definition
It has middle centromere forming two
1. Metacentric
equal arms of the chromosome.
Centromere slightly away from the middle
2. Sub-
of the chromosome resulting into one
metacentric
shorter arm and one longer arm.
Centromere is situated close to its end
3. Acrocentric forming one extremely short and one very
long arm
4. Telocentric It has a terminal centromere
10. Nucleus
 Nucleus -controlling centre of the cell- was first described by
Robert Brown (1831- Scotch botanist). 11. Microbodies
 The nucleus contains-  These are many membrane bound minute vesicles that contain
a. Nuclear membrane: Double layered membrane with a space various enzymes.
between called the perinuclear space.
The nuclear envelope has minute pores (nuclear pore), which are
formed by the fusion of its two membranes. These are the
passages for the movement of RNA and protein between the
nucleus and the cytoplasm.
b. Nuclear matrix (nucleoplasm): Transparent sap filled in nucleus.
Chromatin and nucleolus are suspended in it.
c. Nucleolus: One or more non-membranous spherical bodies.
Function: Ribosomal RNA synthesis.
Discovered by Fontana (1781)
d. Chromatin: A network of nucleoprotein fibres. It is stained by
the basic dyes was given the name chromatin by Flemming. It
contains DNA and basic proteins (histones), some non-histone
proteins and RNA. During cell division, chromatins condense to
form chromosomes.

Chromosomes:
 A chromosome consists of 2 identical halves called chromatids.
Chromatids are held together at one point called centromere (10
constriction).
 On the sides of centromere, a disc shaped structures called
kinetochores are present.

 Some chromosomes have non-staining secondary constrictions at

a constant location. It is called satellite.

BIOLOGY Instant Notes-for HSS LiVE.IN, by: Minhad. M. Muhiyudeen, #- 9846 29 22 27

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